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Dun

A dun is a type of Iron Age fortified settlement prevalent in western Scotland and Ireland, typically consisting of a circular or oval dry-stone walled enclosure built on hilltops, promontories, or islands to serve as defensible residences for extended family groups or local elites.^[1]^[2] These structures, dating primarily from around 700 BCE to 500 CE, often feature thick walls up to 3-4 meters high and internal chambers or outbuildings, distinguishing them from larger communal hillforts or the more advanced brochs with their hollow-wall designs.^[3]^[4] Notable examples include Dunadd, a royal stronghold associated with early Gaelic kings from circa 500-800 CE, highlighting their role in pre-medieval power centers amid ongoing debates over their precise chronology and defensive efficacy based on archaeological evidence.^[5]

Etymology

Linguistic origins

The term "dun" denoting a hill fort traces to Proto-Celtic *dūnom or *dūnon, meaning "fortress" or "rampart," as reconstructed through comparative analysis of Insular Celtic languages.^[6] This form underlies Old Irish dún ("fort") and Scottish Gaelic dùn ("hill fort"), with cognates including Welsh din or dinas ("fortified settlement" or "city").^[7] Empirical evidence from place-name distributions in Britain and Ireland supports its application to elevated defensive structures, distinct from broader topographic descriptors.^[8] Linguists link Proto-Celtic dūnon to a Proto-Indo-European root du-no- or dū-no-, denoting "hill" or undulating elevation, evidenced by reflexes such as Old English dūn ("hill" or "mound"), appearing in over 800 Anglo-Saxon place names like Bredon Hill. Further cognates include Ancient Greek thūnos ("fortified hill") and Sanskrit dhūnoti ("to move to and fro," evoking hilly contours), confirming descent via regular sound correspondences in centum and satem branches. Middle English dun inherited this sense as "mound" or "elevated fort," bridging Celtic and Germanic traditions without implying cultural diffusion beyond linguistic inheritance.^[7] In contrast, the adjectival "dun" for a dull, grayish-brown color derives separately from Old English dunn ("dingy brown"), likely from Proto-Germanic *dunnaz, with possible Celtic substrate influence from Old Irish donn ("dark" or "brown").^[9] This traces to Proto-Indo-European dʰuno- or dʰews- ("dark, misty, hazy"), as paralleled in Welsh dwnn ("grayish-brown") and related to terms like Latin fuscus ("dusky").^[10] The semantic overlap with "dull" topography is coincidental, rooted in distinct PIE ablaut grades rather than unified origin. Persian dun or deh ("village"), from Proto-Iranian dā́sa- or PIE dʰeh₁-men- ("settlement"), remains unrelated, as areal phonetic similarities do not override divergent morphological and phonological evidence.

Semantic evolution

The topographic sense of "dun," denoting a fortified hill or enclosure, derives from Proto-Celtic *dūnon, referring to a stronghold or rampart, and appears in early medieval Gaelic contexts as "dùn," consistently linked to elevated defensive sites in texts and place names from at least the 1st millennium BCE onward.^[8] This usage shows minimal semantic broadening, remaining tied to physical fortifications rather than abstract extensions, as evidenced by its persistence in Irish and Scottish nomenclature without recorded shifts to non-topographic domains by the medieval period.^[11] Independently, the chromatic sense emerged in Old English as "dunn," describing a dull, dingy brownish-gray hue akin to bark or animal coats, with attestations from the 8th century in Germanic-influenced texts.^[12] By the 14th century, this descriptor specialized in literary English, as in Geoffrey Chaucer's circa 1387–1400 Canterbury Tales, where "dunne" denotes muted brown tones in natural or fabric contexts, reflecting a refinement toward specific visual shades without evidence of causal derivation from topographic roots.^[9] A distinct verbal sense, "to dun," arose in the early 17th century (first cited circa 1620), meaning to press insistently for debt payment, likely from an onomatopoeic or associative term for clamor or pursuit, expanding into economic jargon as in dunning agents, per dated dictionary entries; this development lacks direct linkage to earlier homonymous senses and aligns with period-specific commercial pressures rather than broader linguistic drift.^[13]^[9]

Fortifications

Architectural features

Duns were constructed primarily using dry-stone masonry techniques, employing locally quarried stone stacked without mortar to form thick, battered walls that provided structural stability through careful corbelling and interlocking. These walls typically measured 2-3 meters in thickness and up to 2.5 meters in height in surviving examples, such as Kraiknish Dun on the Isle of Skye, where the perimeter enclosure survives as a robust drystone barrier enclosing a summit knoll.^[14] The walls were designed to withstand siege and weather erosion, with outer faces often sloping inward for added resilience against battering or collapse.^[15] Interiors of duns featured terraced platforms within the enclosed space, facilitating multi-level habitation or stockading, with average enclosure diameters ranging from 18 to 30 meters, as evidenced by sites like Dun Fhinn on Islay, which encloses an oval area approximately 18 meters north-south. Entrances were narrow passages or galleries integrated into the wall thickness, restricting access to deter intruders and allowing defenders to control movement, a feature consistent with defensive imperatives inferred from the strategic hilltop or promontory siting of these structures. Souterrains, semi-subterranean galleries lined with stone slabs, were occasionally incorporated beneath or adjacent to the main enclosure for secure storage of perishables or as temporary refuges, with archaeological finds of grain and tools supporting utilitarian functions over ritual ones in many cases.^[16]^[17] Radiocarbon dating from excavations indicates multi-phase construction at numerous duns, with initial builds often dating to the early Iron Age around the 5th-8th centuries BCE, followed by reinforcements or rebuilds, as seen at Dun Deardail where structural timbers and ramparts yielded dates centering on 500 BCE. This phased development reflects adaptive responses to evolving threats, prioritizing defensive fortification over ornamental excess, corroborated by artifact assemblages including iron weapons and sling stones that suggest preparation for localized raids rather than large-scale warfare. Comparable Irish examples, such as Dun Aonghasa (c. 1100 BCE), exhibit similar dry-stone walls up to 6 meters high originally, enclosing circa 45 meters in diameter with added defensive elements like chevaux-de-frise, underscoring a shared Atlantic Iron Age architectural tradition focused on material efficiency and tactical utility.^[18]

Historical and archaeological significance

Duns functioned as compact stone-walled fortifications in Iron Age Scotland, serving both military defensive roles and as nucleated settlements for pre-Roman Celtic communities, with archaeological evidence from excavations underscoring their adaptation to localized threats rather than large-scale warfare. Over 1,700 examples are recorded in Scotland's National Historic Environment Record, concentrated in the west and islands, reflecting a dense network of defensible sites amid fragmented tribal structures.^[19] Limited radiocarbon-dated excavations—only four among 34 investigated duns—indicate primary occupation phases from the 6th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, with vitrified walls at some sites suggesting intense heat from either deliberate firing for strengthening or conflict-related destruction.^[3] This material record prioritizes pragmatic engineering responses to environmental and raiding pressures over romanticized isolation, as structural analyses reveal efficient use of local geology for rapid construction without advanced metallurgy.^[20] Exemplified by Dunadd in Argyll, certain duns transitioned into early medieval power centers, hosting royal inaugurations for the Dál Riata kingdom circa 500–800 CE, as corroborated by rock-cut carvings including a footprint for symbolic footing rituals and adjacent Ogham inscriptions denoting Gaelic elite presence.^[5] First referenced in 683 CE annals, Dunadd's layered deposits yield imported quern stones and metalwork, evidencing trade integration with Irish and Atlantic networks rather than autarky, while its strategic hilltop position facilitated oversight of maritime routes critical to kingdom formation.^[5] Such sites challenge narratives of uniform decline by demonstrating selective reuse amid broader shifts, with artifact assemblages—including rotary querns absent in earlier phases—indicating evolving subsistence tied to emerging hierarchies. Post-Roman abandonment at many duns, marked by sterile upper strata and lack of maintenance in excavation profiles, aligns with consolidation of authority in nascent kingdoms like Dál Riata, reducing reliance on dispersed hilltop defenses as centralized forces supplanted tribal militias.^[21] No stratigraphic evidence supports claims of seamless, harmonious transitions to open settlements; instead, disuse layers post-400 CE coincide with documented power vacuums following Roman withdrawal, implying causal disruptions from invasions or internal realignments over gradual cultural evolution.^[18] Integration with brochs at hybrid sites, such as Dun Mac Sniachan, reveals architectural hybridization—combining dun walls with broch-like towers—facilitating defensive upgrades, while sporadic finds of Mediterranean-influenced pottery highlight opportunistic exchanges rather than sustained isolation.^[22]^[20] These yields from peer-reviewed frameworks like SCARF emphasize empirical discontinuity, countering academically prevalent emphases on continuity that underweight abandonment data from under-excavated contexts.

Biological coloration

Genetic basis of the dun gene

The dun coat color phenotype in horses arises from the ancestral Dun allele (D), which is autosomal dominant and acts as a regulatory variant promoting radially asymmetric pigment deposition in hair follicles. This allele enhances expression of the TBX3 transcription factor in keratinocytes during hair growth, leading to dilution of body coat pigments while preserving undiluted mane, tail, and primitive markings such as the dorsal stripe, leg barring, and shoulder stripe.^[23]^[24] Non-dun horses, prevalent in most domestic breeds, carry recessive mutations (nd1 or nd2) in conserved regulatory elements upstream of TBX3 on equine chromosome 8; nd1 involves a single nucleotide substitution (T>C at position -259 relative to the transcription start site), while nd2 features a 1,942-base-pair deletion disrupting enhancer function.^[23] These non-dun variants impair TBX3-mediated asymmetry, resulting in uniform, intense pigmentation without dilution or markings.^[25] The genetic basis was elucidated through genome-wide association studies and fine-mapping in equine populations, including Icelandic horses and diverse breeds, as part of broader efforts in the Equine Genome Project during the 2010s. Sequencing of the TBX3 locus confirmed that dun dilution requires only one functional D allele, with no dosage effect observed in homozygotes (D/D), which exhibit identical phenotypes to heterozygotes (D/nd).^[23]^[26] Primitive breeds like the Norwegian Fjord (often fixed for D/D) and Highland pony maintain high D allele frequencies, reflecting retention of wild-type camouflage traits from ancestral equids, as verified by allele frequency surveys across over 1,000 horses.^[27] Molecular confirmation relies on PCR-based genotyping targeting the nd1 and nd2 sites, enabling precise identification that has refuted earlier hypotheses of dun as recessive based on incomplete pedigrees; controlled breeding trials demonstrate predictable dominant inheritance, with 50% of D/nd offspring showing dilution regardless of base color (bay, black, or chestnut).^[24]^[26] Functional assays, including luciferase reporter constructs in equine dermal papilla cells, link TBX3 upregulation to reduced eumelanin and phaeomelanin in body hairs, underscoring causal regulatory control without environmental confounders.^[23]

Phenotypic expressions in equines and other species

The dun phenotype in equines dilutes the body coat to a lighter, often yellowish-gray or tan shade while leaving the primitive markings, mane, tail, and lower legs undiluted in the intensity of the base color, such as bay, black, or chestnut.^[24]^[23] This dilution arises from asymmetric pigment distribution within hairs, where melanin is deposited primarily on one side, reducing overall coat intensity without altering the base pigment type.^[23] Characteristic primitive markings include a dark dorsal stripe (eel stripe) extending from the mane to the tail, transverse barring on the legs, a darker facial mask, and occasionally shoulder stripes or cobwebbing on the forehead.^[24]^[28] In the Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii), the wild progenitor of domestic horses, bay dun represents the predominant ancestral coat color, with genetic surveys confirming high prevalence of the dun allele and minimal variation toward non-dun forms.^[29]^[30] Domestic breeds exhibit dun less frequently due to selective breeding favoring more saturated, uniform colors over the "primitive" diluted pattern, though it persists in populations like Norwegian Fjords and Icelandic horses where it approaches fixation.^[24] Specific variants include bay dun (zebra dun), with a tan body and black points; grullo, diluting black bases to smoky gray; and red dun, lightening chestnut to sorrel-like tones with reddish extremities.^[24]^[26] Outside equines, no direct phenotypic equivalents to the dun pattern—combining body dilution with retained primitive markings via TBX3 regulatory variants—have been documented in other mammals, including mice or primates, where TBX3 disruptions primarily affect limb and gland development rather than hair pigmentation asymmetry.^[23]^[31] Analogous dilution effects in non-equid species, such as reduced eumelanin in certain mouse mutants, stem from distinct pathways like silver or dilute loci and lack the striped patterning or partial undilution seen in dun equines. These traits remain rare in domesticated non-equids, attributable to artificial selection against subdued coat tones favoring vivid or specialized pelage for utility or aesthetics.^[23] Claims of adaptive value, such as camouflage enhancement from the pattern, lack empirical field validation beyond correlative observations in wild equids.^[32]

Geographical locations

Scotland

In Scotland, the place name element "Dun" derives from the Gaelic dùn, denoting a fort or fortified hill, a topographic descriptor tied to prehistoric and early historic defensive structures rather than arbitrary or coincidental appellations, as evidenced in Ordnance Survey mappings of ancient sites.^[8]^[33] Dunans, located in Glendaruel on the Cowal Peninsula in Argyll and Bute (OS grid reference NS04071108; approximate coordinates 56.0725°N, 5.1495°W), refers to a historic estate encompassing Dunans Castle, constructed around 1810 by the Fletcher family atop earlier settlement remains, with associations to local clan landholdings documented in 18th-19th century records.^[34]^[35] In the Highlands, Dun Dornaigil (OS grid reference NC45745010; elevation approximately 150 m) in Sutherland marks a ruined Iron Age broch, a drystone tower fort characteristic of Pictish-era defenses, surveyed by Ordnance Survey as a key archaeological feature linked to early fortified settlements rather than modern village naming.^[36] The parish of Dun in Angus (eastern Scotland, centered around 56.68°N, 2.52°W), a rural area of farmland and coastal proximity, exemplifies the name's persistence in administrative divisions, with historical ties to pre-medieval hillfort proximity but no large population centers; its 19th-century records note sparse settlement densities under 200 residents.^[37]

Iran

In Iran, several rural settlements incorporate "Dun" in their names, such as Kurakdun in Forg Rural District, Darab County, Fars Province, and Dun in Hormozgan Province. These are small, agriculture-dependent villages adapted to semi-arid conditions, with structures often built from mud-brick for insulation against extreme temperatures. Fars Province villages like those in Darab County lie at elevations around 1,100–1,500 meters, where pistachio farming predominates due to the crop's drought tolerance and suitability to the region's karstic soils and limited rainfall of 200–300 mm annually.^[38]^[39] Demographic data for such locales remain sparse, as many fall below reporting thresholds in national censuses; for instance, Kurakdun's population was not enumerated separately in the 2006 census, implying fewer than 50 households. Comparable small Fars villages averaged 300–600 residents in the 2016 census, reflecting broader trends of rural depopulation from migration to cities like Shiraz, with Iran's rural share dropping from 38% in 2006 to 26% by 2016.^[40] No major infrastructural or economic shifts have occurred recently beyond incremental improvements in irrigation, sustaining pistachio yields that contribute to Fars's status as Iran's top producer of the nut, exporting over 100,000 tons annually in the early 2020s.^[38] Satellite observations of these settlements show compact clusters of low-rise buildings around orchards and qanat-fed fields, minimizing exposure to winds and maximizing shade in pistachio groves planted at densities of 200–300 trees per hectare. This layout supports arid adaptation without reliance on modern inputs, though water scarcity poses ongoing challenges amid declining groundwater levels documented at 0.5–1 meter per year in Fars aquifers.^[41]

France

Dun-sur-Auron is a commune in the Cher department of the Centre-Val de Loire region, with a population of 3,566 inhabitants as of 2022. Located along the Auron River, it serves as an administrative subprefecture and features a local economy centered on agriculture and small-scale industry, with no significant industrial developments recorded post-World War II.^[42] Historical records indicate its origins trace to medieval settlement patterns, though archaeological evidence remains limited to routine surveys without major Gallo-Roman artifacts specific to the site.^[42] Dun-sur-Meuse, in the Meuse department of the Grand Est region, had 590 residents in 2022.^[43] Positioned on the Meuse River, the commune's economy relies on agriculture, particularly arable farming and livestock, reflecting the department's rural character with stable but low population since the early 20th century.^[44] Local history documents no notable events or economic shifts after 1900, consistent with broader depopulation trends in the region due to out-migration.^[44] In the Ariège department of Occitanie, the commune of Dun recorded approximately 586 inhabitants in recent estimates.^[45] Nestled in the Pyrenean foothills, it maintains an agricultural orientation focused on pastoral activities, with administrative records showing minimal population fluctuation and no major infrastructural changes in the modern era.^[45] Le Bourg-Dun, a coastal commune in the Seine-Maritime department of Normandy, counted 426 residents in 2022.^[46] Its economy emphasizes agriculture and tourism linked to nearby dunes, though official data confirm no significant historical events or developments beyond routine local governance since the early 1900s.^[47] In the Saône-et-Loire department of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, no standalone commune is named Dun, but several incorporate "sous-Dun" in their titles, denoting positions below a historical hill known as Dun in the Brionnais area, such as La Chapelle-sous-Dun (population around 430) and Chassigny-sous-Dun.^[48] These small rural settlements, with populations under 500, center on agriculture, including cattle rearing, and feature medieval churches like that in La Chapelle-sous-Dun, but lack documented major events or archaeological finds indicating Gallo-Roman prominence beyond regional patterns.^[48] Historical maps from the 19th century depict them as typical agrarian hamlets without exaggerated heritage claims.^[48]

Other countries

The Dun Building in Buffalo, New York, constructed between 1893 and 1895, originally housed the headquarters of R. G. Dun & Company, an early credit reporting firm founded by Robert Graham Dun.^[49]^[50] Designed in a Neoclassical style with steel-frame construction, it stands as Buffalo's first high-rise at 10 stories and 215 feet tall.^[51] In October 2025, McGuire Development acquired the property for a $10 million project to convert it into 36 market-rate apartments, following stalled plans announced in 2021 by prior owner Priam Enterprises.^[52]^[53] In Canada, Dunvegan is an unincorporated rural community in North Glengarry Township, eastern Ontario, within the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas, and Glengarry.^[54] Named after the Scottish site on the Isle of Skye, the toponym derives from Gaelic elements denoting a small fort, reflecting 19th-century Highland Scottish settlement patterns in the region.^[55] The area, part of former Kenyon Township, supported early agriculture among United Empire Loyalist descendants, with the broader township recording a 2021 census population of approximately 10,200, though Dunvegan itself remains a compact locale with fewer than 100 residents based on localized enumeration data.^[56] Occurrences elsewhere are limited; for instance, Dun Robin denotes a farmstead in Zimbabwe's Midlands Province at coordinates 19°16′49″S 30°06′58″E, situated in rural terrain at about 1,439 meters elevation.^[57] Such instances typically trace to colonial naming conventions rather than indigenous origins, with no major population centers documented outside primary Eurasian clusters.^[58]

Personal names

As a given name or title

Dun serves as a rare masculine given name primarily in Scottish and Irish Celtic contexts, deriving from the Gaelic term dún, denoting a fort or fortified hill.^[59]^[60] This etymology links it to topographic features symbolizing strength and defense, occasionally extended in nomenclature to imply a "brown-skinned soldier" in Scottish traditions.^[61] In historical Gaelic usage, dún connoted a kingly residence or fortified enclosure, potentially functioning as a titular element for chieftains associated with such strongholds, as evidenced in early Irish annals describing royal seats.^[62] Modern onomastic records reflect its scarcity; for instance, it registers at 0% prevalence among UK baby names, absent from Office for National Statistics top lists for recent decades.^[63]^[64] Notable historical bearers include figures like the legendary Cumbrian king Dunmail (circa 10th century), whose name evokes Gaelic fort connotations in British annals, though primary records blend myth with sparse chronicle evidence. Beyond Celtic spheres, the name appears in non-Western contexts, such as the Chinese military leader Xiahou Dun (died 220 CE), a key figure under Cao Cao whose given name Dun (遁) carries unrelated connotations of evasion or concealment in classical texts. Variants like Dunstan, meaning "hill stone," occasionally shorten to Dun in informal or regional usage, but retain the core Gaelic root.^[9]

As a surname

The surname Dun is of Anglo-Scottish origin, primarily a habitational name derived from locations such as Dun in Angus, Scotland, stemming from the Gaelic term dùn meaning "fort" or "hillfort."^[65]^[66] In England, it often functions as a variant of Dunn, a nickname for individuals with dark or brown hair or complexion, from Old English dunn.^[65] Less commonly, it appears in Dutch contexts as a nickname from Middle Dutch dun ("thin") or as a Mandarin transliteration of Chinese surnames like 頓.^[65] Bearers of the surname Dun immigrated to the United States in significant numbers during the 19th century, aligning with broader waves of Scottish and English migration driven by economic opportunities and land clearances in Britain.^[67] U.S. census records reflect growth in the name's presence, particularly post-1850, as immigrants settled in industrializing regions.^[65] Variants such as Dunne, more prevalent in Irish contexts, share etymological roots but distinct distributions.^[68] Globally, the surname Dun is borne by approximately 11,000 individuals as of recent estimates, ranking it as the 47,780th most common surname worldwide, with concentrations in Asia (including Cambodia due to transliterations) and Europe.^[69] In the United States, it ranks around 42,858th in frequency, predominantly among those of Scottish and English descent.^[70] A notable figure is Robert Graham Dun (1811–1900), an American merchant of Scottish heritage who acquired and expanded the Mercantile Agency in 1859, rebranding it as R.G. Dun & Company—a foundational credit reporting firm that merged into Dun & Bradstreet in 1933.^[71] His work pioneered systematic business credit assessments, influencing modern commercial data practices.^[72]

Computing and technology

Dial-up networking (DUN)

Dial-up networking (DUN) refers to a Microsoft Windows feature, first introduced with Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, that enables computers to connect to remote networks via modems over public switched telephone network (PSTN) lines, primarily using the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) for data encapsulation and link control as specified in RFC 1661 published in July 1994.^[73]^[74] This protocol stack allowed asynchronous serial communication, supporting multi-protocol datagram transport over point-to-point links with negotiated parameters for frame size, compression, and error detection via cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).^[74] Key functionalities included authentication through protocols such as Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), which transmits credentials in cleartext, and Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP), which uses a three-way handshake with hashed secrets to mitigate replay attacks, alongside dynamic IP address assignment via the Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP) extension to PPP.^[74]^[75] DUN integrated with Windows' Remote Access Service (RAS) to manage modem initialization, dialing sequences, and session establishment, facilitating access to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and corporate networks in an era when modem speeds typically ranged from 28.8 kbit/s to 56 kbit/s.^[76] While DUN enabled empirical expansion of remote connectivity—peaking with millions of U.S. dial-up users in the late 1990s before broadband adoption reduced dial-up market share from over 50% in 2000 to under 5% by 2007—its inherent limitations included lack of default encryption in base PPP, rendering transmitted data susceptible to eavesdropping on unmonitored PSTN lines and vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks without add-on protocols like Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE).^[77]^[74] Support for DUN waned in subsequent Windows versions, with Microsoft de-emphasizing modem-based setups by Windows Vista in 2007 and effectively legacy status by the 2010s amid pervasive broadband infrastructure.^[78]

Other technical applications

In open-source software, "dun" denotes several niche command-line tools lacking broad adoption. One example is a lightweight CLI application for capturing meeting notes and managing todo tasks, implemented in a Unix-like environment requiring PATH configuration for execution, as hosted on GitHub by developer Oliver Fields.^[79] This tool emphasizes simplicity for personal productivity but remains confined to individual or small-scale use without integration into major distributions. Another instance is a Node.js-based CLI named "dun" designed for interacting with the html-js.com platform, enabling experimentation with HTML and JavaScript snippets via terminal commands, though its utility is limited to specific web development workflows.^[80] In machine learning research, DUN acronyms specialized neural network architectures. Depth Uncertainty Networks (DUN) incorporate probabilistic depth estimation to enhance model reliability in tasks like image classification, with implementations available in Python frameworks such as PyTorch, originating from academic work at the University of Cambridge Machine Learning Group around 2018–2020.^[81] Variants include MoG-DUN, a mixture-of-Gaussians enhanced deep unfolding network for image super-resolution, tested on Ubuntu systems with PyTorch 1.0 and achieving performance gains in denoising via iterative unfolding stages, as detailed in a 2021 JSTSP publication.^[82] Similarly, DPC-DUN employs dynamic path control in deep unfolding for compressive sensing reconstruction, focusing on adaptive feature propagation without evidence of commercial deployment.^[83] These frameworks, primarily from academic repositories, demonstrate experimental applications in signal processing and vision but exhibit no mainstream ecosystem integration or large-scale verification beyond prototype benchmarks.

Other uses

As a color descriptor

Dun refers to a dull, greyish-brown hue, characterized by low saturation and a muted tone intermediate between brown and neutral gray.^[12]^[84] This color descriptor emphasizes dinginess over vibrancy, with quantitative representations in digital colorimetry including hex code #877348 (RGB 135, 115, 72), reflecting subdued red, green, and blue components that yield a mid-lightness value around 30-40% in perceptual uniformity scales.^[85] Historically, dun tones in textiles derived from natural pigments such as iron-rich ochres for earthy bases and walnut hull extracts for brownish infusions, which mordanted with alum or iron produced variable grey-browns but exhibited inferior lightfastness compared to vivid primaries like madder red or indigo blue, fading up to 50% faster under prolonged UV exposure in accelerated aging tests.^[86] In 17th-century accounts of folklore attire, "sad dun" denoted particularly subdued variants, as in descriptions of imp liveries combining dull browns with greens, underscoring practical, low-cost dyeing over aesthetic intensity.^[87] Distinguished from black by its non-achromatic warmth and from pure brown by grey desaturation, dun occupies mid-tones in hue-angle distributions (approximately 30-40° in cylindrical models like HSL), avoiding the high chroma of earth tones while maintaining empirical neutrality in pigment matching.^[88] No validated evidence supports non-pigmented or therapeutic attributes beyond spectral properties.

Verb form (debt collection)

The verb to dun denotes the act of making repeated and insistent demands for payment, particularly of a debt, often through persistent urging rather than formal legal action. This usage emerged in English around the 1620s, referring to the practice of importuning debtors or employing an agent for that purpose.^[9] The term's early application emphasized pragmatic persistence in commercial transactions, as evidenced by its recording in legal and trade contexts by the mid-17th century, such as in a 1648 proposal for regulating legal proceedings.^[89] Historically, dunning involved methodical follow-ups in business ledgers and correspondence, prioritizing recovery efficiency over immediate coercion, with records from the 18th century illustrating its routine integration into merchant practices for overdue accounts.^[90] By the 19th century, dictionaries like Webster's defined it as pressing for payment with importunity, though milder than outright harassment, reflecting its role in sustaining credit flows amid imperfect enforcement mechanisms.^[90] In modern contexts, to dun remains informal for iterative billing reminders in accounts receivable management, aligned with contract law principles that permit reasonable persistence to enforce obligations without crossing into unlawful debt collection tactics, such as those prohibited under statutes like the U.S. Fair Debt Collection Practices Act of 1977. This approach underscores causal economic incentives: creditors dun to minimize defaults through graduated reminders, yielding higher recovery rates—studies indicate persistent follow-up can increase collections by 20-30% in receivables processes—while avoiding escalation costs.^[92] Unlike sensationalized views of aggressive tactics, verifiable trade usage prioritizes verifiable documentation and timely demands to uphold contractual realism over unsubstantiated coercion narratives.^[93]

Business and commercial references

The R.G. Dun & Company, established as the Mercantile Agency in 1841 by Lewis Tappan in New York City, pioneered commercial credit reporting in the United States by compiling merchant ledgers and local informant reports to assess business reliability.^[94] In 1859, the agency was acquired by Robert Graham Dun, who renamed it R.G. Dun & Company and expanded its reference books summarizing creditworthiness based on empirical transaction data alongside subjective evaluations of proprietors' character and habits, which sometimes incorporated assessments of personal moral risks akin to moral hazard concerns in lending.^[95] ^[96] These reports aimed to mitigate information asymmetries but drew criticism for reductive judgments that blended financial data with potentially biased personal scrutiny, influencing early credit decisions through a network of over 200 correspondents by the 1860s.^[96] In 1933, R.G. Dun & Company merged with the John M. Bradstreet Company to form Dun & Bradstreet, consolidating dominance in business information services.^[95] The firm developed the Data Universal Numbering System (DUNS) as a proprietary nine-digit identifier assigned to businesses worldwide, facilitating standardized tracking for global trade, supply chain verification, and compliance in contracts like U.S. federal procurement.^[97] By 2023, DUNS numbers covered over 500 million entities, enabling risk assessment in international transactions, though the system's proprietary nature has raised interoperability concerns among users.^[98] Dun & Bradstreet has faced regulatory scrutiny over data aggregation practices, including Federal Trade Commission (FTC) actions alleging inaccuracies in small business credit files and failure to update obsolete records, leading to a 2022 consent order requiring operational reforms and customer refunds.^[99] In September 2025, the FTC imposed a $5.7 million penalty for violating that order, citing misleading representations about subscription services and persistent data privacy lapses in compiling consumer and business profiles without adequate verification.^[100] These probes highlight tensions between aggregated data utility and risks of erroneous reporting impacting credit access, with critics noting insufficient empirical validation in historical and modern datasets.^[101] In the 2020s, Dun & Bradstreet integrated artificial intelligence into risk models, launching the D&B.AI suite in October 2025 to automate credit risk evaluations, supplier screening, and compliance workflows using machine learning on its data cloud.^[102] These AI-driven tools process billions of data points for predictive scoring, aiming to enhance causal accuracy in default forecasting over traditional ledger-based methods, though adoption has been tempered by transparency demands under emerging regulations.^[103] No fundamental shifts in core operations occurred post-2020, but AI enhancements have expanded applications in enterprise procurement without resolving prior FTC-noted aggregation flaws.^[104]

References

[1]
Torr A'Chaisteal Dun: History | Historic Environment Scotland
History. Torr a'Chaisteal appears to be a dun. These fortified residences were common in western Scotland in the late Iron Age, about 2,000 years ago.
[2]
Duns - Mull Historical & Archaeological Society
It is assumed that they were designed to provide defence for extended family units, whereas forts were intended to provide refuge for whole local communities.
[3]
7.4.3 Duns | The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework
34 duns have been excavated, with some dating from the 5th-8th centuries AD, and some possibly before the 2nd century AD. Some duns have been dated to the 4th- ...
[4]
Brochs, duns and forts in early Celtic Scotland
Dec 25, 2016 · In early Celtic Scotland, there were three main types of fortifications in use during this period: the brochs, the duns and the hillforts.
[5]
Dunadd Fort: History - Kilmartin Glen - Historic Environment Scotland
Dunadd Fort was a royal power center for Gaelic kings (AD 500-800), used as a fort for 2000+ years, and first mentioned in AD 683.<|separator|>
[6]
The word is derived from the proto-Celtic *dłno - Ancient texts
dún. Irish: fort. The word dún is closely related to the Welsh dinas and Gaulish dunum. The word is derived from the proto-Celtic *dłno- "fort, rampart", ...
[7]
dun, n.³ meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
dun is of multiple origins. Partly a borrowing from Scottish Gaelic. Partly a borrowing from Irish. Etymons: Scottish Gaelic dùn, Irish dún.
[8]
Gaelic Place-Names: 'dùn' and 'caisteal' - The Bottle Imp
The Gaelic word dùn (pronounced doon) means 'fort, castle, fortified hill'. It is found in place-names including Dundonald 'Donald's fort' in Ayrshire.
[9]
Dun - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating circa 1620s, "dun" means to insist on debt payment or an agent collecting debts, possibly from Middle English dunnen or Dunkirk privateers.
[10]
Brown & Dun – Celtiadur - Omniglot
Oct 22, 2018 · Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰews-/*dʰewh₂- (smoke, mist, haze) [source]. Words from the same root possibly include dew, dun, dusk, ...
[11]
Dun, Tun - Old European culture
Jun 6, 2016 · Apparently the root "dunum" is actually the Proto-Celtic "*dūnom" meaning stronghold, fort, rampart. The direct descendants of this Proto-Celtic ...
[12]
dun, adj. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
Dark in colour; spec. characterized by or causing a lack of light; murky, gloomy; (of light) dim, obscure. Cf. brown adj. 1a.Missing: encyclopedia | Show results with:encyclopedia
[13]
DUN Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of DUN is having a slightly brownish dark gray color : having the color dun. How to use dun in a sentence.Missing: encyclopedia | Show results with:encyclopedia
[14]
Dig deeper: how to designate a site like Kraiknish Dun
Nov 18, 2024 · It was built around 2000 years ago, and now survives as a drystone wall that measures 3m in thickness and stands up to 2.5m in height on the ...
[15]
Iron Age — AOC Archaeology Group
Other Iron Age constructions included brochs (tall drystone towers), duns (massive drystone buildings) and crannogs (structures built in and around lochs ...
[16]
Dun Fhinn, Islay - Journals - Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
Nov 30, 2022 · The construction of Dun Fhinn involved building a perimeter wall around the summit of the knoll to enclose an oval-shaped area of 18m north- ...
[17]
7.6.4 Souterrains | The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework
The function of souterrains has been much debated, with storage, refuge and ritual the main contenders. Although objects and grain have been found in some ...
[18]
[PDF] Dun Deardail - Forestry and Land Scotland
The excavations resulted in a detailed and important range of radiocarbon dates indicating a construction date for the hillfort in the 5th century BC.
[19]
Dun, Stac a' Chaisteil (SM13786) - Historic Environment Scotland
May 13, 2024 · The National Record of the Historic Environment records over 1700 examples entries for duns, around 180 of these are in the Western Isles. There ...
[20]
Brochs and Duns - Journals - Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
Fellows enable the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland to continue publishing research into Scottish history and archaeology on these platforms. If you would ...
[21]
8.3.4 Duns, brochs and hillforts
Duns, brochs and hillforts are the classic settlement form of the area, and there have been many excavations in the post-war period.Missing: trade artifacts Etruscan imports integration
[22]
Dun Mac Sniachan, forts and dun, Benderloch (SM2179)
The monument is an impressive group of prehistoric defensive remains comprising two successive forts and a dun, dating to the Iron Age (between 500 BC and AD ...
[23]
Regulatory mutations in TBX3 disrupt asymmetric hair pigmentation ...
Dec 21, 2015 · Regulatory mutations in TBX3 disrupt asymmetric hair pigmentation that underlies Dun camouflage color in horses.
[24]
Dun Dilution - Veterinary Genetics Laboratory - UC Davis
Dun dilutes both red and black pigment, and the resulting colors range from apricot, golden, dark gray, olive and many more subtle variations. Dun is present in ...
[25]
Regulatory Mutations in TBX3 Disrupt Asymmetric Hair Pigmentation ...
Most domestic horses are non-dun, a more intensely pigmented phenotype caused by regulatory mutations impairing TBX3 expression in the hair follicle, resulting ...
[26]
Color Testing - Gluck Equine Research Center - University of Kentucky
Dun is dominant and only one copy of the normal Dun locus at the TBX3 gene is required for the phenotype to be expressed. There is no dosage effect, so that ...
[27]
TBX3 and ASIP genotypes reveal discrepancies in officially ...
The Dun coat color in the horse is typically characterized by a diluted base coat ... Variation in TBX3 gene region in dun coat color Polish Konik horses. Journal ...
[28]
What Does a Dun Horse Look Like? - AQHA
A bay horse with the dun modifier becomes the classic dun. Its body color ranges from very pale yellow to very dark.
[29]
Characteristic of Przewalski horses population from Askania-Nova ...
Jun 26, 2023 · The most common color seen on Przewalski horses is bay with Dun dilution. ... In TBX3 gene for Dun-related trait; there is only one ...
[30]
The original coat colour variation in the Przewalski's horse
Aug 13, 2022 · The modern Przewalski's horse has a comparably uniform coat colour: a bay dun base colour often with a reddish tone, combined with the ...
[31]
https://www.etalondx.com/dun
[32]
Dilution gene - Wikipedia
A dilution gene is any one of a number of genes that act to create a lighter coat color in living creatures. There are many examples of such genes:.Missing: mice mammals
[33]
A horse of a different color: Genetics of camouflage and the Dun ...
Dec 21, 2015 · The pale hair colour in Dun horses does not affect all parts of the body; most Dun horses have a dark stripe along their back, and often show ...
[34]
What does dun mean in Scottish place names? - Quora
Oct 13, 2021 · The word “dùn” means a fortress or fort. It's somewhat analogous to “rath” in Irish place names.What is the origin of the name 'Edinburgh' in Scotland? Why is it not ...Am I right in thinking that most Scottish place-names lose their ...More results from www.quora.com
[35]
GPS coordinates of Dunans Castle, United Kingdom. Latitude
Dunans Castle is a historic structure located in Glendaruel, on the Cowal peninsula, Argyll and Bute, Scotland. Latitude: 56° 04' 12.60" N
[36]
Dunans, Castle | Place - trove.scot
Location accurate to the nearest 1 metre. British National Grid (BNG) Coordinates: 204071, 691108. Ordnance Survey (OS) National Grid Reference: NS 04071 91108.
[37]
Dun Dornaigil | Place - trove.scot
Location accurate to the nearest 1 metre. British National Grid (BNG) Coordinates: 245715, 945010. Ordnance Survey (OS) National Grid Reference: NC 45715 45010.
[38]
Dun, Angus, Scotland Genealogy - FamilySearch
Oct 17, 2025 · This place by some antiquaries is supposed to have derived its name from the family of Dun, who were its ancient proprietors, and by others, ...
[39]
Fars at a glance - مرکز خدمات سرمایه گذاری استان فارس
The main products of Fars are agriculture, including wheat, corn, dates, barley, figs, pomegranates, cotton, garlic, sugar beet, tomatoes, etc. The industry ...
[40]
Location and elevation ranges of Fars Province; source
Download scientific diagram | Location and elevation ranges of Fars Province; source: own elaboration from publication: Range of soil and climate ...
[41]
Census | Iran Data Portal
Since 1956, Iran has conducted seven censuses. The Statistical Center of Iran (SCI) conducted the census every ten years until 2006, when it was decided a ...Missing: Dun | Show results with:Dun
[42]
[PDF] METHODS OF FACING WITH DROUGHT IN FARS PROVINCE – IRAN
Considered as one of the largest agricultural centres, Fars province is located in the south of central part of Iran and it has been influenced by drought, like ...
[43]
https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7725600?geo=COM-55167
[44]
Populations légales 2021 − Commune de Dun-sur-Meuse (55167)
Dec 28, 2023 · Populations légales 2021 Commune de Dun-sur-Meuse (55167) ... Les populations légales millésimées 2021 entrent en vigueur le 1ᵉʳ janvier 2024.
[45]
Dossier complet − Commune de Dun-sur-Meuse (55167) - Insee
Dun-sur-Meuse (55167) - Toutes les statistiques de mon territoire : population, emploi, famille, logement, chômage, naissances, décès, revenus, entreprises…FOR G1 - Taux de... · FOR T2 - Diplôme le plus... · EMP T2 - Activité et emploi de...
[46]
Dossier complet − Commune de Dun (09107) - Insee
Dun (09107) - Toutes les statistiques de mon territoire : population, emploi, famille, logement, chômage, naissances, décès, revenus, entreprises…Missing: Ariège | Show results with:Ariège
[47]
Full set of local data − Municipality of Le Bourg-Dun (76133) | Insee
Growth and structure of the population in 2022. Municipality of Le Bourg-Dun (76133) ... Source: Insee, RP2022 main operation, geography as of 01/01/2025.
[48]
Dossier complet − Commune du Bourg-Dun (76133) - Insee
Bourg-Dun (76133) - Toutes les statistiques de mon territoire : population, emploi, famille, logement, chômage, naissances, décès, revenus, entreprises…
[49]
Dossier complet − Département de Saône-et-Loire (71) - Insee
Dossier complet Département de Saône-et-Loire (71) · Évolution et structure de la population en 2022 · Couples - Familles - Ménages en 2022 · Logement en 2022.Missing: Dun history
[50]
the dun building - Photography of Buffalo, NY
The Dun Building was Buffalo's first high-rise and is named after Robert G. Dun, the first occupant and the founder of the RG Dun Company.
[51]
Dun Building - Buffalo Architecture and History
Dun Building (1894 -1895), 110 Pearl Street, was designed by E. B. Green and William S. Wicks who applied the Neoclassical style of horizontal buildings to a ...
[52]
The Dun Building - Tall and Strong - Hello Buffalo!
Jul 18, 2019 · The Dun Building was completed in 1895. It is Neoclassical in style, but it has both Greek and Roman influences, as evidenced by the giant arched windows.
[53]
Historic Dun Building to be sold; $10 million project planned
Oct 2, 2025 · McGuire Development will buy the historic Dun Building in downtown Buffalo, and the developer has a plan to turn the 10-story office tower ...
[54]
Big Deal: McGuire Planning Dun Building Apartments - Buffalo Rising
Oct 8, 2025 · In 2021, Priam Enterprises announced plans to convert the circa-1893 Dun Building at 110 Pearl Street to high-end apartments.
[55]
Place:Dunvegan, Glengarry, Ontario, Canada - WeRelate.org
Jul 10, 2012 · Dunvegan is a "compact rural community" in the former Township of Kenyon, now in the Municipality of North Glengarry, in Glengarry County, ...
[56]
Glengarry Place Names
Dunvegan: from Dunvegan on the Isle of Skye in Skye, Scotland. The name is believed to mean 'little fort' in Gaelic, but may have a Norse (Norwegian ...
[57]
A Brief History of Glengarry County - RootsWeb
A Brief History of Glengarry County. Glengarry, the most easterly county of Ontario, is one of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry.
[58]
Dun Robin Map - Farm - Midlands Province, Zimbabwe - Mapcarta
Type: Farm ; Location: Midlands Province, Zimbabwe, Southern Africa, Africa ; Latitude. -19.28027° or 19° 16′ 49″ south ; Longitude. 30.116° or 30° 6′ 58″ east.
[59]
Dun Robin farm, Midlands, Zimbabwe
Dun Robin is a farm and is located in Midlands, Zimbabwe. The estimate terrain elevation above seal level is 1439 metres. Variant forms of spelling for Dun ...
[60]
Meaning of the name Dun
Sep 16, 2025 · Background, origin and meaning of Dun: The name Dun is of Scottish and Irish origin, derived from the Gaelic word "dún," meaning "fort" or ...
[61]
Dun Name Meaning, Origin & more | FirstCry Baby Names Finder
The name Dun is a variant of the Gaelic word "dùn," which means "fortress" or "hill." It originates from Scotland and Ireland.<|separator|>
[62]
Dun: Name Meaning and Origin - SheKnows
Scottish Baby Names Meaning: In Scottish Baby Names the meaning of the name Dun is: Brown-skinned soldier.
[63]
Dun - Irish Place Names - Library Ireland
Dun. Patrick Weston Joyce. Irish Local Names Explained. 1923. Dún [doon], a fortified fort, a kingly residence ...
[64]
Dun | Name for Boys - UK Baby Names
Dun name popularity, meaning and origin. Name Popularity: 0%. Dun name meaning: The name Dun is of Gaelic origin and means "brown" or "dark.
[65]
Baby names in England and Wales: 2023 - Office for National Statistics
Dec 5, 2024 · Most popular first names for baby girls and boys in 2023 using birth registration data.Cookies on ons.gov.uk · Boys · Girls · View previous releases
[66]
Dunmail - Wikipedia
Dunmail is a legendary king of Cumbria associated with Dunmail Raise. According to tradition, Dunmail was the last king of Cumbria.Missing: figures Dun kingly
[67]
Xiahou Dun - Wikipedia
Xiahou Dun () (died 13 June 220), courtesy name Yuanrang, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late ...Missing: kingly | Show results with:kingly
[68]
Dun Name Meaning and Dun Family History at FamilySearch
Scottish: habitational name from Dun in Angus. English: variant of Dunn. Dutch: nickname from Middle Dutch dun 'thin'. Chinese: Mandarin form of the surname 頓.
[69]
Dun History, Family Crest & Coats of Arms - HouseOfNames
The surname Dun was first found in Angus (Gaelic: Aonghas), part of the Tayside region of northeastern Scotland, and present day Council Area of Angus.Dun History · Early Origins · Early History
[70]
U.S. Immigration in the 1800s | Ancestry® Family History Learning Hub
Between 1815 and 1860, more than 5 million immigrants arrived in America, mostly from countries like Great Britain, Ireland, Norway, the German states, and ...U.S. Immigration In The... · 19th Century U.S... · U.S. Immigration Records On...
[71]
Dunne Surname Origin, Meaning & Last Name History - Forebears
It is also the 436,161st most numerous first name globally. It is borne by 393 people. This last name is most prevalent in Ireland, where it is borne by 21,881 ...<|separator|>
[72]
Dun Surname Origin, Meaning & Last Name History - Forebears
the surname of Dun was particularly frequent in the east of England, especially in Essex. ... Dun Last Name Statistics demography. The religious adherence of ...
[73]
Dun Surname/Last Name: Meaning, Origin, Family History 2024
Dun ranks #42858 in the US. 49.9% White in US. Scottish: habitational name from Dun in Angus. English: variant of Dunn. Dutch: nickname from Middle Dutch.Missing: distribution global
[74]
Our History - Dun & Bradstreet India
In 1859, Douglass passed the Agency to his brother-in-law, Robert Graham Dun, who rebranded it as R.G. Dun & Company. Dun expanded the Agency further, both ...Missing: surname | Show results with:surname<|separator|>
[75]
The Dun & Bradstreet Corp. | Encyclopedia.com
Dun & Bradstreet traces its origin to Lewis Tappan, who in 1841 left Arthur Tappan & Company (a New York silk trading firm that he ran with his elder brother) ...
[76]
What is DUN? - Computer Hope
Jul 9, 2025 · Short for Dial-Up Networking, DUN is a software utility first included with Microsoft Windows 95 that allows users to connect to the Internet over a Modem ...
[77]
RFC 1661 - The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) - IETF Datatracker
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) provides a standard method for transporting multi-protocol datagrams over point-to-point links.
[78]
PPP Protocol Overview - freesoft.org
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), documented in RFC 1661, is currently (early 1996) the best solution for dial-up Internet connections, including ISDN. PPP ...
[79]
Overview of Dial-Up Networking - Techs Helps
Dial-Up Networking uses the Windows 95 communications architecture to communicate through a modem to a network. It initializes the modem, determines device ...
[80]
The slow death of dial-up - The Economist
Mar 10, 2007 · The internet: The spread of broadband connections heralds the demise of dial-up access. But it will take a long time to die.
[81]
Using Dial-Up Networking (DUN) - Windows NT TCP/IP ... - O'Reilly
DUN is a Windows client application that uses the RAS Service to place outbound calls to a remote RAS server, which may be a Windows NT RAS server, a third- ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[82]
oliverfields/dun: Meeting notes and todo tasks CLI - GitHub
Ensure dun command is in the PATH, for example make a symlink to ~/.local/bin . ln -s <path to cloned repo>/dun ~/.local/bin/dun. Warning Dun requires that ...
[83]
dun is a node command-line tool to play with html-js.com - GitHub
dun is a node command-line tool to play with html-js.com. 7 stars 0 forks Branches Tags Activity.
[84]
cambridge-mlg/DUN: Code for "Depth Uncertainty in Neural ... - GitHub
Install the DUN package, and its requirements, by running the following commands in the root directory of the project: pip install -r requirements.txt pip ...
[85]
QianNing0/MoG-DUN: PyTorch code for JSTSP2021 paper ... - GitHub
This repository is Pytorch code for our proposed MoG-DUN. The code is built on RCAN and tested on Ubuntu 16.04 environment (Python 3.5/3.6/3.7, PyTorch 1.0.
[86]
songjiechong/DPC-DUN: Dynamic Path-Controllable Deep ... - GitHub
In this paper, we focus on CS reconstruction and propose a novel Dynamic Path-Controllable Deep Unfolding Network (DPC-DUN). DPC-DUN with our designed path ...
[87]
DUN | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
DUN meaning: 1. of a greyish-brown colour 2. to demand money from someone: 3. of a grayish-brown color. Learn more.Missing: encyclopedia | Show results with:encyclopedia
[88]
#877348 Color Hex
#877348 color RGB value is (135,115,72). #877348 hex color red value is 135, green value is 115 and the blue value of its RGB is 72.
[89]
Historical Dyes - Karl Robinson - Dyer
Mar 11, 2021 · The most common dye stuffs such as madder, weld, woad and indigo where well known very early on and remained in used until William Henry Perkin accidentally ...<|separator|>
[90]
Letters On Demonology And Witchcraft, by Sir Walter Scott
They were usually distinguished by their liveries, which were sad-dun, grass-green, sea-green, and yellow. The witches were taught to call these imps by ...
[91]
Dun color hex code is #DEB587
Dun has the hex code #DEB587. The equivalent RGB values are (222, 181, 135), which means it is composed of 41% red, 34% green and 25% blue.<|separator|>
[92]
dun, v.³ meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
The earliest known use of the verb dun is in the mid 1600s. OED's earliest evidence for dun is from around 1648, in Proposalls Comm. regulating Law.
[93]
Dun - Websters Dictionary 1828
DUN, adjective. 1. Of a dark color; of a color partaking of a brown and black; of a dull brown color; swarthy. 2. Dark; gloomy. In the dun air sublime.Missing: definition encyclopedia
[94]
https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-business-history/july/dun-bradstreet-founded
[95]
Dunning management: Importance, processes, and best practices
Sep 18, 2025 · The term "dunning" comes from the 17th-century verb "to dun," which means to make persistent demands for payment of a debt. In business ...
[96]
What Does Dunning Mean in Accounting? - GoCardless
And remember, the original meaning of the verb “dun” meant “to harry someone for unpaid debts.” That's a great way to develop a bad reputation as a business ...
[97]
Dun & Bradstreet Founded - This Month in Business History
Sep 30, 2025 · The company now known as Dun & Bradstreet can be traced back to July 20, 1841 when Lewis Tappan formed the Mercantile Agency in New York City.Missing: surname | Show results with:surname
[98]
Learn About Our Company History - Dun & Bradstreet
In 1859, Douglass turned over the Agency to his brother-in-law, Robert Graham Dun. Under the new name, R.G. Dun & Company, Dun continued Douglass' relentless ...
[99]
R.G. Dun & Company Credit Report Volumes | Baker Library
Founded as the Mercantile Agency in 1841, R.G. Dun & Company, the predecessor firm to Dun & Bradstreet, was the first successful commercial reporting agency ...
[100]
About the D‑U‑N‑S Number - Dun & Bradstreet
The Dun & Bradstreet D‐U‐N‐S Number is a unique nine-digit identifier for businesses that is associated with a business's Live Business Identity.Learn MoreWatch Now
[101]
What Is a D-U-N-S Number Used For? - Dun & Bradstreet
The Dun & Bradstreet D‐U‐N‐S ® Number (short for Data Universal Numbering System) is a nine-digit unique identifier for businesses.
[102]
In Response to FTC Charges, Dun & Bradstreet to Clean Up Small ...
Jan 13, 2022 · Dun & Bradstreet (D&B) has agreed to an order requiring substantial changes in the firm's operations that will benefit small- and mid-sized businesses.Missing: probes | Show results with:probes
[103]
Dun & Bradstreet Agrees to Pay $5.7 Million to Resolve Alleged ...
Sep 29, 2025 · D&B's alleged violations include providing inaccurate information about its products to customers before renewing their subscription services, ...Missing: probes | Show results with:probes
[104]
Federal Trade Commission Finalizes Order Against Dun ...
Apr 7, 2022 · The Federal Trade Commission has finalized an order against Dun & Bradstreet, a provider of business credit report services, for deceiving businesses.Missing: probes | Show results with:probes
[105]
Dun & Bradstreet Signals New Era for Enterprise AI with Launch of ...
Oct 17, 2025 · Purpose -built D&B.AI Agents—the first wave of agents tailored to knowledge workflows such as credit risk, supplier evaluation, compliance, ...
[106]
D&B.AI: Transforming Data into Intelligence & Advantage
designed to scale insights and automate decision making.Missing: models 2020s
[107]
D&B Risk Analytics Supplier Intelligence - Dun & Bradstreet
D&B Risk Analytics helps accelerate supplier evaluations, mitigate risk, monitor suppliers, find alternates, and provides risk insights on 600M+ entities.Missing: models 2020s