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Electronvolt

The electronvolt (symbol: eV) is a unit of energy commonly used in physics, defined as the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single unbound electron when accelerated through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt in vacuum.^[1]^[2] This unit equals exactly 1.602176634 × 10^-19 joules.^[1] Due to its scale aligning with atomic, nuclear, and subatomic processes, the electronvolt is particularly convenient for expressing energies in particle physics, quantum mechanics, and spectroscopy, where values in joules would be impractically small.^[3]^[4] For larger energies, multiples such as kiloelectronvolt (keV; 10³ eV), megaelectronvolt (MeV; 10⁶ eV), gigaelectronvolt (GeV; 10⁹ eV), and teraelectronvolt (TeV; 10¹² eV) are employed, with the latter relevant to high-energy particle accelerators like those at Fermilab.^[4]^[2] The electronvolt also facilitates descriptions of photon energies in electromagnetic radiation and binding energies in atomic and molecular systems.^[5]

Core Concepts

Definition

The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy defined as the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single unbound electron when accelerated through an electric potential difference of one volt, in vacuum. Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this definition establishes the electronvolt as an exactly defined quantity tied to the fixed value of the elementary charge.^[6] The symbol for the unit is eV, with common multiples in scientific notation including keV ($10^3 eV), MeV ($10^6 eV), GeV ($10^9 eV), and TeV ($10^{12} eV); these are routinely employed in high-energy physics to denote energy scales spanning many orders of magnitude. This unit derives from the fundamental relation for electrostatic potential energy, E = qV, where q is the charge of the electron (the elementary charge e) and V is the potential difference. With e fixed at the exact value $1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} C and V = 1 V (where 1 V = 1 J/C), it follows that $1eV= e \times 1J/C= 1.602176634 \times 10^{-19}$ J exactly.^[7] The electronvolt provides a convenient scale for energies in atomic, nuclear, and particle physics, where typical values range from a few eV (e.g., atomic transitions) to TeV (e.g., collider experiments), far below the joule thresholds relevant to everyday macroscopic phenomena.

History

The unit of the electronvolt emerged in the early 20th century, shortly after J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, as researchers sought convenient ways to express the energies of electrons in atomic and photoelectric experiments. Robert A. Millikan played a key role in its introduction during his investigations of the photoelectric effect, where he measured the energy required to eject electrons from metals in terms of the electron's charge times a potential difference; his 1911 paper on the topic laid foundational measurements that implicitly relied on this energy scale, though the explicit term appeared in his subsequent work. The oil-drop experiment by Millikan, conducted between 1909 and 1913, further refined the value of the elementary charge e, providing the numerical basis for quantifying electron energies in volts, which influenced the unit's development in atomic physics.^[8] The term "electron-volt" was first explicitly used in scientific literature in 1925 by Ralph H. Fowler in a paper discussing electron emission from metals, where he equated one electron-volt to approximately 1.59 × 10^{-12} erg. Initially written as "electron-volt" with a hyphen, reflecting its composite nature as the energy gained by an electron accelerated through one volt, the naming evolved over the mid-20th century to the unhyphenated "electronvolt" in standard usage, particularly as atomic physics experiments proliferated. This evolution was driven by practical needs in quantifying binding energies and ionization potentials, building on Millikan's precise determination of e from oil-drop experiments. The electronvolt gained widespread adoption in particle physics following the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1929–1930, which accelerated particles to energies expressed in electronvolts, such as protons reaching 80,000 eV in early models. By the 1930s, as accelerators like the cyclotron enabled higher-energy collisions, the unit became indispensable for describing particle kinematics and interaction energies, supplanting less convenient SI units like joules in high-energy contexts. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) formalized the electronvolt as an accepted non-SI unit compatible with the International System of Units (SI) following the SI's establishment at the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960, with it first appearing in the inaugural edition of the SI Brochure in 1970.^[9]^[10] A significant milestone occurred with the 2019 revision of the SI, effective May 20, 2019, which fixed the elementary charge e exactly at 1.602176634 × 10^{-19} C, rendering the electronvolt exactly 1.602176634 × 10^{-19} J without experimental uncertainty and linking it precisely to the SI base units. This redefinition, adopted by the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures, eliminated variability in the unit's value arising from measurements of e, enhancing its stability for applications in particle physics and beyond.^[6]

Relation to SI Units

The electronvolt (eV) is precisely related to the joule (J), the SI unit of energy, by the exact conversion factor established following the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units:

$1 \, \mathrm{eV} = 1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} \, \mathrm{J}

This relation is exact because the elementary charge e is now defined as exactly $1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} \, \mathrm{C}, and the volt (V) is defined through fixed values of other fundamental constants such as the Planck constant h and the speed of light c, thereby eliminating any measurement uncertainty in the product e \times 1 \, \mathrm{V}.^[1]^[11] The inverse conversion is likewise exact:

$1 \, \mathrm{J} = \frac{1}{1.602176634 \times 10^{-19}} \, \mathrm{eV} = 6.241509074 \times 10^{18} \, \mathrm{eV}

^[12] In microscopic physical systems, such as those involving atomic or subatomic particles, the electronvolt provides a convenient scale because corresponding energies expressed in joules are impractically small. For instance, the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, equivalent to approximately $2.18 \times 10^{-18} \, \mathrm{J}, avoiding cumbersome numerical representations in calculations.^[1] The electronvolt is recognized as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the International System of Units (SI) by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). It is routinely employed in international standards, such as the CODATA recommended values for fundamental physical constants, where many quantities like particle rest masses and transition energies are tabulated in electronvolts for precision and practicality.^[11]

Connections to Physical Properties

Mass Equivalence

In special relativity, the rest energy E of a particle is related to its rest mass m by Einstein's equation E = mc^2, where c is the speed of light in vacuum, exactly $299792458 m/s.^[13] Thus, the equivalent rest mass corresponding to an energy in electronvolts can be expressed as m = E / c^2, with E in eV yielding m in eV/c^2. In particle physics, this convention is standard, where particle masses are routinely tabulated in units of eV/c^2 to directly reflect their rest energies in eV when multiplied by c^2.^[14] For the electron, the rest energy is precisely $0.51099895069(16) MeV, so its rest mass is m_e = 0.51099895069(16) MeV/c^2.^[15] To convert to SI units, note that $1 eV/c^2 = 1.782661921 \times 10^{-36} kg, derived from the elementary charge and speed of light via $1 eV = 1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} J and c^2.^[16] Thus, the electron mass is approximately $9.1093837015 \times 10^{-31} kg.^[17] The proton provides another key example, with a rest energy of $938.27208816(29) MeV, corresponding to a rest mass of $938.27208816(29) MeV/c^2 \approx 1.67262192369(51) \times 10^{-27} kg.^[14] Particle data tables, such as those from the Particle Data Group, quote masses for a wide range of fundamental particles and composites in eV/c^2, facilitating comparisons of their intrinsic energies.^[14] While the electronvolt equivalence primarily addresses rest mass for particles where the rest energy dominates, in the non-relativistic limit—where kinetic energy \ll mc^2—total energy approximates rest energy plus small kinetic contributions, but the focus here remains on the intrinsic rest mass scale.^[14]

Momentum

In the non-relativistic regime, applicable when the kinetic energy E is much smaller than the particle's rest energy m c^2, the magnitude of the momentum p is given by the formula

p = \sqrt{2 m E},

derived from the classical kinetic energy expression E = \frac{1}{2} m v^2 and the definition p = m v. For an electron (m = 9.1093837015 \times 10^{-31} kg) with E = 1 eV ($1.602176634 \times 10^{-19} J), this yields p \approx 5.40 \times 10^{-25} kg·m/s./09%3A_Relativity/9.04%3A_Relativistic_Momentum)^[18] In relativistic contexts, particularly in particle physics, momentum is commonly expressed in units of eV/c, where $1 eV/c \approx 5.344 \times 10^{-28} kg·m/s, obtained by dividing the energy equivalent of 1 eV by the speed of light c = 299792458 m/s.^[18] For higher energies where relativistic effects are significant, the momentum is calculated using the relation

p = \frac{1}{c} \sqrt{E^2 - (m c^2)^2},

with E as the total energy (kinetic energy plus rest energy m c^2). This formula reduces to the non-relativistic form when E \approx m c^2 (i.e., low speeds, v \ll c), yielding p \approx \sqrt{2 m (E - m c^2)}; in the ultra-relativistic limit where E \gg m c^2, it approximates to p \approx E / c. For an electron with 1 MeV kinetic energy (rest energy m c^2 = 0.511 MeV, total E = 1.511 MeV), the relativistic momentum is p \approx 1.422 MeV/c, whereas the non-relativistic approximation gives p \approx 1.011 MeV/c, demonstrating how relativity increases the momentum for a given kinetic energy by about 41%.^[19]^[20]^[18]

Length Scales

In quantum mechanics, the Compton wavelength serves as a fundamental length scale tied to a particle's rest mass energy, marking the regime where quantum effects become prominent in scattering processes. For a particle of rest energy E_0 = m c^2, the Compton wavelength is given by \lambda_C = \frac{h}{m c} = \frac{h c}{E_0}, while the reduced Compton wavelength, more commonly used in relativistic quantum field theory, is \bar{\lambda}_C = \frac{\hbar}{m c} = \frac{\hbar c}{E_0}. For the electron, with E_0 \approx 0.511 MeV, the reduced Compton wavelength is \bar{\lambda}_C \approx 3.8616 \times 10^{-13} m.^[21] This scale inversely relates to the rest energy in electronvolts: higher E_0 yields shorter wavelengths, reflecting the particle's quantum size. For photons, which are massless, an analogous characteristic length scale emerges from their energy E, given by l \approx \frac{\hbar c}{E}, derived from the de Broglie relation and relativistic energy-momentum equivalence E = p c, where the full wavelength is \lambda = \frac{h c}{E} = 2\pi \frac{\hbar c}{E}; this reduced scale \frac{\hbar c}{E} sets the resolution limit in high-energy interactions.^[22] The de Broglie wavelength extends this concept to moving particles, associating a wave-like length scale with their momentum p, via \lambda = \frac{h}{p}. In the non-relativistic limit, where kinetic energy K \ll m c^2, the momentum is p \approx \sqrt{2 m K}, so \lambda \approx \frac{h}{\sqrt{2 m K}}; this directly links electronvolt-scale energies to spatial extents relevant for diffraction and interference. For an electron with K = 1 eV, the de Broglie wavelength is approximately 1.23 nm, comparable to atomic spacings and thus crucial for understanding electron microscopy and low-energy scattering.^[23] At higher energies approaching the relativistic regime, the full relation p = \sqrt{E_0^2 + 2 E_0 K + K^2}/c (with total energy E_0 + K) refines this, but the inverse scaling with \sqrt{K} persists for electronvolt orders of magnitude below the rest energy. In nuclear physics, electronvolt energies connect to femtometer-scale lengths through the natural unit \hbar c \approx 197.3 MeV fm, enabling straightforward conversions between energy and distance via the characteristic scale l \approx \frac{\hbar c}{E}. This relation arises from uncertainty principle arguments, where probing a length l requires momentum p \sim \hbar / l and thus energy E \sim p c \sim \hbar c / l for relativistic particles or photons. For instance, energies around 200 MeV—common in nuclear reactions—correspond to l \approx 1 fm, matching the typical size of atomic nuclei (e.g., proton radius \sim 0.8 fm).^[22] Such scales underpin models like the liquid drop model and shell model, where MeV binding energies imply fm-dimensional wavefunctions.

Temperature Equivalence

The temperature T in kelvin corresponding to an energy E in electronvolts is given by the relation T = \frac{E}{k}, where k is the Boltzmann constant, which links thermal energy to temperature in the equipartition theorem for ideal gases and plasmas.^[24] This equivalence arises from the definition of thermal energy, where the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom for particles in thermal equilibrium is \frac{1}{2} kT, but in plasma and high-energy contexts, the characteristic energy scale is often expressed as kT for simplicity.^[24] The exact value of the Boltzmann constant, fixed by the 2019 SI redefinition, is k = 8.617333262 \times 10^{-5} eV/K.^[24] The conversion factor for 1 eV to temperature follows directly from this formula: T = \frac{1 \, \mathrm{[eV](/page/EV)}}{k} \approx 11604.525 K, derived by substituting the exact value of k into the equation, providing a precise scaling between electronvolt energies and thermal scales without additional assumptions.^[25] This relation enables straightforward interconversion; for instance, energies below 1 eV correspond to terrestrial temperatures, while keV scales reach extreme astrophysical conditions. Representative examples illustrate the scale: at room temperature of approximately 300 K, the thermal energy kT \approx 0.0259 eV, representing the typical kinetic energy of particles in ambient conditions.^[24] In contrast, the core of the Sun reaches about 15 million K (15 MK), equivalent to a thermal energy of roughly 1.3 keV, where nuclear fusion dominates due to these high energies overcoming electrostatic barriers.^[26] This equivalence is particularly relevant in astrophysics for modeling stellar interiors, where temperatures in millions of kelvin translate to keV energies driving fusion and radiative processes, and in plasma physics for characterizing hot, ionized gases in fusion devices or space environments.^[27] Additionally, it facilitates comparisons between thermal energies kT and atomic ionization potentials (typically 5–25 eV), determining the degree of thermal ionization in plasmas via the Saha equation, where kT approaching or exceeding these potentials leads to significant ionization fractions.^[28]

Wavelength

The wavelength \lambda of electromagnetic radiation corresponding to a photon of energy E is given by the relation

E = \frac{h c}{\lambda},

where h is Planck's constant and c is the speed of light in vacuum. Rearranging yields

\lambda = \frac{h c}{E},

with h c \approx 1.986 \times 10^{-25} J\cdotm derived from fundamental constants. In practical units for spectroscopy, where E is expressed in electronvolts (eV) and \lambda in nanometers (nm), this simplifies to

\lambda \approx \frac{1239.8}{E} \ \text{nm},

with E in eV; the conversion factor 1239.8 eV\cdotnm accounts for the elementary charge and unit scaling from the SI value of h c. This photon energy-wavelength relation defines key regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. For visible light, spanning photon energies of 1.65–3.1 eV, the corresponding wavelengths range from 750 nm (red) to 400 nm (violet).^[29] In the X-ray domain, energies on the order of 1 keV produce wavelengths around 1 nm, with the full soft-to-hard X-ray band extending from approximately 0.01 nm (at ~100 keV) to 10 nm (at ~0.1 keV).^[30] The ultraviolet (UV) region borders visible light at higher energies, covering 3.1 eV (400 nm) to about 124 eV (10 nm), while the infrared (IR) region extends to lower energies from 1.77 eV (700 nm) down to roughly 0.001 eV (1 mm).^[29] These boundaries highlight how electronvolt energies map to spectral domains essential for identifying material properties via photon interactions. The relation also underpins atomic spectroscopy, where the Rydberg constant ties emission line wavelengths to quantized energy differences in eV; for hydrogen, the ground-state ionization corresponds to 13.606 eV.^[31]

Experimental Applications

Scattering Experiments

Scattering experiments utilize electronvolt-scale energies to probe the internal structure of atoms, nuclei, and subnuclear particles by leveraging the wave-like properties of electrons and photons, where the de Broglie wavelength determines the spatial resolution. In these experiments, the incident particle's energy, measured in electronvolts (eV), mega-electronvolts (MeV), giga-electronvolts (GeV), or tera-electronvolts (TeV), inversely relates to the probe's wavelength, approximately given by \lambda \approx \frac{\hbar c}{E}, allowing resolution of features down to femtometer (fm) scales.^[32] Early electron scattering experiments, analogous to Rutherford's alpha-particle scattering but using electrons to avoid strong nuclear interactions, revealed nuclear charge distributions. In the 1950s, Robert Hofstadter and collaborators at Stanford used electron beams with energies around 100–200 MeV to scatter off nuclei like carbon and oxygen, resolving charge radii on the order of 3–5 fm. For instance, 100 MeV electrons provide a wavelength of approximately 2 fm (\lambda \approx \frac{197 \text{ MeV·fm}}{100 \text{ MeV}}), sufficient to probe nuclear sizes on the order of a few fm, such as the ~2.5 fm charge radius of carbon, confirming the diffuse nature of the nuclear charge rather than a point-like structure.^[32] Compton scattering involves photons scattering off free or loosely bound electrons, demonstrating the particle nature of light and providing insights into electron kinematics at keV energies. Arthur Compton's 1923 experiments used X-rays from the molybdenum Kα line with an energy of about 17 keV incident on graphite, observing a wavelength shift in the scattered photons described by \Delta \lambda = \frac{h}{m_e c} (1 - \cos \theta), where h is Planck's constant, m_e is the electron mass, c is the speed of light, and \theta is the scattering angle; the Compton wavelength \frac{h}{m_e c} \approx 2.43 \times 10^{-12} m corresponds to an energy scale of 511 keV, the electron rest mass. This shift, maximized at \theta = 180^\circ to about 4.86 pm, confirmed energy-momentum conservation in quantum terms and is foundational for understanding scattering in the keV regime.^[33] Deep inelastic scattering (DIS) at GeV energies has been pivotal in elucidating nucleon substructure, particularly the quark model. At the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor directed electron beams up to 20 GeV onto liquid hydrogen and deuterium targets, observing inelastic events where electrons scattered at wide angles, indicating interactions with point-like constituents inside protons. These experiments, with momentum transfers Q^2 up to several GeV², revealed scaling behavior consistent with scattering off fractionally charged quarks, as predicted by deep inelastic cross-section formulas; for example, at 7–20 GeV, the structure function F_2(x) showed a rise at low Bjorken x, supporting the parton model. This work earned the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics and paved the way for quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Modern accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) extend DIS-like probes to TeV scales in proton-proton collisions, using eV-based energy units to map quark-gluon dynamics in high-density environments.^[34]

Spectroscopy and Binding Energies

In atomic spectroscopy, electronvolt units are commonly used to quantify the energy differences between electronic states in atoms, which correspond to spectral line transitions observed in emission or absorption spectra. For the hydrogen atom, the Lyman series involves ultraviolet transitions from excited states (n ≥ 2) to the ground state (n=1), with energy differences ranging from approximately 10.2 eV for the n=2 to n=1 transition to 13.6 eV approaching the ionization limit.^[35] These values, derived from precise measurements of spectral lines, highlight how eV-scale energies govern atomic excitation and de-excitation processes, enabling the mapping of energy level diagrams.^[35] In multi-electron atoms, valence electron binding energies—representing the energy required to remove an outer-shell electron—typically fall in the 5–15 eV range, varying with atomic number; for example, sodium's first ionization energy is 5.14 eV, while chlorine's is 12.97 eV.^[36] Photoelectron spectroscopy employs electronvolts to measure ionization potentials and binding energies by ejecting electrons with photons or electron beams and analyzing their kinetic energies. In ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), valence electron binding energies are probed, often revealing molecular orbital structures in the eV range. For metals, the work function—the minimum energy to extract an electron from the surface—ranges from about 4 to 5 eV, as seen in aluminum (4.08 eV) and copper (4.7 eV), which determines thresholds for photoelectric emission.^[37] This technique provides direct insight into surface electronic properties, with binding energies referenced to the vacuum level. In molecular spectroscopy, electronvolts describe finer energy scales for vibrational and rotational transitions superimposed on electronic levels, as well as overall dissociation energies. Vibrational and rotational energies in diatomic molecules typically span 0.01–0.1 eV, corresponding to infrared and microwave spectral regions; for instance, the vibrational spacing in HCl is about 0.37 eV, while rotational levels are much smaller. Molecular dissociation energies, the energy to break bonds into neutral fragments, range from 1–10 eV, such as 4.52 eV for the H-H bond in H₂ and 9.92 eV for N≡N in N₂, influencing stability and reactivity.^[38] These eV-scale measurements via techniques like infrared absorption spectroscopy elucidate intramolecular dynamics. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) extends eV measurements to core-level binding energies, using high-energy X-ray sources (hundreds to thousands of eV) to probe inner-shell electrons. Core binding energies range from ~100 eV for light elements (e.g., carbon 1s at 284 eV) to over 1000 eV for heavier atoms (e.g., copper 1s at 8979 eV, though typically analyzed in lower shells), revealing chemical shifts due to local environments.^[39] Developed by Kai Siegbahn and colleagues, XPS has become essential for surface analysis, with binding energies calibrated against standards like adventitious carbon at 284.8 eV.

Energy Comparisons

Comparisons to Other Energies

The electronvolt (eV) is a unit particularly suited to describing energies at the atomic and subatomic scales, far smaller than those encountered in everyday macroscopic phenomena. For instance, typical chemical bond energies range from about 1 to 10 eV per bond. The dissociation energy of the hydrogen molecule (H-H bond) is specifically 4.52 eV.^[40] In contrast, the ionization energy required to remove an electron from a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, underscoring the eV's relevance to processes like bond breaking and atomic excitation.^[41] At the nuclear scale, energies are orders of magnitude larger, emphasizing the eV's progression through multiples like mega-eV (MeV). Nuclear fission of uranium-235 releases approximately 200 MeV per fission event, equivalent to the energy from splitting one heavy nucleus into lighter fragments.^[42] Alpha decay, another nuclear process, typically liberates around 5 MeV, manifested as the kinetic energy of the emitted helium nucleus.^[43] These values highlight how the eV scales up to capture the vastly greater binding forces within atomic nuclei compared to electron orbitals. Everyday energies dwarf the single-particle scales of the eV, illustrating its microscopic focus. A visible light photon carries roughly 2 eV, corresponding to wavelengths between red (~1.8 eV) and blue (~3.1 eV) light that humans perceive.^[44] In household electricity at a typical voltage of 120 V (US standard), the energy per electron accelerated across the potential is 120 eV, but a macroscopic unit like 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) equates to about 2.25 × 10^{25} eV, representing the collective energy from trillions of such electrons powering appliances.^[45] On cosmic scales, the eV spans from minuscule thermal backgrounds to extreme particle accelerations. Photons in the cosmic microwave background (CMB), the relic radiation from the Big Bang, have an average energy of approximately 6.35 × 10^{-4} eV, reflecting the universe's current temperature of 2.725 K.^[46] At the opposite extreme, the highest-energy cosmic rays—protons or nuclei accelerated by astrophysical phenomena—reach up to 3 × 10^{20} eV, equivalent to the kinetic energy of a fast-pitched baseball yet confined to a single subatomic particle.^[47] These comparisons reveal the eV's versatility in bridging quantum micro-energies to the universe's most violent processes.

Molar Energy Equivalents

In chemistry and materials science, electronvolt energies are frequently scaled to molar quantities to align with thermodynamic conventions, where the energy per mole of particles is obtained by multiplying the per-particle value by Avogadro's constant. Specifically, 1 eV per molecule equates to exactly 96.48533212 kJ/mol, derived from the product of the elementary charge and Avogadro's constant, which yields the Faraday constant of 96.48533212 kJ/(V·mol).^[48] This precise conversion factor, established by the 2019 redefinition of the SI units, enables seamless integration of atomic-scale electronvolt measurements into macroscopic chemical analyses. A key application arises in bond dissociation energetics, where values are commonly reported in kJ/mol for bulk reactions but can be equivalently expressed in eV for molecular-level interpretations. For instance, the dissociation energy of a carbon-carbon single bond is approximately 3.6 eV per bond, corresponding to 348 kJ/mol, highlighting how electronvolts bridge quantum mechanical calculations with experimental thermochemistry.^[49] In electrochemistry, standard electrode potentials—tabulated in volts—directly translate to electronvolts per electron transferred, as the potential difference represents the energy change in eV for each electron in the half-reaction. This equivalence, where 1 V corresponds to 1 eV per electron, underpins the analysis of redox processes on molar scales; for example, the standard potential for the Zn²⁺/Zn couple at -0.76 V implies a 0.76 eV energy per electron for the oxidation, scaled to approximately -147 kJ/mol for the two-electron process.^[50] Lattice energies of ionic compounds further illustrate molar electronvolt equivalents, quantifying the electrostatic cohesion in crystal structures. These energies typically span 10–30 eV per ion pair for common salts with divalent cations, equivalent to roughly 0.96–2.89 MJ/mol, as seen in compounds like MgO (approximately 39 eV or 3.79 MJ/mol, adjusted for the formula unit) where stronger interactions elevate the values.^[51] Such conversions are essential for predicting solubility and reactivity in materials science, converting quantum defect models into practical thermodynamic data.

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NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory, Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic ... Hydrogen Neutral Atom Energy Levels Hydrogen References · Switch to ASCII ...
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NIST: Atomic Spectra Database - Ionization Energies Form
This form provides access to NIST critically evaluated data on ground states and ionization energies of atoms and atomic ions.
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Work Functions for Photoelectric Effect - HyperPhysics
Element, Work Function(eV). Aluminum. 4.08. Beryllium. 5.0. Cadmium. 4.07. Calcium. 2.9. Carbon. 4.81. Cesium. 2.1. Cobalt. 5.0. Copper. 4.7. Gold ...
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[PDF] Tables of Molecular Vibrational Frequencies
Selected values of the fundamental vibrational frequencies are given for each molecule, together with observed infrared and Raman spectral data and citations to ...
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[PDF] Table 1-1. Electron binding energies, in electron volts, for the ...
Electron binding energies, in electron volts, for the elements in their natural forms. Element. K 1s. L1 2s. L2 2p1/2. L3 2p3/2. M1 3s. M2 3p1/2. M3 3p3/2. M4 ...
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Chemical Bonding in the H 2 Molecule
For comparision, the experimental H-H bond length is 0.74 Å and the experimental bond dissociation energy is 436 kJ/mole or 4.52 eV. H-H Chemical Bond. As ...
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Ionization Energy | Periodic Table of Elements - PubChem
Ionization energy, also called ionization potential, is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule.
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Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion - Purdue University
The induced fission of this isotope releases an average of 200 MeV per atom, or 80 million kilojoules per gram of 235U. The attraction of nuclear fission as a ...
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[PDF] Week 5 Lecture 2 – Alpha Decay - MSU chemistry
The typical energy released (Q-‐value) for these decays is on the order of 5 to 6 MeV – this energy is sufficient to use the alpha par5cles to induce.
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Visible Light - UCAR Center for Science Education
Red photons of light carry about 1.8 electron volts (eV) of energy, while each blue photon transmits about 3.1 eV. Visible light's neighbors on the EM ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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Convert Kilowatt-hour to Electron-volt
The kilowatt-hour [kW*h] to electron-volt [eV] ... How to Convert Kilowatt-hour to Electron-volt. 1 kW*h = 2.246943266806E+25 eV 1 eV = 4.4504906499998E-26 kW*h.
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New physics from the CMB - D. Scott
The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) is by far the dominant background. The CMB corresponds to an energy density of 0.260 eV cm -3 , or a number density of ...
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Mystery of the Highest Energy Cosmic Rays/ - HEASARC
The highest energy of a detected cosmic ray is 3x1020 eV (electron volts), equivalent to about 12 calories, more than ten-million times greater than the ...
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https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Scott/Scott1.html
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https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/epo/brochures/new_win/nw16.html
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17.3 Electrode and Cell Potentials - Chemistry 2e | OpenStax
Feb 14, 2019 · Potentials are measured in the volt unit, defined as one joule of energy per one coulomb of charge, V = J/C. When measured for purposes of ...<|separator|>