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Ele.me

Ele.me (: 饿了么; : Èle mé), founded in 2008 in by Mark Zhang and Jack Kang, is a prominent online platform specializing in on-demand and local services. Acquired fully by Holding Limited in April 2018 for US$9.5 billion after prior investments totaling around 43% ownership, Ele.me integrates with Alibaba's broader ecosystem, including synergies with platforms like Koubei for enhanced local commerce capabilities. Operating across more than 2,000 cities in , Ele.me facilitates instant delivery of meals from over 1.3 million partnered restaurants to a user base exceeding 260 million, leveraging a vast network of riders for rapid fulfillment. As part of Alibaba's local segment, it has expanded beyond to include groceries and other perishables, contributing to daily order volumes that, combined with affiliated instant commerce features like Flash Buy, surpassed 80 million in mid-2025. In 's intensely competitive market, valued at over US$260 billion in 2024, Ele.me commands roughly 33% share as of that year, positioning it as the primary challenger to dominant rival amid ongoing subsidy-driven price wars. The platform's growth has not been without challenges, including regulatory scrutiny over rider working conditions, such as disputes and risks highlighted by incidents like rider fatalities, prompting Ele.me to formalize wage and contracts in 2023. Recent internal issues, including a 2025 police investigation into former CEO Han Liu for alleged corruption, underscore operational pressures in the model underpinning its logistics. Despite these, Ele.me's scale and Alibaba backing have solidified its role in transforming urban consumption patterns through efficient, tech-enabled delivery infrastructure.

History

Founding and Early Growth (2008–2014)

Ele.me was founded in September 2008 by Zhang Xuhao and Kang Jia, graduate students in at Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Minhang Campus. The platform originated as a campus-focused initiative to address students' reluctance to leave dormitories for meals, initially operating as a trial service connecting local restaurants with university users via a simple website for food ordering and delivery. Headquartered in , the name "Ele.me" derives from the Chinese phrase "e le ma," translating to "Are you hungry?," reflecting its core proposition of convenient on-demand food access. By 2009, Ele.me expanded beyond the campus to broader operations, shifting from basic group-buying elements to a dedicated online ordering system tailored for the sector. This pivot capitalized on growing penetration and urban demand for quick meals, with the platform aggregating restaurant menus and coordinating freelance or partner couriers for last-mile delivery. Early challenges included manual order processing and unreliable delivery networks, but the service gained traction among white-collar workers and students in 's dense urban environment. Expansion accelerated in the early 2010s as Ele.me secured initial venture funding, including a $5 million investment from in 2012, enabling entry into additional Chinese cities beyond . By late 2013, the company employed around 300 staff, focusing on technology improvements like to streamline user interfaces and order tracking. In May 2014, Ele.me raised $80 million from Dianping, a leading local review platform, which supported further scaling of its merchant partnerships and courier fleet amid intensifying competition in the nascent online-to-offline (O2O) market. Employee numbers surged to over 5,000 by year-end 2014, driven by rapid order volume growth in tier-1 and emerging tier-2 cities.

Expansion Challenges and Partnerships (2015–2017)

In 2015, Ele.me grappled with intensifying competition from -Dianping in China's burgeoning online sector, marked by aggressive price wars and battles that strained financial resources. Meituan outspent Ele.me on monthly subsidies—RMB 200 million compared to Ele.me's RMB 100 million—driving user acquisition but exacerbating losses as both platforms prioritized volume over margins amid rapid . Expansion efforts focused on scaling to additional cities and digitizing supply chains, yet challenges included logistical bottlenecks in networks and industry-wide issues, such as foodborne outbreaks that heightened regulatory scrutiny from 2015 to 2017. Strategic partnerships provided critical support for growth. In January 2015, Ele.me raised $350 million from Holdings and Sequoia Capital China, funding operational expansion despite 's later rivalry through backing. A turning point came in April 2016 with a $1.25 billion investment from and Ant Financial Services, valuing Ele.me at $4.5 billion and facilitating integration to resolve prior payment inefficiencies, thereby enhancing transaction reliability and user trust. By , Alibaba deepened its commitment with an additional approximately $1 billion infusion, pushing Ele.me's valuation to $5.5–6 billion and enabling market consolidation. In , Ele.me acquired 's Waimai platform for around $800 million, a move backed by Alibaba and Baidu for shared technology, customer resources, and initiatives, aimed at countering Meituan's dominance. Despite these alliances yielding 6 billion orders and 260 million users by year-end, profitability evaded Ele.me due to sustained outlays and scaling costs, while overseas ambitions were postponed owing to multifaceted operational hurdles.

Full Acquisition by Alibaba Group (2018)

In February 2018, Alibaba Group entered discussions to acquire full control of Ele.me, following its prior minority investment. On April 2, 2018, Alibaba announced it would purchase all remaining outstanding shares of the company that it did not already own, thereby achieving complete ownership. The transaction valued Ele.me at an enterprise level of $9.5 billion, though Alibaba did not disclose the exact cash amount paid for the remaining stake, which was conducted entirely in cash. Prior to the deal, Alibaba and its affiliate held about 43% of Ele.me through a $1.25 billion investment completed in August 2016. The acquisition included buying out shares from other investors, such as , which had held a minority position. The deal was completed on , 2018, consolidating Ele.me under Alibaba's control to enhance its "new retail" strategy, particularly in delivery and local services integration with platforms like Koubei. This full ownership positioned Ele.me as a key asset in Alibaba's competition against rivals like Dianping in China's sector.

Post-Acquisition Evolution and Recent Milestones (2019–Present)

Following the full acquisition by in 2018, Ele.me deepened its integration into the parent company's ecosystem, leveraging synergies with platforms like for seamless payments and for enhanced data processing and logistics optimization. This period saw Ele.me expand its on-demand delivery beyond food to include groceries and local services, contributing to Alibaba's "New Retail" strategy by bridging commerce. By fiscal year 2024 (ending March 2024), Ele.me achieved strong year-over-year order growth while progressively narrowing operational losses, driven by and improved efficiency in its delivery network. In early 2025, Alibaba restructured its operations by absorbing Ele.me from its standalone local services unit into the core business group, alongside , , and Fliggy, as part of a broader shift away from siloed segments. This integration, announced in June 2025, aimed to foster a unified "instant " platform combining , quick commerce, travel booking, and to streamline user experiences and boost cross-service adoption. The move aligned with Alibaba's emphasis on rapid delivery models, where Ele.me's capabilities supported same-hour fulfillment for diverse categories. Key milestones in 2025 included the rapid scaling of Alibaba's quick commerce initiatives, with Ele.me and Taobao's Shangou flash sales collectively surpassing 60 million daily orders by mid-year, of which Ele.me contributed over 20 million. In May 2025, the instant commerce ecosystem crossed 40 million daily orders within one month of enhanced rollout, reflecting heightened demand for services amid competitive pressures in China's delivery market. Alibaba's first-quarter fiscal 2026 earnings (reported August 2025) highlighted robust growth in this segment, attributing gains to Ele.me's expanded role in AI-driven and user-first integrations post-merger. These developments positioned Ele.me as a cornerstone of Alibaba's domestic revival, focusing on high-frequency, low-margin transactions to capture from rivals like .

Business Model and Operations

Core Services and Revenue Mechanisms

Ele.me's primary service is an online platform for food ordering and delivery, enabling users to browse and select meals from nearby restaurants via its mobile application and website, with fulfillment handled through a network of partnered delivery riders. The platform has expanded beyond core takeout to encompass instant delivery of groceries, daily essentials, and other local lifestyle services, including new retail integrations and flash delivery options powered by autonomous technologies such as robot deployments in select urban areas. These services leverage Ele.me's logistics infrastructure to provide rapid, on-demand fulfillment, often within minutes for proximity-based orders. Revenue generation relies predominantly on commissions extracted from merchants, typically ranging from 5% to 25% of each order's value, depending on factors such as restaurant size, location, and promotional agreements. Additional income streams include delivery fees charged to consumers, which cover rider dispatch and logistics costs, and advertising fees paid by merchants for enhanced visibility, such as prioritized listing placements or sponsored promotions within the app. Offline advertising partnerships and value-added services, like catering supply chain support, further contribute, though platform-wide profitability has historically been challenged by aggressive subsidies and competitive pricing to capture market share. In response to regulatory directives, Ele.me has adjusted commission structures, including temporary reductions during economic pressures like the COVID-19 pandemic, to comply with caps on platform fees.

Delivery Network and Logistics

Ele.me operates one of the world's largest crowdsourced delivery networks, relying on approximately 4 million registered riders across to handle last-mile for and on-demand services. Riders, primarily independent contractors, use a dedicated to receive order assignments, with algorithms calculating optimal routes based on factors like , distance, and delivery windows to enable typical 30-minute fulfillment times. This network supports high-volume operations, processing millions of daily orders through a decentralized model that stations riders at local hubs for efficient pickup from restaurants and merchants. Logistics efficiency is enhanced by integration with Alibaba Group's ecosystem following the 2018 full acquisition, allowing Ele.me's rider fleet to serve as a backbone for broader instant initiatives, including same-day deliveries for and other platforms. In June 2025, Alibaba merged Ele.me into its core unit, streamlining coordination and reducing costs by leveraging the platform's scale for cross-service fulfillment, such as combining orders with grocery or items. The system emphasizes for and inventory management at partner locations, minimizing delays in urban and suburban areas where coverage is densest. Technological advancements include AI-driven tools introduced in 2025, such as voice-activated assistants for riders to handle and order updates hands-free, deployed on AI-powered electric bikes equipped with sensors for route optimization and safety monitoring. These features aim to boost rider productivity amid competition, with the platform reporting expanded welfare benefits like social coverage extended to over 3 million couriers by 2023 to support retention in a gig-economy model. Challenges persist in peak-hour , where rider limits per —typically around 30 individuals handling up to 26 orders each—can constrain throughput in high-density zones.

Technology and Innovations

Platform Features and User Experience

Ele.me's mobile application and website enable users to search for nearby restaurants, browse menus with detailed images and descriptions, customize orders, and complete transactions via integrated payment systems like Alipay or WeChat Pay. The platform's interface prioritizes simplicity, with categorized listings by cuisine, price range, and delivery time estimates, facilitating quick selections even for first-time users. A core feature is order tracking, which displays the progression from preparation to rider dispatch and arrival, leveraging GPS integration for estimated times updated dynamically based on traffic and logistics data. This system, enhanced by providing enriched details such as store preparation times and route conditions, contributes to and reduces uncertainty in the delivery process. Personalization drives user engagement through a machine learning-based recommendation engine that analyzes past orders, preferences, and browsing history to suggest tailored restaurants, dishes, and promotions, reportedly achieving high accuracy in matching user tastes. In June 2025, Ele.me introduced AI-driven simplifications for elderly users, including voice-assisted ordering and enlarged interface elements, to broaden amid China's aging population. Delivery efficiency forms a key aspect of the , with third-generation dispatch systems deployed in January 2024 reducing average peak-hour times by 15% through optimized routing and rider allocation. Expansions into 24/7 services, initially for pharmaceuticals in cities like and since November 2018, extend availability beyond standard meals, supporting half-hour deliveries for urgent needs. Recent integrations with Alibaba's Flash Sale, rolled out in May 2025 across 50 cities, allow bundled ordering of food, groceries, and items with unified tracking, streamlining experiences. These features collectively emphasize speed, , and reliability, though user satisfaction can vary with peak-demand surges and regional coverage.

AI and Automation Advancements

Ele.me utilizes AI-driven algorithms for dynamic route optimization in its logistics network, processing on , weather patterns, and courier performance to shorten times and minimize rider downtime. These systems integrate with Alibaba's broader technological infrastructure to enhance predictive dispatching and . In June 2025, Ele.me launched Xiaoe, a rider-focused assistant powered by large models, which supports voice-activated commands for tasks including acceptance, arrival confirmations at merchants, and route navigation. Xiaoe analyzes riders' locations, statuses, and external factors like to deliver proactive notifications, reducing manual interactions and operational errors. The tool employs for multi-modal interactions, marking a shift toward intelligent augmentation of human labor in high-volume delivery environments. Ele.me has pursued through unmanned vehicles to address last-mile challenges. In October 2017, it introduced wheeled delivery robots in office buildings to meals directly to recipients' desks, bypassing elevators and corridors. Regulatory clearance for operations followed in May 2018, enabling initial food deliveries via unmanned aerial vehicles in 's Jinshan , with plans to automate 70% of routes through hybrid human- models. During the early 2020 outbreak, Ele.me deployed robots for contactless deliveries to quarantined hotel guests, prioritizing hygiene in restricted-access scenarios. In May 2025, the platform stationed six Unitree humanoid robots at commercial sites to showcase flash delivery capabilities, though primarily for promotional rather than routine operational use. These initiatives reflect ongoing pilots in , constrained by urban regulations and scalability issues, yet aimed at reducing dependency on human couriers in dense areas. To broaden user adoption, Ele.me incorporated interfaces in June 2025 tailored for elderly customers, simplifying order placement through voice and to counter barriers in an aging population. Such advancements position Ele.me competitively against rivals like , emphasizing efficiency gains amid intensifying market pressures.

Market Position and Competition

Competitive Landscape with

Meituan has maintained a dominant position in China's food delivery market, holding approximately 65-70% as of 2024-2025, while Ele.me trails with 30-33%. This duopoly reflects broader ecosystem rivalries, with Alibaba-backed Ele.me competing against Tencent-influenced , which emerged from the 2015 merger of and Dianping. Meituan's advantages include a denser merchant network, more efficient rider allocation, and higher user retention through like group buying and local services, enabling it to process up to 150 million daily orders. The competition has historically involved aggressive subsidy-driven price wars, notably in 2017 and intensifying again in , where platforms offered near-zero-cost items like milk tea to attract users and riders. These tactics led to combined losses exceeding $4 billion in the first three months of alone, pressuring margins and prompting merchant complaints over unsustainable commissions. Ele.me has countered by integrating with Alibaba's for flash sales and expanding into instant retail, briefly surpassing in overall on-demand delivery volume in mid- through high-volume promotions like 1 million daily tea cups. However, 's scale in core remains unchallenged, with projections estimating its share at 75% of gross transaction value by 2030. Regulatory scrutiny has shaped the landscape, with authorities in May and July 2025 warning against and urging fair competition, leading platforms including Ele.me and to publicly commit to ending extreme subsidies. Ele.me's June 2025 integration into Alibaba's core unit aims to leverage synergies with platforms like , but analysts note 's entrenched logistics and user base continue to hinder Ele.me's market penetration. Despite Ele.me's innovations in user incentives, 's operational efficiencies—such as superior rider-side algorithms—sustain its lead, though both face risks from entrants like escalating the subsidy cycle.

Market Share Dynamics and Strategies

In the market, Ele.me maintained a secondary position with approximately 33% as of 2024, compared to Meituan's dominant 65%. This duopoly structure persisted despite Ele.me's full into Alibaba's following the 2018 acquisition, with limited erosion of Meituan's lead until intensified in 2025. Market share dynamics shifted in mid-2025 amid a subsidy-fueled price war, where Ele.me, alongside Alibaba's Taobao Instant Commerce, reported combined daily orders exceeding 80 million, including over 13 million non-restaurant items, signaling gains in broader on-demand delivery beyond core food services. Ele.me's aggressive investments contributed to temporary share increases, particularly in instant retail segments, though Meituan retained overall food delivery dominance projected at 75% gross transaction value by 2030. Regulators intervened in May 2025 by summoning Ele.me, Meituan, and JD.com, citing concerns over unsustainable "race to the bottom" pricing that strained profitability across platforms. Ele.me's strategies emphasized consumer subsidies, such as widespread free drink promotions and reduced delivery fees, to boost daily and order volume in competition with . The platform also pursued ecosystem synergies by integrating with Alibaba's for instant commerce expansion and leveraging data-driven optimizations for nighttime deliveries, which grew 17% year-over-year in 2024. incentives, including zero-commission trials introduced by competitors and mirrored by Ele.me, aimed to attract restaurants amid the feud, though such tactics incurred significant losses estimated at tens of billions of yuan collectively for Alibaba, , and over 12-18 months. These approaches prioritized short-term volume growth over margins, reflecting Alibaba's broader push into local services despite regulatory scrutiny.

Controversies and Criticisms

Labor Practices and Driver Treatment

Delivery drivers for Ele.me, primarily classified as independent contractors through third-party agencies rather than direct employees, often lack access to standard labor protections such as guarantees, paid , or comprehensive . This structure, common in China's , exposes workers to variable earnings influenced heavily by platform that assign orders and impose tight deadlines, frequently requiring drivers to work 12-16 hours daily to meet thresholds amid intense . Reports indicate average monthly earnings for Ele.me drivers hovered around 4,000-6,000 RMB (approximately $600-900 USD) in areas as of 2020, though deductions for , fees, and algorithm penalties could reduce take-home pay significantly. Algorithmic management has drawn for prioritizing over , compelling drivers to navigate recklessly to avoid penalties for late deliveries, which contributed to elevated rates; a 2020 investigation revealed drivers facing deactivation for delays even during adverse weather or peak hours. Labor unrest manifested in strikes across multiple cities, including coordinated actions by Ele.me and drivers in early 2019 protesting post-Lunar New Year pay reductions of up to 20%, and further demonstrations in 2021 over similar wage disputes. A stark incident occurred on January 10, 2021, when a 43-year-old Ele.me driver in Province, self-immolated outside a local office to the denial of approximately 5,000 RMB (about $770 USD) in owed wages, prompting public outrage and Ele.me's initial offer of only 2,000 RMB in compensation before increasing it to 600,000 RMB following backlash. In response to mounting pressures, including a viral September 2020 People Magazine exposé detailing drivers' grueling routines and algorithmic oppression, Chinese regulators issued guidelines in 2021 mandating platforms provide minimum wage assurances, rest periods, and greater algorithmic transparency. Ele.me pledged compliance by September 2021, committing not to coerce drivers into low-coverage social insurance registrations and allowing more flexibility in order acceptance and route planning, though implementation has been uneven, with drivers reporting persistent pay volatility and limited enforcement. Independent analyses suggest these reforms addressed some overt exploitation but failed to fundamentally alter the contractor model, leaving many drivers without substantive bargaining power or accident insurance, as platforms shifted risks onto workers while maintaining profit-driven metrics.

Regulatory Violations and Legal Disputes

In May 2021, Shanghai's market regulation authority fined Ele.me RMB 500,000 (approximately US$77,000) for violating rules by using misleading pricing tactics to induce transactions and failing to verify the licensing status of restaurants on its platform, which compromised standards. Ele.me has been embroiled in multiple lawsuits with rival Meituan alleging unfair competition practices, particularly around exclusive merchant deals and promotional tactics. In April 2021, a court in Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, ordered Ele.me to pay Meituan RMB 80,000 in compensation for unfair competition related to merchant inducements, while in a separate ruling, Meituan was required to compensate Ele.me RMB 352,000 for similar violations. By late 2021, Ele.me prevailed in an unfair competition suit against Meituan, securing judicial relief under China's Anti-Unfair Competition Law for practices that restricted merchant options. These disputes highlight reciprocal accusations of coercive bundling and below-cost subsidies to lock in merchants, though courts have imposed modest penalties without broader structural remedies. Alibaba's acquisition of a controlling stake in Ele.me, completed in 2018 and formalized in 2019, drew scrutiny under China's Anti-Monopoly Law for failing to report the transaction to the (SAMR). In November 2021, SAMR imposed a RMB 500,000 fine on Alibaba for this unreported concentration, part of a larger enforcement action against 43 unreported deals by major tech firms, citing risks of reduced competition in local services. In 2025, SAMR summoned Ele.me, alongside and , to discuss curbing aggressive price wars and subsidies in the sector, emphasizing orderly competition to avoid market distortions; while not resulting in immediate penalties, the meetings underscored ongoing regulatory pressure on platform pricing behaviors. No major antitrust fines have been levied directly on Ele.me to date, unlike competitor 's RMB 3.44 billion penalty in 2021 for dominance , though Ele.me's with Alibaba's has invited parallel oversight.

Environmental and Ethical Concerns

Ele.me's delivery operations have drawn scrutiny for their substantial environmental footprint, particularly in carbon emissions and plastic waste generation. In 2019, urban takeaway deliveries across , dominated by platforms such as Ele.me and its competitor , accounted for 1.67 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent emissions from 13.07 billion orders, with transportation comprising the largest share due to reliance on motorized vehicles like electric scooters and motorcycles. On average, each express order generates approximately 111.80 grams of CO₂ equivalent, where 86% stems from delivery rather than or . Single-use from Ele.me orders exacerbates , as China's online sector produced 1.6 million tons of such in 2017—a ninefold rise from prior years—much of which ends up in landfills or incinerators due to inadequate . Studies analyzing Ele.me user data from 2019–2020 highlight how app-driven convenience incentivizes excessive , contributing to broader leakage into ecosystems. In response, Ele.me has implemented measures like promoting "no tableware" options, which reached 1.3 billion orders by November , thereby reducing use and associated emissions by an estimated 58,000 tons of CO₂ equivalent through mid-. The platform also launched a low-carbon points system in to reward users for eco-friendly choices and optimizes routes to cut distances by over 20%, aiding Alibaba Group's broader emission reductions of 5% in operational CO₂ for the year ended March 2024. However, these voluntary efforts occur against a backdrop of industry-wide growth that continues to amplify absolute environmental harms, raising questions about the efficacy of self-regulation in curbing systemic externalities. Ethically, Ele.me faces criticism for a that prioritizes rapid scalability and user convenience, potentially at the expense of long-term societal costs from and , though platform-specific ethical lapses beyond environmental externalization remain less documented compared to labor or regulatory issues. Initiatives like partnerships with the for sustainable consumption, announced in September 2025, aim to address these tensions but have been viewed skeptically by observers questioning corporate incentives amid profit-driven expansion.

Economic and Social Impact

Contributions to China's Delivery Economy

Ele.me, launched in as an platform, played a pivotal role in establishing and scaling China's modern delivery ecosystem by integrating mobile apps with logistics networks, enabling rapid nationwide expansion of services. This innovation shifted consumer behavior toward convenient, app-based ordering, catalyzing the sector's transformation from localized services to a dominant pillar, with the overall market reaching approximately 1.6 trillion in by 2024. Ele.me's early adoption of digital payment integrations, such as with , facilitated seamless transactions and reduced barriers for users, contributing to the market's exceeding 20% in prior years before stabilizing around 10-15% post-2020. A core contribution lies in job creation within the , where Ele.me supports around 4 million delivery riders as of 2025, providing flexible income opportunities amid manufacturing slowdowns and property sector contraction since 2019. Together with competitor , these platforms employ over 11 million riders, absorbing displaced workers and generating billions in aggregate earnings—such as Meituan's riders alone earning 80 billion (about $11.3 billion) in 2023—while Ele.me's operations similarly sustain rider incomes through high-volume . This workforce expansion has democratized access to urban logistics roles, particularly for rural migrants, bolstering household incomes in a labor market strained by and economic rebalancing. Ele.me further empowered small and medium-sized merchants by connecting them to broader bases without requiring physical investments, allowing thousands of eateries to scale operations via platform listings and data-driven inventory management. Its rivalry with drove infrastructural investments in rider stations and routing algorithms, reducing average times by up to 25% -wide between 2016 and 2019 through algorithmic optimization and fleet scaling. These efficiencies not only lowered operational costs for businesses but also embedded as a resilient economic , exemplified by sustained during the when platforms handled essential goods distribution at peak volumes exceeding hundreds of millions of daily orders across the sector. Overall, Ele.me's model has underpinned the economy's maturation into a multi-hundred-billion-dollar , projected to surpass USD 197 billion by 2033, by fostering integration and consumer reliance on instantaneous fulfillment.

Broader Societal Effects and Debates

Ele.me's expansion has profoundly influenced urban lifestyles in by fostering a culture of on-demand convenience, enabling millions of consumers to integrate seamlessly into daily routines, particularly among workers and students who increasingly forgo traditional dining experiences. This shift has reduced social interactions associated with communal meals, contributing to more isolated eating patterns amid busy schedules, while platforms like Ele.me prioritize speed and variety over nutritional balance, potentially exacerbating challenges such as and dietary deficiencies in densely populated cities. On a macroeconomic level, Ele.me has bolstered China's , absorbing over 8 million delivery couriers by 2020 alongside competitors, providing flexible employment opportunities for rural-urban migrants amid limited formal job options. However, this model has amplified societal , with approximately 200 million gig workers nationwide facing financial instability, inadequate social protections, and diminished , fueling broader discussions on the dehumanizing aspects of algorithm-driven labor that prioritize over human welfare. Debates surrounding Ele.me center on the tension between innovation-driven growth and equitable development, with critics arguing that intense platform competition—evident in the 1.6 trillion yuan delivery market as of 2025—has historically suppressed wages and safety standards, prompting small-scale worker resistances that highlight systemic vulnerabilities. Recent pledges by Ele.me and rivals to extend social insurance to full-time riders reflect regulatory pressures and competitive dynamics aimed at mitigating unrest, yet skeptics question whether such measures adequately address root causes like contractual ambiguity and over-reliance on gig work, which may perpetuate inequality without structural reforms.

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