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Economizer

An economizer is a mechanical device used in engineering systems to enhance energy efficiency by recovering waste heat from exhaust gases or fluids and transferring it to preheat incoming fluids, thereby reducing overall fuel consumption and operational costs.^[1]^[2] In boiler and thermal power plant applications, the economizer functions as a heat exchanger typically installed in the flue gas stack, where it captures residual heat from combustion gases—often at temperatures between 300°F and 500°F (149–260°C)—to raise the temperature of boiler feedwater, typically entering at 180–230°F (82–110°C), to near-saturation levels before it enters the boiler drum.^[2]^[3] This preheating process lowers the energy required to generate steam, improving boiler efficiency by 3–6% in non-condensing types and 10–15% or more in condensing variants that cool flue gases below their dew point to recover latent heat.^[1] Common types include non-condensing economizers, common in coal-fired plants to avoid acid corrosion by limiting gas cooling to about 250°F (120°C), and condensing economizers suited for cleaner fuels like natural gas that achieve lower temperatures around 80°F (25°C) for greater heat recovery.^[1] Key components often feature gilled tubes, coiled tubes, or finned tubes made of corrosion-resistant materials to facilitate efficient heat transfer while handling high-pressure fluids.^[1] Beyond power generation, economizers play a vital role in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for commercial buildings, where they serve as dampers and control mechanisms that introduce cool outdoor air for space cooling instead of relying on energy-intensive compressors when external conditions—such as temperature and humidity—are favorable.^[4] This "free cooling" mode can reduce HVAC energy use by drawing in ambient air through vents and sensors that monitor enthalpy levels, potentially cutting cooling costs by up to 30% in suitable climates.^[5] Economizers in HVAC are often roof-mounted and integrated with rooftop units, using integrated or differential enthalpy controls to optimize ventilation and maintain indoor air quality.^[4] Economizers are also used in refrigeration systems and other industrial processes to optimize energy use. The invention of the economizer traces back to 1845, when British engineer Edward Green patented the first practical design to boost the efficiency of stationary steam engine boilers by reusing exhaust heat, marking a significant advancement in industrial thermodynamics during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution.^[6]^[7] Today, these devices contribute to lower emissions, extended equipment lifespan, and compliance with energy standards across industries, with payback periods often within a few years due to fuel savings of up to 20%.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

An economizer is a heat recovery device designed to capture waste heat from flue gases, exhaust streams, or process fluids and transfer it to preheat incoming fluids, primarily such as boiler feedwater, thereby reducing the overall energy input required for heating processes.^[8] This function is typically achieved through a heat exchanger configuration that extracts thermal energy that would otherwise be lost to the atmosphere.^[9] Preheating of combustion air is typically handled by separate devices known as air preheaters. The primary purpose of an economizer is to enhance thermal efficiency in systems like boilers and power plants by recovering sensible heat from exhaust streams, which can improve overall system efficiency by 5-10% depending on the design and operating conditions.^[8] For instance, non-condensing economizers typically achieve 5-7% gains by maintaining flue gas temperatures above the dew point, while condensing types can reach 10% or more by also recovering latent heat, though they require corrosion-resistant materials to handle acidic condensate.^[9] Beyond efficiency, economizers minimize fuel consumption, leading to significant cost savings—for example, recovering about 5% of a boiler's input capacity can reduce fuel costs by approximately $8.40 per hour for a 500 horsepower unit operating at full load—and lower emissions of pollutants like CO2 and NOx by reducing fuel use proportionally.^[8]^[10] These benefits also aid compliance with energy efficiency standards, such as those in the EU Energy Efficiency Directive, which promotes heat recovery to meet broader environmental and regulatory goals.^[11] Economizers are classified into types such as finned-tube designs that directly transfer heat to feedwater.^[12] This allows for tailored applications prioritizing liquid preheating to optimize combustion.^[9]

Operating Principles

Economizers operate on the thermodynamic principle of recovering waste heat from exhaust gases, aligning with the second law of thermodynamics, which governs the spontaneous transfer of heat from higher to lower temperature regions to increase overall system entropy while enabling useful work extraction.^[13] This heat recovery primarily occurs through convective heat transfer from the hot exhaust fluid to the cooler working fluid across a separating surface, with conduction playing a secondary role within the exchanger walls; arrangements typically employ counterflow configurations for maximum efficiency, though parallel flow may be used in simpler designs to minimize pressure losses.^[14] The fundamental heat transfer rate in an economizer is quantified by the equation

Q = \dot{m} \cdot C_p \cdot \Delta T

where Q is the heat transfer rate, \dot{m} is the mass flow rate of the fluid, C_p is the specific heat capacity, and \Delta T is the temperature difference across the exchanger.^[15] Efficiency is then calculated as

\eta = \frac{T_{\text{out}} - T_{\text{in}}}{T_{\text{exhaust}} - T_{\text{in}}} \times 100\%

where T_{\text{out}} and T_{\text{in}} are the outlet and inlet temperatures of the preheated fluid, and T_{\text{exhaust}} is the inlet exhaust temperature; this metric reflects the fraction of available exhaust heat captured. Design considerations emphasize material selection, such as stainless steel alloys to resist corrosion from acidic condensates in flue gases, alongside managing pressure drops to avoid excessive energy penalties from fans or pumps—typically limited to 0.5-2 kPa on the gas side.^[16] Fouling prevention involves fin spacing and coatings to mitigate ash or scale buildup, while pinch point analysis ensures optimal sizing by identifying the minimum temperature difference (usually 5-15°C) that drives heat transfer without oversizing the unit.^[17] Performance is evaluated through metrics like approach temperature, the difference between the preheated fluid outlet and exhaust gas outlet, commonly maintained at 10-20°C to balance recovery and cost; reducing stack temperatures by 20-40°C can improve overall system efficiency by 1-2% by minimizing heat loss to the atmosphere.^[18] In boiler applications, this preheats feedwater to enhance combustion efficiency.

History

Early Inventions

The invention of the economizer marked a significant advancement in steam boiler technology during the mid-19th century, driven by the escalating demands of the Industrial Revolution for more efficient energy use in factories, mills, and locomotives. The first successful design was patented by British engineer Edward Green in 1845, specifically tailored for Cornish boilers commonly used in stationary steam engines. This device consisted of an array of vertical cast iron tubes connected to upper and lower water tanks, through which boiler feedwater flowed while hot flue gases passed externally, recovering waste heat to preheat the water and thereby reducing fuel consumption.^[6] Green's innovation addressed the inefficiency of early steam systems, where much of the heat from combustion was lost through exhaust, by integrating a simple yet effective tubular heat exchanger into the flue gas path. Early economizers like Green's faced notable engineering challenges, particularly soot accumulation on the tube surfaces, which insulated the metal and impeded heat transfer, and corrosion due to the acidic nature of flue gases interacting with cast-iron materials. To mitigate soot buildup, Green's design incorporated a mechanical scraping apparatus operated by levers and chains, allowing periodic cleaning without shutting down the boiler, a feature that distinguished it from prior unsuccessful attempts and ensured practical viability. Corrosion issues in these initial cast-iron models were exacerbated by high-temperature exposure and impurities in coal-derived gases, often requiring frequent maintenance or material reinforcements to extend service life.^[19] These early devices delivered initial efficiency gains of approximately 10-15% in fuel savings for locomotive and factory boilers by elevating feedwater temperatures from ambient levels to around 100-150°C, depending on flue gas conditions, thereby boosting overall thermal performance without major alterations to existing boiler setups. Adoption began rapidly in the United Kingdom following the 1845 patent, with Green's company installing thousands of units by the 1870s in industrial centers like Wakefield and Manchester, spreading to the United States amid the post-Civil War manufacturing boom as American engineers adapted similar tubular designs for ironworks and textile mills. By the late 19th century, economizers had become standard in large-scale steam operations, laying the groundwork for further refinements in boiler efficiency.^[6]^[20]

Key Developments

In the early 20th century, economizer technology advanced with the adoption of steel tube designs, which provided greater structural integrity and corrosion resistance compared to earlier cast iron variants. In 1910, companies like Babcock & Wilcox manufactured their first economizers during a period of rapid boiler production expansion, integrating steel tubes to enhance heat recovery in industrial applications.^[21] These developments marked a shift toward more robust systems capable of handling higher pressures in steam generation. Further milestones in the mid-20th century included the introduction of finned surfaces in the 1950s, which significantly improved convective heat transfer by increasing the surface area exposed to flue gases. Steel H-finned tubes, in particular, became widely adopted for their optimal balance of heating surface and self-cleaning properties in fouling-prone environments.^[22] Post-World War II, economizers were integrated into supercritical boilers as part of advanced once-through designs that eliminated traditional steam drums and enabled operations above the critical point of water (221 bar and 374°C) to boost overall cycle efficiency.^[23] Modern economizer materials have evolved to include specialized alloys such as SA-210, a carbon steel grade standardized by ASME for seamless tubes in boilers and superheaters. This alloy offers excellent high-temperature resistance, withstanding up to 538°C (1000°F) while maintaining tensile strength of at least 415 MPa, making it ideal for economizers in high-pressure environments.^[24]^[25] Since the 1980s, condensing economizers have emerged for gas-fired systems, cooling flue gases below the dew point (around 57°C for natural gas) to recover latent heat from water vapor, achieving additional efficiency gains of 5-10% over non-condensing types. Initial installations in the 1980s faced challenges with sulfur-induced corrosion but proved viable for low-sulfur fuels like natural gas.^[26]^[18] Regulatory frameworks have driven widespread economizer adoption. The U.S. Clean Air Act of 1970 mandated stricter emission controls, incentivizing efficiency improvements in boilers to reduce fuel use and pollutant output, thereby promoting economizer retrofits as a cost-effective compliance strategy.^[27] Similarly, the EU Energy Efficiency Directive, originally 2012/27/EU and revised in 2018 and 2023 as Directive (EU) 2023/1791, sets binding targets including an additional 11.7% reduction in final energy consumption by 2030 compared to projections (exceeding the prior 32.5% ambition), encouraging the integration of heat recovery technologies like economizers in industrial and building systems to meet national efficiency obligations.^[11] Post-2010, smart economizers incorporating sensors for real-time monitoring have enabled dynamic optimization, using algorithms like reinforcement learning to adjust airflow and temperature based on occupancy and weather data, reducing energy waste by up to 20% in HVAC applications.^[28] Efficiency trends reflect these innovations: early 20th-century economizers provided about 10% thermal gains by preheating feedwater, while by the 2020s, advanced designs in combined-cycle plants contribute to overall efficiencies exceeding 60%, with economizers recovering up to 25% or more of waste heat in gas turbine exhaust. For instance, GE's advanced combined-cycle systems, featuring optimized heat recovery steam generators with integrated economizers, achieve net plant efficiencies of 64% in natural gas applications through enhanced materials and cycle configurations.^[29]^[30]

Developments in HVAC Economizers

While boiler economizers originated in the 19th century, HVAC economizers evolved separately in the early 20th century as part of ventilation systems in commercial buildings. Early designs used simple outdoor air dampers to provide "free cooling" during favorable weather, gaining prominence during the 1970s oil crisis with the integration of enthalpy controls to optimize energy use and indoor air quality. By the 1980s, roof-mounted units with differential enthalpy sensors became standard, reducing cooling energy by up to 20% in moderate climates without duplicating mechanical refrigeration.^[31]

Boiler and Power Plant Applications

Boiler Economizers

Boiler economizers are heat recovery devices installed on steam boilers to preheat feedwater using residual heat from flue gases, thereby improving overall thermal efficiency. Typically positioned between the boiler and the chimney or stack, they capture exhaust gases at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 300°C, transferring heat to the incoming feedwater through tube arrangements that can be configured horizontally or vertically depending on space constraints and flow dynamics. This placement minimizes heat loss to the atmosphere while ensuring the preheated water enters the boiler at a higher temperature, reducing the energy required for steam generation. Economizers come in two primary types: non-condensing and condensing, each suited to different fuel sources and operational needs. Non-condensing economizers, commonly used with solid fuels like coal or biomass, operate above the dew point to avoid corrosion from acidic condensate, featuring robust designs such as fire-tube arrangements in packaged boilers where hot gases pass through tubes surrounded by feedwater. In contrast, condensing economizers, optimized for gaseous fuels like natural gas, allow flue gas temperatures to drop below the dew point, recovering latent heat and achieving up to 90% overall heat recovery efficiency by condensing water vapor in the exhaust. Fire-tube economizers, for instance, are prevalent in smaller industrial packaged boilers due to their simplicity and ease of integration. In terms of performance, boiler economizers can reduce fuel consumption by 5% to 15% in industrial applications, depending on the initial stack temperature and load conditions. These gains stem from the sensible heat transfer in the flue gases, which would otherwise be wasted, enhancing boiler efficiency without requiring major system overhauls. Maintenance of boiler economizers is crucial to sustain performance and prevent downtime, focusing on regular cleaning to remove ash buildup from solid fuel combustion and implementing water treatment protocols to mitigate corrosion, particularly in condensing types exposed to acidic condensates. Integration with deaerators helps remove dissolved oxygen from feedwater, further protecting against internal tube corrosion and extending equipment life. Soot blowers or automated cleaning systems are often employed in high-ash environments to maintain heat transfer surfaces, ensuring optimal operation over extended periods.

Power Plant Integration

In power plants operating on the Rankine cycle, economizers play a critical role by preheating boiler feedwater using residual heat from flue gases, thereby improving overall thermal efficiency in coal-fired, nuclear, and gas-fired facilities.^[32] Positioned in the flue gas path after the superheater, economizers ensure that the feedwater enters the boiler at a higher temperature, reducing the energy required for evaporation and superheating while minimizing fuel consumption. This integration is essential for high-pressure boilers, where the preheated feedwater supports steam generation for turbine drive, enhancing the cycle's performance across diverse fuel types.^[32] In combined cycle power plants, economizers within heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) recover heat from gas turbine exhaust gases, typically at 500-600°C, to generate steam for the bottoming Rankine cycle, significantly boosting plant efficiency to over 60% on a lower heating value basis.^[30] These HRSG economizers utilize multi-pass tube bundles to maximize heat transfer from the hot exhaust, enabling steam production that complements the topping Brayton cycle and achieves higher overall energy conversion compared to simple cycle plants.^[32] Economizer designs in large-scale plants, such as 1000 MW coal-fired units, often feature finned or bare tube bundles arranged in multiple passes to handle high-temperature flue gases effectively, reducing stack temperatures from approximately 150°C to 120°C and capturing additional recoverable heat.^[33] However, in plants subject to load cycling, economizers face challenges from thermal stresses induced by rapid temperature fluctuations, which can lead to tube fatigue and require robust materials and design modifications for longevity.^[34] Despite these issues, integration yields 2-5% gains in overall plant efficiency through enhanced heat recovery and supports reduced NOx emissions by lowering flue gas temperatures and optimizing combustion conditions.^[35]^[33]

HVAC Applications

Heating Systems

In building heating systems, economizers enhance efficiency by recovering waste heat from exhaust air or other sources to preheat supply air or water, thereby reducing the demand on mechanical heating equipment such as boilers or furnaces. These devices are particularly valuable in variable air volume (VAV) systems, where they integrate with dampers and controls to modulate airflow and minimize energy loss during the heating season. Unlike their cooling counterparts, heating-focused economizers prioritize heat retention and recovery to offset the energy required for warming incoming outdoor air, which can otherwise represent a significant load in cold climates.^[36] Air-side economizers in heating applications employ heat recovery mechanisms, such as energy recovery wheels or plate exchangers, to transfer thermal energy from outgoing exhaust air to incoming outdoor air streams. This process preconditions the supply air, lowering the heating coil load and enabling systems to operate with less fossil fuel or electricity consumption. In VAV configurations, these economizers use modulating dampers to maintain optimal outdoor air intake while avoiding excessive cold air infiltration that could increase heating demands; for instance, they ensure that warmer return air mixes appropriately with outdoor air when conditions permit, common in commercial buildings like offices and schools. Controls often incorporate sensors to monitor conditions and prevent over-ventilation, aligning with broader heat exchanger principles where sensible heat transfer dominates in dry winter environments.^[37]^[38] Water-side economizers facilitate heat recovery through closed-loop systems, such as run-around coils, which circulate a glycol-water mixture between exhaust and supply air handlers to capture and transfer heat across remote zones. In these setups, warm exhaust air from one area heats the fluid in an exhaust coil, which then preheats the supply air or hot water loop in another via a supply coil, effectively recovering energy that would otherwise be vented. This approach is ideal for buildings with separated air streams, like multi-zone offices, where direct air-to-air transfer is impractical, and it integrates seamlessly with boiler systems to boost overall heating efficiency without cross-contamination risks.^[37]^[39] As per ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2022, energy recovery systems (including air- or water-side heat recovery economizers) are required for HVAC systems with high outdoor air fractions (e.g., outdoor air exceeding 70% of supply air or specific airflow thresholds like 5,000 cfm), with a minimum enthalpy recovery ratio of 50% or sensible recovery effectiveness of 60% in applicable cases. For cooling economizers, controls must disable excessive outdoor air intake during cold weather to avoid increasing building heating energy use and ensure compliance. Enthalpy-based sensors measure total heat content (temperature and humidity) of outdoor and return air, enabling precise modulation— for example, activating recovery only when outdoor enthalpy exceeds a setpoint to optimize preheat without introducing moisture issues. These requirements ensure economizers contribute to energy codes by promoting recovery effectiveness of at least 50-60% in applicable systems, such as those with high ventilation rates.^[40]^[41] The implementation of heating economizers yields substantial benefits, including energy savings of 20-30% in mild climates where transitional weather allows frequent recovery operation, primarily by cutting heating loads through preheated supply. In office buildings, integrating water-side economizers with boilers has demonstrated reductions in heating energy use by up to 25%, as seen in case studies of large commercial facilities where run-around coils recovered exhaust heat to support hot water loops, lowering operational costs and emissions without major retrofits.^[42]^[43]

Ventilation and Air Conditioning

In heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, cooling economizers utilize outdoor air to provide "free cooling" when ambient conditions are favorable, thereby reducing reliance on mechanical refrigeration equipment such as chillers and compressors. These devices are typically integrated into air handling units or packaged rooftop systems, where motorized dampers modulate the intake of outdoor air to mix with return air, cooling the supply air stream without activating the compressor. This approach is mandated by energy efficiency standards like ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2022 for most commercial cooling systems exceeding 33,000 Btu/h (9.7 kW) capacity in applicable climate zones, excluding extremely humid areas such as zones 1A and 1B.^[44]^[41] Control strategies for cooling economizers primarily involve differential dry-bulb temperature or enthalpy sensors to determine optimal outdoor air usage. Differential dry-bulb control compares outdoor air temperature to return air temperature, enabling economizer mode when outdoor air is at least 2–3°F (1.1–1.7°C) cooler, often with a high-limit setpoint of 55–75°F (13–24°C) depending on climate. Enthalpy-based controls, which measure total heat content (sensible plus latent), offer superior performance in humid regions by preventing the intake of moist air that could overload dehumidification; differential enthalpy activates when outdoor enthalpy falls below return air enthalpy, typically below 28 Btu/lb (65 kJ/kg). These controls ensure seamless integration with chillers, modulating damper positions from minimum outdoor air to 100% outdoor air as needed, while interlocks prevent simultaneous compressor and economizer operation to avoid inefficiencies.^[45]^[36] Economizers also support ventilation requirements by facilitating the delivery of minimum outdoor air fractions as prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 62.1, which specifies ventilation rates to maintain indoor air quality based on occupancy and space type. For instance, in variable occupancy spaces like offices or retail areas, economizers integrate with demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) systems using CO₂ sensors to dynamically adjust outdoor air intake, ensuring compliance while minimizing energy use—CO₂ levels above 800–1,000 ppm trigger increased ventilation without excess. This synergy recovers energy during cooling-dominant periods, as the economizer's outdoor air stream satisfies both thermal loads and air quality needs, often incorporating energy recovery ventilators for latent heat management in transitional modes. Common in commercial buildings, cooling economizers are frequently housed in roof-mounted packaged units, which serve single zones or multiple spaces efficiently due to their accessibility and modular design. During shoulder seasons—spring and fall—when outdoor temperatures range from 50–70°F (10–21°C) with moderate humidity, these systems achieve significant efficiency gains, reducing cooling energy consumption by 30–50% compared to full mechanical operation by leveraging natural air cooling.^[46]^[47] Despite these benefits, cooling economizers face limitations in high-humidity environments, where introducing outdoor air can elevate indoor relative humidity above 60%, potentially fostering mold growth and compromising air quality. To mitigate this, modern designs incorporate mixed-air plenums—insulated chambers that blend outdoor and return air streams for uniform temperature and humidity distribution—along with high-limit cutoffs and dehumidification interlocks. Proper maintenance, including damper sealing and sensor calibration, is essential to prevent issues like over-ventilation or contaminant ingress.^[36]^[45]

Refrigeration Applications

Vapor-Compression Cycles

In vapor-compression refrigeration cycles, the economizer plays a crucial role by being placed immediately after the condenser, where it subcools the condensed liquid refrigerant and separates the flash gas that forms during partial expansion. This separation prevents the vapor from entering the evaporator, where it would otherwise occupy space and diminish the heat absorption capacity, while the subcooled liquid proceeds to the expansion device with higher density for improved evaporation efficiency. As a result, the evaporator capacity increases by 15-20%, allowing the system to handle greater cooling loads without proportionally larger equipment.^[48] The typical configuration employs a flash tank economizer, an intermediate pressure vessel that receives the throttled refrigerant from the condenser outlet. Here, the pressure reduction causes a fraction of the liquid (often 10-15% by mass) to evaporate into flash vapor, which is then vented and injected into the compressor at an interstage port for recompression at a lower work input compared to high-pressure compression. The remaining subcooled liquid is throttled further to the evaporator pressure. On a pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram, the economizer cycle shifts the liquid line to the left, achieving greater subcooling and illustrating enthalpy gains through a wider area under the evaporation process curve, which quantifies the enhanced thermodynamic efficiency.^[49] The refrigeration effect per unit mass is expressed as the enthalpy difference across the evaporator:

q_L = h_1 - h_4

where h_1 is the enthalpy at the evaporator outlet and h_4 is the reduced enthalpy at the evaporator inlet post-economizer subcooling, leading to a larger q_L than in non-economized cycles. This modification typically elevates the coefficient of performance (COP) by 5-10%, for instance, improving from a baseline of 3.0 to around 3.3 in moderate operating conditions, by minimizing irreversible losses from flash gas in the evaporator.^[48] Economizers find widespread application in commercial refrigerators and cold storage facilities, where space and energy efficiency are paramount. For example, in R-134a-based systems, the flash tank configuration reduces overall compressor work by recompressing the separated vapor at intermediate pressure, yielding measurable energy savings while maintaining reliable low-temperature performance in environments like supermarket display cases or warehouse cooling.^[50]

Multi-Stage and Optimized Setups

In multi-stage refrigeration systems, economizers are integrated between compression stages to facilitate intercooling, where a portion of the high-pressure liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated to cool the intermediate-pressure gas from the low-stage compressor, thereby reducing the work required for subsequent compression. This setup enhances overall system efficiency by lowering the discharge temperature and improving the coefficient of performance (COP), with studies showing up to a 10% COP improvement in two-stage configurations compared to single-stage systems.^[51]^[52] Booster compressors in these systems utilize flash gas generated during the throttling process, directing it back to the low-stage suction to reduce superheat and increase mass flow through the evaporator, which optimizes cooling capacity without excessive compressor loading. In industrial applications, such as anhydrous ammonia systems, this flash gas integration allows booster compressors to operate at intermediate pressures (e.g., 40–80 psia), contributing to energy savings of approximately 1.3% per °F reduction in condensing temperature through floating head pressure control.^[53] Subcooling optimizers, including suction-line heat exchangers, further enhance performance by transferring heat from the liquid refrigerant line to the suction line, providing additional cooling of the liquid before expansion and preventing flash gas formation. In direct expansion (DX) refrigeration systems, the incorporation of such economizers can improve cooling capacity by enhancing subcooling and evaporator effectiveness.^[54] Internal heat exchangers operate on a counterflow principle between the liquid refrigerant exiting the condenser and the suction gas from the evaporator, maximizing heat transfer for subcooling and superheating. The effectiveness of these exchangers is quantified by the equation

\epsilon = \frac{T_{\text{cond}} - T_{\text{subcool}}}{T_{\text{cond}} - T_{\text{suction}}}

where T_{\text{cond}} is the condenser saturation temperature, T_{\text{subcool}} is the subcooled liquid temperature, and T_{\text{suction}} is the suction gas temperature entering the exchanger; higher \epsilon values indicate better performance in boosting cycle efficiency.^[55] Economizer configurations in cascade systems enable significant COP enhancements—up to 80% over traditional baselines—for ultra-low temperature applications such as -40°C freezers, while minimizing energy use in varying ambient conditions. Recent advancements as of 2025 include integration with low-GWP refrigerants like CO₂ in transcritical cycles using vapor injection and expander-boosted subcooling to further improve efficiency and comply with environmental regulations.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Specialized Applications

Stirling Engines

In Stirling cycle engines, the regenerator functions as an internal economizer by storing heat extracted from the working fluid during the cooling phase and releasing it back during the heating phase, thereby minimizing thermal losses between the hot and cold sides of the engine. This heat recovery mechanism significantly enhances overall efficiency, with studies indicating that engines equipped with regenerators require up to five times less external heat input to achieve comparable performance levels compared to those without.^[59] The regenerator is particularly effective in alpha-type configurations, where separate compression and expansion cylinders are connected via the regenerator matrix, and in beta-type configurations, where it is integrated coaxially within a single cylinder housing both the displacer and power piston, allowing for compact heat transfer in both setups.^[59] External economizers in Stirling engines take the form of additional heat exchangers, such as preheaters, that utilize residual heat from the combustion exhaust or heat source to further warm the working fluid—often helium, chosen for its superior thermal conductivity and low viscosity—before it enters the primary heater.^[60] For instance, in solar-powered Stirling engines employing dish concentrators, these preheaters contribute to achieving thermal efficiencies approaching 30%, as demonstrated in systems where concentrated sunlight drives the external heat input.^[61] The core principle of the regenerator involves cyclic heat transfer facilitated by the displacer piston, which shuttles the working fluid through the porous matrix during isochoric processes: absorbing heat as the fluid moves from the hot side to the cold side and releasing it on the return path to preheat the fluid approaching the hot side. The effectiveness of this regenerator, denoted as \eta_{\text{reg}}, quantifies the heat recovery and is given by

\eta_{\text{reg}} = \frac{T_{\text{hot,out}} - T_{\text{cold,in}}}{T_{\text{hot,in}} - T_{\text{cold,in}}},

where T_{\text{hot,in}} and T_{\text{hot,out}} are the inlet and outlet temperatures on the hot side, and T_{\text{cold,in}} is the inlet temperature on the cold side; high values of \eta_{\text{reg}} (approaching 0.95 or more) are essential for near-ideal cycle efficiency. Stirling engines incorporating advanced regenerators find applications in micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP) systems for residential use, where they convert natural gas or biomass heat into electricity and usable hot water with overall efficiencies exceeding 90% when accounting for both outputs.^[62] In space power generation, NASA has developed free-piston Stirling convertors for radioisotope systems, leveraging regenerators to achieve reliable, long-duration operation in deep-space missions with minimal mass.^[63] However, challenges persist, particularly pressure drops in porous regenerator matrices, which can reduce net power output by increasing pumping losses; numerical analyses show these drops are pronounced during oscillatory flows, necessitating optimized geometries like sintered metals to balance heat transfer and fluid friction.

Industrial and Emerging Uses

In industrial processes, economizers play a crucial role in waste heat recovery, particularly in high-temperature sectors like cement production and steel manufacturing. In cement kilns, economizers capture heat from clinker cooling air (typically 350–900°F) and exhaust gases (300–500°F) to preheat combustion air or generate steam, enhancing overall plant efficiency without requiring advanced R&D.^[64] Similarly, in steel mills, finned-tube economizers recover heat from exhaust gases in blast furnaces (1,950–2,050°F) and electric arc furnaces (1,000–1,800°F), with mini-mills achieving up to 35% recovery of heat input through integration with organic Rankine cycles.^[64] For processes involving drying ovens, such as in food manufacturing or coatings applications, economizers utilize clean exhaust gases (300–600°F) to preheat process air or boiler feedwater, recovering sensible and latent heat to support energy-efficient operations.^[64] Emerging applications of economizers extend to data center cooling and renewable energy systems. In data centers, water-side economizers use condenser water loops to directly cool chilled water, bypassing mechanical chillers during favorable outdoor conditions and reducing cooling energy demands by up to 50% in temperate climates.^[65] For low-grade heat sources, economizers integrate with organic Rankine cycles (ORCs) in geothermal and biomass plants, where they preheat working fluids from exhaust streams, contributing to cycle efficiencies of 10–25% depending on heat source temperature.^[66] Innovations in economizer design address challenging environments, such as high humidity. Post-2015 developments in membrane-based energy recovery ventilators enable selective transfer of heat and moisture across semi-permeable membranes, achieving annual HVAC energy savings of 18–49% in humid climates like Miami through zone-level integration in variable air volume systems.^[67] In smart factories, AI-optimized controls enhance economizer performance by analyzing real-time sensor data from IoT devices to dynamically match loads, monitor waste heat losses, and implement recovery strategies, thereby improving overall energy efficiency in manufacturing processes.^[68] Case studies illustrate practical benefits in specialized sectors. In hybrid vehicles, exhaust gas heat recovery systems function as automotive economizers by capturing waste heat to accelerate engine warm-up and support cabin heating, improving fuel economy by reducing cold-start inefficiencies and lowering emissions.^[69] In petrochemical plants, boiler economizers recover flue gas heat to preheat feedwater, yielding 5–10% fuel savings with a typical payback period of two years, as demonstrated in refining operations where energy costs constitute a major expense.^[70]

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Design flexibility allows specific engineering requirements to be met such as fin spacing for fouling conditions and low gas pressure drops. COMBUSTION SOURCES.
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(PDF) Thermoeconomic optimization of the pinch point and gas-side ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Design variables optimized in this article are pinch point and gas-side velocity. Optimization is carried out based on two different objective ...
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[PDF] Boiler Stack Gas Heat Recovery - DTIC
the economizer feedwater temperature must be, on the average, no lower than. 20 to 50 OF below the acid dewpoint. Figure 19 illustrates the minimum.
[17]
Economizer - Wikipedia
Economizers (US and Oxford spelling), or economisers (UK), are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform useful function such ...Boilers · Power plants · HVAC · Refrigeration
[18]
Common Maintenance Issues for Economizer
Fireside corrosion is caused by soot, sulfur corrosion, poor maintenance, and deviating from boiler operating procedures. Waterside corrosion happens due to ...
[19]
The History of the Steam-Generating Boiler and Industry
They were the first to patent their boiler design, which used tubes inside a firebrick-walled structure to generate steam, in 1867, and they formed Babcock & ...
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B&W History of Power Production - Babcock & Wilcox
With a patent awarded in 1856 (S. Wilcox and O.M. Stillman), George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox joined forces to design and market a boiler that increased ...
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Economiser Tubes - Eriger
Since the introduction of Steel “H-Finned” tubes in the 1950's, this product has been widely adopted throughout the industry as it has the ideal heating ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
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(DOC) Chapter-2 History of supercritical boilers - Academia.edu
The chapter examines the historical development of supercritical boilers, highlighting significant advancements from the late 1800s onwards.
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ASME SA210 A1 Tubes, ASTM A210 Grade A1 Carbon Steel Tubing
It is known for its strength, heat resistance, and ability to withstand high pressure and temperature, making it ideal for power and thermal plant applications.
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What is the Temperature Range of SA210 Boiler Tube? - Knowledge
Jul 25, 2024 · SA210 boiler tubes can withstand temperatures up to 1000°F (538°C), making them suitable for use in high-temperature environments.
[25]
Condensing Economisers | PPT - Slideshare
Initial units installed in the 1980's and 1990's has sulphur induced corrosion which is a stigma carried even today. This is not an issue with natural gas fired ...
[26]
The Clean Air Act and the Economy | US EPA
Peer-reviewed studies show that the Act has been a good economic investment for America. Since 1970, cleaner air and a growing economy have gone hand in hand.
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Economizer Optimization with Reinforcement Learning: An Industry ...
We introduce a reinforcement learning (RL) approach that adaptively controls the economizer based on the unique characteristics of individual facilities.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[28]
Power plant efficiency since 1900 - Visualizing Energy
Jul 24, 2023 · The average efficiency of a thermal power plant using fossil fuels in the United States increased from about 4% in 1900 to 439% in 2023.Missing: trends 2020s
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[PDF] Advanced Technology Combined Cycles - Oregon State University
The GE advanced technology combined cycles promise improved economics of electric power generation with outstanding environmental performance in natural gas ...
[30]
None
Summary of each segment:
[31]
[PDF] Coal-Fired Power Plant Heat Rate Reductions
Jan 22, 2009 · This report covers coal-fired power plant heat rate reductions, including boiler operation with new heat transfer surface and lowering air ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
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How Overcycling Induces Economizer Tube Failures
Feb 4, 2013 · Many of these plants have since split the HP and LP sections of the header to reduce thermal stresses during cycling. Unbalanced economizer ...
[33]
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-08/documents/coalfired.pdf
[34]
Best Practices for Air-Side Economizers Operation and Maintenance
An air-side economizer is a duct and damper arrangement with a control system that enables the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system to use ...
[35]
[PDF] The Coil Run-Around Cycle - Trane
The coil run-around cycle has two important advantages over all other air-to-air heat recovery equipment. They are: 1. Remote locations of exhaust air outlet ...
[36]
Use an Air-Side Economizer | ENERGY STAR
An air-side economizer (see Figure 1 below) brings cool air from outdoors into a building and distributes it to the servers.
[37]
Run Around Coils
Heat recovery run around coils are designed for a closed-loop water/glycol circuit, to recover heat from building extract ventilation systems and preheat ...
[38]
[PDF] Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise ... - ASHRAE
This addendum modifies heat pump efficiency requirements, including heating duty, 17°F rating, and new AHRI standards, for the energy standard for buildings.
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HVAC Economizers: Cut Costs & Boost Energy Efficiency
Mar 8, 2025 · Learn how HVAC economizers reduce energy costs by 20-30%, improve ... economizer strategies that yield the highest energy savings. This ...
[40]
A Case Study of Energy Savings by using the Water-Side ...
Oct 10, 2011 · This paper presents the feasibility study of the implementation of a water-side economizer system in a large existing office building in ...
[41]
[PDF] Airside Economizers and ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013 - Trane
May 20, 2015 · An economizer will be required because the building is located in climate zone 4A and the cooling capacity is greater than. 54,000 Btu/hr (15.8 ...
[42]
[PDF] Keeping Cool with Outdoor Air: Airside Economizers - Trane
On the other hand, an airside economizer does not impact heating energy when used with a dual-fan, dual-duct VAV system because outdoor air enters the system ...
[43]
The Energy-Saving Potential of Air-Side Economisers in Modular ...
The energy savings ranged from 40% to 50% depending on the influence from the climate. The energy savings in moderate climates were the most fruitful. Air-side ...2.3. Modelled Heat Loads And... · 3. Simulation Results And... · 3.2. Simulation Results For...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
[PDF] Energy Savings and Economics of Advanced Control Strategies for ...
Advanced controls can achieve 24-35% energy and 38% cost savings. Multi-speed fan control and DCV are key. Even 50% retrofitting could save 55 trillion Btus.
[45]
US5692389A - Flash tank economizer - Google Patents
Tests have shown that the two step expansion process allows for about a 15% to 20% increase in compressor capacity and a 5% to 10% improvement in system ...
[46]
Using an Economizer in Centrifugal Compressor Chiller Cycles
Sep 18, 2020 · Physically an economizer is basically a tank, a flash tank, effectively separating vapor from the liquid refrigerant. It's this vapor ...
[47]
[PDF] Improved Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles - Purdue e-Pubs
Another option is to combine a vapour injected compressor with a flash tank to establish a further improved economized cycle because of the lower cost of the ...
[48]
[PDF] Transient Behaviour of Economizers for Multi-Stage Refrigeration ...
In two-stage systems, vessels that combine flash-gas removal and intercooling are commonly used. The disadvantage of these vessels is the large amount of ...
[49]
Refrigerant system with economizer, intercooler and multi-stage ...
A refrigerant system is provided with a multi-stage compression system. An intercooler is positioned between at least two compression stages to cool a ...
[50]
[PDF] Energy Efficiency Opportunities in Industrial Refrigeration Systems
The flash gas generated (saturated vapor at state 6) in the throttling process returns to the low-stage or booster compressor working between the lowest ...
[51]
[PDF] Evaluation Of Subcooling Control In Residential Heat Pumps ...
Subcooling control regulates the expansion device, improving both cooling and heating performance in residential heat pumps. This study showed +4.1% and +6.2% ...
[52]
[PDF] Internal Heat Exchanger Performance Quantification and ...
Jul 14, 2016 · The focus of this paper is the evaluation of test methods commonly used for quantification and comparison of the performance of internal heat ...Missing: (T_subcool - T_cond) / T_cond) source
[53]
[PDF] Modeling of an Ultra-Low Temperature Refrigeration System for ...
This work examines five multi-stage compressor cascade cycles, each with its economizer configuration, with the refrigerants selected to be propane (R290) and ...
[54]
[PDF] Stirling Engines - HAL-UPHF
Jul 8, 2022 · Stirling engines were invented in 1816 by Robert Stirling. The regenerator is a key part of their performance, economizing heat for the working ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
The Influence of Working Fluid on Stirling Engine Performance
Most developed Stirling engines work better when charged with helium than with air due to its lower viscosity and higher thermal conductivity.
[56]
Review on solar Stirling engine: Development and performance
The maximum thermal efficiency reported for the dish-Stirling system is 32% at an absorber temperature of 850 K for the concentration ratio of 1300.
[57]
Regenerator Simple Analysis (updated 1/17/2010)
Jan 17, 2010 · Thus we see that for highly effective regenerators (close to ε = 1) a 1% reduction in regenerator effectiveness results in a more than 5% ...
[58]
A review of Stirling-engine-based combined heat and power ...
Jul 15, 2021 · This paper presents a comprehensive review of Stirling-engine CHP in terms of different heat sources, tri-generation systems, status of commercial development
[59]
[PDF] Overview of Free-Piston Stirling Engine Techology for Space Power ...
Free-piston Stirling technology is applicable for both solar and nuclear powered systems. As such, the NASA Lewis Research Cen- ter serves as the project office ...
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[PDF] Industrial Waste Heat Recovery: Potential Applications, Available ...
Dec 25, 2014 · economizers. •. Drying, curing, and baking ovens. •. Waste steam reclamation. •. Brick kilns (secondary recovery). •. Reverberatory furnaces ...
[61]
Consider Water-Side Economizers | ENERGY STAR
Water side economizers save enormous amounts of energy because they cool water without operating the mechanical chiller.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[62]
ORC waste heat recovery - Turboden
Turboden's Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems enable efficient waste heat recovery ... High cycle efficiency up to 25%. Heat input from gaseous, liquid and ...
[63]
The energy saving potentials of zone-level membrane-based ...
Dec 15, 2015 · Min and Su [5] investigated the effects of the outdoor air humidity and temperature on the performance of a membrane-based energy recovery ...
[64]
Unleashing AI and IoT for Enhanced Energy Efficiency in Smart ...
IoT sensors and AI algorithms can monitor waste heat, vibration, and other forms of energy loss, guiding factories to implement energy recovery solutions that ...
[65]
Development of Effective Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery System for a ...
30-day returnsApr 11, 2011 · More efficient thermal management systems are required to improve the fuel economy in the hybrid electric vehicles because of the driving of ...Missing: automotive economizers
[66]
[PDF] Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for ...
Energy is a major cost in the petrochemical industry. Opportunities exist to reduce energy consumption at individual plants, with many measures described.<|control11|><|separator|>