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Pedigree

A pedigree is a documented record or diagram illustrating the ancestry and lineage of an individual, typically tracing relationships across multiple generations through parents, grandparents, and beyond, and is commonly employed in fields such as genealogy, genetics, and animal breeding.^[1]^[2]^[3] The term originates from the early 15th-century Anglo-Norman French phrase pied de grue, meaning "crane's foot," referring to the three-pronged shape of a bird's foot that resembles the branching lines in early genealogical diagrams.^[4]^[5] By the 16th century, it had evolved in English usage to denote a formal register or table of descent, initially for human nobility but increasingly for livestock and purebred animals as selective breeding practices advanced in the 18th century.^[6]^[7] In human genealogy and medical contexts, pedigrees serve as visual tools to map familial relationships and identify patterns of inherited traits or diseases, aiding genetic counselors in assessing risks and recommending testing for conditions like hereditary cancers or metabolic disorders.^[8]^[9] For animal husbandry, particularly in breeding horses, dogs, and cattle, pedigrees certify breed purity, track desirable genetic qualities such as temperament or productivity, and help prevent inbreeding depression by revealing consanguinity.^[10]^[11] These records, often standardized with symbols for males (squares), females (circles), and affected individuals (shaded), remain essential despite modern genomic tools, providing a historical foundation for conservation and selective improvement efforts.^[12]^[13]

General concept

Definition

A pedigree is a documented record of an individual's descent from ancestors, providing a structured account of lineage or ancestry.^[1] This record often emphasizes the purity of lineage in breeding contexts or notable heritage in human families, serving as an official verification of familial origins.^[14] Examples of such documentation include certificates issued by breed registries, such as those from the American Kennel Club, which confirm the purebred status of animals through multi-generational records.^[15] These certificates imply rigorous, verifiable proof of ancestry, ensuring the integrity of lineage claims.^[16] The term originated in 15th-century English usage, referring to a genealogical table or chart illustrating family lineage.^[1] It has since evolved to support modern applications in selective breeding and genetic analysis, maintaining its core role as a tool for tracing descent.^[4] Pedigrees are frequently represented visually through charts using standardized symbols for relationships.^[8]

Etymology

The word "pedigree" originates from the Anglo-Norman French phrase pé de grue, meaning "crane's foot," which refers to the forked lines in genealogical diagrams that resemble the foot of a crane.^[4] This term derives ultimately from Latin pes (foot) and grus (crane), reflecting the visual analogy to branching lineage charts resembling a crane's foot.^[17] It entered the English language in the early 15th century via Anglo-Norman French as pé de grue or variants like pe de gru, initially denoting a genealogical table or chart used to trace noble ancestry, with earliest recorded uses in Anglo-Norman legal contexts from the early 14th century.^[5]^[6] By the 18th century, the term had extended beyond human nobility to animal breeding, particularly in Britain, where maintaining pedigrees became essential for documenting purebred livestock.^[18] Early English spellings varied, such as pedegree or peedegree. In contrast to the French-inspired "pedigree," alternative naming conventions emerged elsewhere, such as the German ahnentafel, literally "ancestor table," which emphasizes a tabular format for lineage records without the avian metaphor.^[19]

Uses in biology

Animal pedigrees

Animal pedigrees serve as official certificates issued by breed registries to document the multi-generational ancestry of animals, verifying their purebred status and genetic purity for selective breeding purposes. These records trace direct lines from sires and dams, typically spanning three to five generations, to confirm lineage without crossbreeding.^[20]^[21] In animal husbandry, they are essential for species like dogs, horses, and cats, enabling breeders to select mates that preserve desirable traits while assessing relatedness to mitigate inbreeding risks, which can lead to reduced fertility and health issues.^[22]^[23] The practice emerged in 19th-century Europe amid the rise of organized purebred shows and trials, formalizing record-keeping to promote fair competition and breed standards. In the United Kingdom, The Kennel Club, founded in 1873, published the first stud book in 1874, compiling pedigrees from dog shows dating back to 1859 and field trials from 1865.^[24] Across the Atlantic, the American Kennel Club was established in 1884 to register purebred dogs and issue pedigrees, standardizing documentation for exhibitions and breeding.^[25] For cats, registries like the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) provide certified pedigrees to ensure breed integrity in husbandry programs.^[21] These registries maintain comprehensive databases, often visualized through pedigree charts that illustrate sire-dam relationships across generations. A prominent example is in Thoroughbred horse racing, where pedigrees meticulously trace all modern animals back to three foundation sires imported to England in the late 17th and early 18th centuries: the Byerley Turk, Darley Arabian, and Godolphin Arabian.^[26] These Arabian imports, bred with native mares, established the breed's speed and stamina, and ongoing pedigree tracking by organizations like The Jockey Club prevents inbreeding while upholding racing eligibility and value.^[26] Such systems underscore pedigrees' role in sustaining genetic health and commercial viability in animal breeding.

Plant pedigrees

Plant pedigrees refer to systematic records documenting the ancestry and breeding history of plant varieties, including details of parent plants such as the pollen donor and seed parent, to preserve genetic purity and varietal integrity. These records are essential in agricultural breeding programs, where they track the inheritance of desirable traits across generations, enabling breeders to select and propagate superior hybrids or pure lines. In hybrid corn production, for instance, pedigrees outline the development of inbred parental lines through repeated self-pollination, culminating in crosses that yield vigorous F1 hybrids with enhanced yield and disease resistance. Similarly, in rose breeding, pedigree tracking facilitates the selection of multi-parental crosses to improve traits like flower size and black spot resistance, ensuring the stability of new cultivars over multiple generations.^[27]^[28] The practice of maintaining plant pedigrees emerged in the early 20th century, building on the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance in 1900, which provided a scientific framework for predictable trait transmission in crosses. Pioneered in Sweden by researchers like Nils Herman Nilsson-Ehle at the Svalöf plant breeding station around 1900–1907, the pedigree method involved hybridizing varieties and rigorously documenting progeny to isolate superior lines, marking a shift from empirical selection to genetics-based breeding. This approach gained global adoption for self-pollinated and cross-pollinated crops alike. In the United States, the Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 further formalized such documentation by requiring applicants for protection certificates to provide a description of the variety's genealogy and breeding procedure when known, supporting intellectual property rights while promoting innovation in crop improvement.^[29]^[30]^[31] International standards for plant pedigrees are upheld by organizations like the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), which administers the framework for breeders' rights and emphasizes traceability through origin details in variety registration to ensure distinctness, uniformity, and stability. The International Seed Federation (ISF) supports these through guidelines on seed quality and varietal certification, indirectly reinforcing pedigree records for maintaining genetic integrity in global trade. Pedigrees play a critical role in traceability for certifications, particularly for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and organic production; they verify seed sources to prevent contamination, as required under organic standards that prohibit GMO inputs and mandate records from seed acquisition onward. For example, in organic crop certification, detailed lineage tracking confirms compliance with non-GMO requirements throughout the supply chain.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35] A prominent example is the pedigree of modern wheat varieties, which traces back to wild emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides), the tetraploid progenitor of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). Breeding programs document crosses starting from wild emmer introductions in the early 20th century, progressing through F1 hybrids—initial crosses yielding fertile but variable offspring—and subsequent F2 generations where segregation allows selection for traits like yield and rust resistance. For instance, synthetic hexaploid wheats derived from wild emmer backcrosses, such as those in the 75% bread wheat/25% wild emmer composition lines, have been pedigreed to enhance drought tolerance and genetic diversity in contemporary cultivars like hard winter wheat. These records not only illustrate evolutionary hybridization but also guide ongoing improvement by quantifying contributions from ancestral lines.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]

Uses in genealogy

Human family trees

Human family trees, also known as pedigrees in genealogical contexts, serve as structured records documenting lines of descent to trace ancestry and kinship relationships. A prominent method for organizing these trees is the Ahnentafel system, a German-derived numbering scheme that assigns unique identifiers to ancestors in an ascending order, starting with the individual as number 1, their father as 2, mother as 3, and doubling or doubling-plus-one for subsequent generations.^[19] This approach facilitates the documentation of direct ancestral lines, including patrilineal descent (tracing through the father's side) and matrilineal descent (through the mother's side), which are unilateral systems emphasizing one parental lineage for establishing kinship or clan membership.^[40] Such trees are employed for purposes like verifying inheritance rights, exploring ethnic origins, and conducting historical research into family heritage and social connections.^[41] In medieval Europe, noble families meticulously maintained pedigrees to legitimize claims to power and forge strategic marriage alliances that consolidated land, wealth, and political influence. For instance, unions between noble houses were often arranged based on documented lineages to ensure compatibility and mutual benefit, as seen in the practices of families like the Bassets, who used marital ties to expand socio-political networks.^[42] Royal pedigrees frequently extend far into antiquity, with the House of Windsor tracing its lineage unbroken to William the Conqueror, who seized the English throne in 1066, thereby anchoring modern British monarchy in Norman conquest history. These extensive records highlight how pedigrees preserved elite status across centuries, though extended trees risk pedigree collapse, where shared ancestors appear multiple times due to intermarriages, reducing unique forebears.^[43] Contemporary human family trees increasingly integrate genetic tools to overcome gaps in traditional records, such as AncestryDNA, launched in 2012, which uses autosomal testing to identify relatives and ethnic estimates, supplementing paper-based pedigrees with empirical data.^[44] For African Americans, these pedigrees address disruptions from the slavery era, where forced separations and the domestic slave trade fractured family structures, enabling researchers to reconstruct narratives through DNA matches linking living descendants to enslaved ancestors.^[45] Similarly, in Jewish genealogy, the concept of yichus—referring to prestigious lineage tied to notable rabbinic or scholarly forebears—drives efforts to document ancestral merit, often emphasizing personal responsibility alongside inherited status for community recognition.^[46]

Pedigree charts

Pedigree charts are diagrammatic representations used to visualize the inheritance of traits within families, particularly in genetics and medicine. These charts employ standardized symbols to denote individuals, their relationships, and phenotypic traits, facilitating the analysis of inheritance patterns. Developed in the 19th century, they originated from efforts to map hereditary characteristics, with Francis Galton developing pedigree analysis using tabular forms in his 1889 book Natural Inheritance and introducing diagrammatic representations in 1898.^[47]^[48] Key symbols in pedigree charts include squares to represent males and circles for females, with shading or filling to indicate affected individuals carrying a particular trait or condition. Horizontal lines connect mating partners, vertical lines descend to offspring, and a double line signifies consanguineous relationships, such as marriages between relatives. Generations are labeled with Roman numerals from top to bottom (I for the oldest), and individuals within a generation are numbered sequentially from left to right using Arabic numerals. These conventions, formalized by organizations like the National Society of Genetic Counselors, ensure consistency across medical and research applications. In 2022, the NSGC updated the nomenclature to address distinctions between sex and gender, incorporating inclusive symbols for transgender and gender-diverse individuals.^[49]^[50] To construct a pedigree chart, the process begins with the proband—the index case or individual presenting the trait of interest—typically placed at the left or center. Ancestors are traced upward and to the left, with branches extending rightward for descendants; this layout highlights the flow of inheritance from past to present generations. Consanguinity is depicted by double horizontal lines between symbols, aiding in the identification of potential recessive trait risks. Modern digital tools, such as DrawPed, allow for automated generation and editing of charts from pedigree data files, improving accuracy and efficiency in clinical settings.^[51]^[52] In medicine, pedigree charts are essential for elucidating inheritance patterns, such as autosomal dominant or recessive traits. For autosomal dominant conditions, affected individuals appear in every generation, with approximately 50% of offspring from an affected parent inheriting the trait. A classic example is Huntington's disease, an autosomal dominant disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene; in a typical pedigree, shading traces the trait through generations, demonstrating the 50% transmission risk per child of an affected parent.^[53]

Commercial entities

Pet food brand

Pedigree is a prominent dog food brand owned by Mars Petcare, a division of Mars, Incorporated. The brand originated in the United Kingdom, where Mars acquired Chappell Brothers Ltd., the producer of Chappie canned dog food, in 1935; the company was renamed Pedigree Petfoods in 1957 to evoke the concept of purebred dog lineages from animal breeding. By the 1960s, Pedigree expanded its product lines, including the launch of Chum dry dog food in the UK in 1960. In the United States, Mars acquired Kal Kan in 1968 and rebranded its dog food as Pedigree in 1988 to align with international naming. As of 2025, Pedigree stands as one of the world's leading dog food brands under Mars Petcare, which reported approximately $30 billion in annual revenue for its pet nutrition segment as of 2024, with Mars holding a leading position in the global pet food market.^[54]^[55]^[56] The brand offers a wide range of dog food products, including dry kibble, wet food in cans or pouches, and treats, all formulated to provide complete and balanced nutrition for dogs of various ages, sizes, and breeds. Key product lines include Pedigree Complete Nutrition kibble for everyday feeding and specialized options like Pedigree Dentastix, dental chews introduced in the late 1990s that are clinically proven to reduce plaque and tartar buildup by up to 80% when fed daily. These products emphasize high-quality ingredients, such as real meat as the first ingredient in many formulas, and are designed to support overall health, including coat, digestion, and energy levels.^[57] Pedigree's history includes significant events and challenges, such as its integration into Mars's global portfolio following the 1968 Kal Kan acquisition, which accelerated expansion. A notable incident occurred in August 2007, when Mars voluntarily recalled certain Pedigree dry dog foods in the US due to potential Salmonella contamination. These events prompted enhancements in supply chain testing and quality control. In May 2025, Mars Petcare faced a lawsuit stemming from Consumer Reports testing results on various pet foods, highlighting ongoing scrutiny of ingredient quality.^[58]^[59]^[60] Globally available in more than 70 countries as of 2024, Pedigree holds a significant market share in the dog food category, benefiting from Mars Petcare's position as one of the world's largest pet food companies. Marketing campaigns highlight "complete nutrition" tailored for all dogs, regardless of breed, while drawing on the brand's namesake to feature purebred dogs in advertisements promoting health and vitality, such as the long-running "Dogs Rule" initiative focused on adoption and welfare.^[61]^[56]^[62]

Toys and dolls brand

Pedigree Dolls & Toys is a British toy manufacturer based in Exeter, Devon, that has specialized in soft toys and dolls since the 1930s as a subsidiary of Lines Brothers Ltd., the world's largest toy company at the time. Initially focused on high-quality stuffed animals, the company produced popular teddy bears made from mohair and other premium materials during the pre-World War II era, emphasizing durable construction and appealing designs for children.^[63]^[64] Following the war, Pedigree shifted to innovative plastic dolls, utilizing hard plastics developed during wartime that allowed for more detailed and poseable figures, marking a transition from cloth and composition materials to modern manufacturing techniques. This period saw the creation of a range of affordable yet well-crafted dolls, including baby and play figures, which helped establish the brand's reputation for accessible quality in the post-war toy market.^[65]^[66] In 1963, Pedigree introduced the Sindy doll, a 10 3/4-inch teenage fashion doll designed as a wholesome alternative to the American Barbie, with a focus on relatable, girl-next-door appeal rather than exaggerated features. Launched as "The Doll You Love to Dress," Sindy debuted with outfits inspired by contemporary designers like Foale & Tuffin and Mary Quant, along with accessories such as playsets featuring a horse stable and an MG convertible car; her name was selected via a public street poll, and the launch included the first-ever television advertisement for a UK toy.^[67]^[68] Sindy achieved peak popularity during the 1960s and 1970s, becoming the best-selling toy in the United Kingdom in 1968 and 1970 while capturing around 80% of the UK's fashion doll market share at its height, driven by extensive accessory lines that accounted for up to 70% of sales. The doll's era-specific themes, including mod fashions and pop culture references like a boyfriend modeled after Paul McCartney, resonated with the Swinging Sixties youth culture and sustained strong demand into the following decade.^[69]^[70] By 2025, over 150 million Sindy dolls had been sold worldwide, reflecting the enduring appeal of the line across generations. Following the collapse of parent company Lines Brothers Ltd. in the early 1970s, the Sindy brand was licensed to firms including Hasbro in 1986 before reverting to Pedigree control; subsequent ownership changes involved companies like Vivid Imaginations. The brand experienced revivals in the 2000s, notably a 2003 relaunch for its 40th anniversary that targeted collectors with nostalgic reproductions and limited-edition items, capitalizing on the original's cult following. In July 2025, a live-action musical film adaptation of Sindy was announced, starring Archie Renaux. The "Pedigree" name itself draws from the concept of esteemed lineage, symbolizing the company's commitment to craftsmanship and quality in toy production from its early soft toy origins.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74]

Other meanings

Pedigree collapse

Pedigree collapse refers to the reduction in the number of distinct ancestors in a family tree caused by reproduction between individuals who share common forebears, such as through cousin marriages, resulting in the same ancestor appearing multiple times across branches. This phenomenon halves or further diminishes the expected exponential growth of unique forebears per generation—for instance, if first cousins marry, their offspring have six great-grandparents instead of eight—leading to a more compact genealogy than the theoretical binary tree model suggests. In human family trees, pedigree collapse becomes inevitable beyond a few dozen generations due to limited population sizes and historical intermarriages within communities.^[43] The degree of pedigree collapse is often measured using the inbreeding coefficient F, which quantifies the probability that two alleles at any genetic locus in an individual are identical by descent from a common ancestor. This coefficient is calculated as

F = \sum \left( \frac{1}{2} \right)^n (1 + F_A),

where the sum is taken over all paths through common ancestors A, n is the length of the path (number of individuals) connecting the parents via the ancestor, and F_A is the inbreeding coefficient of that ancestor (typically 0 for noninbred founders). Higher values of F indicate greater collapse and increased risk of expressing recessive genetic disorders.^[75] Pedigree collapse has been particularly pronounced in royal and noble lineages due to strategic intermarriages to consolidate power and wealth. For example, in the Habsburg dynasty, repeated unions among close relatives from the 16th century onward led to the characteristic mandibular prognathism known as the "Habsburg jaw," a recessive trait amplified by inbreeding. An extreme historical case is Charles II of Spain (1661–1700), whose pedigree exhibited such severe collapse that his inbreeding coefficient reached 0.254—the highest recorded in any European monarch—contributing to his numerous health issues and the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line.^[76]^[77] In broader populations, pedigree collapse significantly curtails the diversity of ancestors over time. For an average European tracing lineage back 30 generations (approximately 900–1,000 years), the theoretical number of ancestors is $2^{30} \approx 1.07 billion, exceeding the global population at the time; however, due to widespread intermarriages and geographic constraints, the actual number of unique ancestors is estimated at around 1 million or fewer. Among Ashkenazi Jewish populations, historical endogamy and population bottlenecks have caused even more acute collapse, with modern individuals descending from just 350 founders about 25–32 generations ago (600–800 years), resulting in a 30–50% reduction in unique ancestors over recent centuries compared to non-endogamous groups.^[78]

Figurative uses

The term "pedigree" is often employed metaphorically to denote an impressive or distinguished background that confers quality, prestige, or authenticity to non-biological entities, extending its literal sense of ancestral lineage. In the wine industry, for instance, a "wine with a pedigree" refers to one derived from noble grape varieties, historic vineyards, or renowned producers, implying superior heritage and reliability in taste. This usage highlights how the concept evokes a sense of inherited excellence, much like a thoroughbred animal's documented ancestry.^[79]^[80] In business contexts, "pedigree" describes the credentials and origins of leaders or ventures, particularly emphasizing elite educational or professional backgrounds. For CEOs, an "Ivy League pedigree" signals prestige from top-tier institutions like Harvard or Yale, often viewed as a marker of potential success despite studies showing no direct correlation with performance. Similarly, in the art world, provenance documents serve as an artwork's "pedigree," tracing ownership history to verify authenticity and enhance market value, where a chain involving nobility or famous collectors adds significant cachet.^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]^[85] Politically, the phrase "blue-blood pedigree" metaphorically underscores aristocratic or elite family ties, as seen in U.S. discourse around candidates like Beto O'Rourke in 2019, portrayed as benefiting from a "scion of a political family" lineage, or George W. Bush's blend of East Coast heritage with everyman appeal. In technology, particularly software development, "pedigree" traces the lineage of code origins to ensure security and reliability, as in verifying third-party components' provenance to mitigate risks in open-source ecosystems. This figurative extension dates back to 19th-century literature, where Charles Dickens critiqued social hierarchies in works like Great Expectations, portraying characters' obsessions with "pedigree" as a flawed basis for status over merit or virtue.^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91]

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Jan 14, 2025 · In 1935 it acquired the U.K. maker of Chappie canned dog food, renamed Pedigree Petfoods in 1957. In the decades that followed, Mars added to ...
[54]
World's Wealthiest Pet Food Companies and Maybe Why
Mars Petcare has 41 different brands with five that earn over $1 billion a year; Pedigree, Iams, Whiskas, Royal Canin and Banfield veterinary clinics. Mars ...
[55]
PEDIGREE® Dog Treats DENTASTIX™ Original Small/Medium
Rating 4.2 (31,470) Formulated for small and medium dogs, the chewy texture and unique X-shape design in these healthy dog treats is clinically proven to reduce plaque and tartar ...
[56]
Recall of Dry Dog and Cat Food Products Associated with Human <I ...
Nov 7, 2008 · Recall of Dry Dog and Cat Food Products Associated with Human Salmonella Schwarzengrund Infections --- United States, 2008Missing: Pedigree melamine
[57]
Three years after melamine pet food recall, animal feed safety ...
Three years ago, pet food manufacturers began voluntarily recalling more than 100 brands of dog and cat food when owners reported cases of kidney failure in ...
[58]
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5744a2.htm
[59]
Chart: Top 20 pet food companies 2024; Purina, Mars still dominate
Jul 31, 2025 · Nestle Purina PetCare and Mars Petcare continue to have the largest annual revenues, as do U.S.-based companies overall.
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Mars Petcare
to provide high-quality preventive health care for each pet, and to partner with ...
[61]
Pedigree Soft Toys Ltd. - Minka's Bear Passion
Jan 10, 2020 · Pedigree Soft Toys Ltd. was a subsidiary company of the biggest toy company in the world in the 1930 till 1950: Lines Brothers Ltd.
[62]
Irish – Grandma's Teddies
The Pedigree Soft Toys name was registered in 1931 and produced amongst other products a range of prams, and by 1938 a whole range of Pedigree Pets – toys on ...
[63]
Doll, Baby; Pedigree Dolls & Toys; 1950-1959 - eHive
Doll's like the Pedigree were manufactured of hard plastic first introduced in the late 1940's as new plastics, developed during the Second World War, were ...
[64]
1950's HARD PLASTIC DOLLS - Diane's Dolls "The Dolly Fairy"
Karen is a very pretty vintage Pedigree Delite girl doll circa late 1950's/early 60's. Known as transitional dolls, these post-hard plastic/pre-vinyl dolls were ...
[65]
About Sindy
Sindy, a 10 3/4" fashion doll, was launched in 1963 by Pedigree. Her name came from a street poll and she was the first UK toy advertised on TV.
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Sindy - Pedigree Toys and Brands
Sindy was launched in 1963 as 'The Doll You Love To Dress', and soon became Britain's best-selling and most loved, teenage fashion doll around.
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Barbie is now queen. But for my generation, Sindy reigned supreme
Jul 27, 2023 · Sindy turns 60 this year, and at her peak had 80% of the UK's 'fashion doll' market. What led to her cruel demise? Viv Groskop.Missing: figures | Show results with:figures
[68]
Desperately seeking Sindy – a guide to collecting the vintage doll
May 14, 2018 · In the 1960s, Sindy accessories accounted for 70 per cent of the sales. She had a bathroom – complete with a bath with running water, a sink ...
[69]
News - Pedigree Toys and Brands
May 20, 2024 · The manufacturer – Pedigree, based in Exeter – has produced a diamond anniversary doll, with a glittery silver dress and heels. She is being ...
[70]
Little girls, big business - The Telegraph
Jun 12, 2012 · Next year Sindy celebrates her 50th anniversary (with more than 100million dolls sold to date), the only “fashion” doll around the world to ...
[71]
Pedigree Toys and Brands details slate of activity for Sindy's 60th ...
Oct 9, 2023 · Pedigree Toys and Brands has a museum exhibition and a limited-edition doll launch in the works for Sindy's 60th anniversary celebrations. This ...Missing: acquisitions | Show results with:acquisitions
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Inbreeding Coefficient | Equation, Calculation & Examples - Lesson
The formula for F shows how to calculate the inbreeding coefficient: F = ∑ [ ( 1 / 2 ) n ∗ ( 1 + F a ) ] where F is the inbreeding coefficient, n is the number ...
[73]
Is the "Habsburg jaw" related to inbreeding? - PubMed
Dec 2, 2019 · The "Habsburg jaw" has long been associated with inbreeding due to the high prevalence of consanguineous marriages in the Habsburg dynasty.Missing: 16th century scholarly sources
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The Role of Inbreeding in the Extinction of a European Royal Dynasty
Apr 15, 2009 · The highest values of the inbreeding coefficient in the Spanish Habsburgs correspond to kings Charles II (0.254) and Philip III (0.218), and ...
[75]
The Geography of Recent Genetic Ancestry across Europe
We find that a pair of modern Europeans living in neighboring populations share around 2–12 genetic common ancestors from the last 1,500 years, and upwards of ...
[76]
The Elegant Side of Wines from Argentina
Oct 4, 2016 · A wine with a pedigree as Pedegral is a single vineyard located in the highly regarded Barrancas sub-region. It is truly extraordinary and ...
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Rochioli Vineyards & Winery West Block - The Prince of Pinot
Jun 27, 2015 · A well-bred, special wine with a pedigree. Score: 92-93. 2001 J. Rochioli West Block Russian River Valley Pinot Noir. 14.2% alc., 400 cases ...
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Here Is What It Takes to Become a CEO, According to ... - LinkedIn
Jun 11, 2018 · But at the end of the day, it's not pedigree that's the best predictor for CEO potential. The most important commonality across CEOs isn't ...
[79]
Does Pedigree Count? A Self-Made Entrepreneur Proves That A ...
A self-made entrepreneur's pedigree often doesn't include highly desirable schools and colleges, an internship at a Fortune 500 company, or early connections to ...
[80]
[PDF] WHAT SETS SUCCESSFUL CEOS APART
In addition, we found that educational pedigree (or lack thereof) in no way correlated to per- formance: Only 7% of the high-performing CEOs we studied had an ...
[81]
What Is Art Provenance? A Beginner-Friendly Guide for New ...
Jul 31, 2025 · It is sometimes called the “pedigree” or “chain of title” of the work. A complete provenance may include: ree. The artist who created it and the ...
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Provenance Research: An Art Detective Traces the Life of Artworks
Aug 31, 2018 · A desirable pedigree adds cachet and increases the market value of an object. Provenance is also a way of verifying attribution and authenticity ...
[83]
Beto O'Rourke and the proliferation of white privilege accusations
Mar 27, 2019 · The Club for Growth is not alone is accusing Beto of benefiting from having been "born with a blue-blood pedigree, the scion of a prominent ...
[84]
Beto O'Rourke is the Privileged White Man Democrats Say They Hate
Mar 11, 2019 · Entitled “Pedigree,” the ad highlights O'Rourke's “blue-blood pedigree” as “the scion of a political family” and contrasts his entitled ...
[85]
Donald Trump's Brave New World by Nina L. Khrushcheva
Nov 15, 2016 · By 2000, Americans were ready for George W. Bush. At once a prince and an everyman, he combined his father's East Coast blue-blood pedigree with ...
[86]
Verifying pedigree and provenance - ISC2 Certified Secure Software ...
As a CSSLP, you'll use both tools and techniques to verify the pedigree and provenance of that third-party software. Pedigree refers to the lineage of the ...Missing: tracing | Show results with:tracing
[87]
The Man from Nowhere | Dickens and the Spirit of the Age | Oxford ...
He was effectively a man without pedigree, both as an artist and as a pretender to social status. Dickens's own fictional definitions of a long and ...
[88]
The Repressed Individual in Charles Dickens's Great Expectations
Aug 10, 2025 · had no pedigree and they were engaged in trade (128). The definition of the gentleman, thus, includes the middle class due to the. changing ...