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Empty set

In mathematics, the empty set, also known as the null set or void set, is the unique set that contains no elements, serving as a foundational concept in set theory.^[1] It is denoted by the symbol ∅ (phi) or sometimes by empty curly braces {}, and its cardinality—the number of elements it contains—is zero.^[1] This set exists by the axiom of the empty set in Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which asserts that there is a set with no members, ensuring a starting point for constructing all other sets without relying on prior elements.^[2] Its uniqueness follows from the axiom of extensionality, which states that two sets are equal if they have the same elements; since ∅ has none, no other set matches it.^[2] The empty set plays a crucial role in the structure of set theory, acting as a subset of every possible set because there are no elements in ∅ that fail to belong to any other set A (i.e., ∅ ⊆ A for all A).^[3] It forms the basis for defining natural numbers in the von Neumann construction, where 0 is identified with ∅, 1 with {∅}, and so on, enabling the representation of ordinals and cardinals.^[4] In the cumulative hierarchy of sets, the empty set populates the lowest level V₀ = ∅, from which higher levels build the entire set-theoretic universe V.^[5] Additionally, the power set of the empty set is {∅}, the singleton containing only itself, illustrating its self-referential yet non-contradictory nature.^[6] Properties of the empty set extend to various mathematical contexts, such as topology, where it is both open and closed in any topological space, and algebra, where it can form degenerate structures like a groupoid but not a monoid due to the absence of an identity element.^[1] In category theory, ∅ is the initial object in the category of sets (Set), characterized by a unique morphism to any other set, underscoring its universal mapping properties.^[7] These attributes highlight the empty set's paradoxical yet essential status: empty of content, yet indispensable for rigorous mathematical foundations.^[7]

Definition and Notation

Definition

In set theory, the empty set is defined as the set that contains no elements whatsoever. This concept serves as a foundational building block, representing the absence of any membership in a collection.^[8] Formally, a set S is empty if, for every object x in the universe of discourse, x does not belong to S; in logical terms, this is expressed as \forall x (x \notin S). This condition ensures that no object satisfies the membership relation with respect to the empty set, distinguishing it from any non-empty set, which has at least one element that does belong to it.^[9] The empty set is unique within the universe of sets, as the axiom of extensionality guarantees that any two sets with exactly the same elements are identical, and since both would have no elements, they must coincide. This uniqueness positions the empty set as a singular, prerequisite object essential for constructing all other sets in axiomatic frameworks.^[8]

Notation

The standard symbol for the empty set is ∅, a slashed circle introduced by André Weil as part of the Bourbaki group's work in 1939, inspired by the Norwegian letter Ø to represent the set with no elements.^[10] Prior to this, historical variants included the empty braces {} and the uppercase lambda Λ, the latter used by Giuseppe Peano in his 1889 Arithmetices principia to denote the null class.^[11] In mathematical literature and print, ∅ is the predominant notation for the empty set, emphasizing its formal status in set theory.^[10] However, in informal texts, programming languages, and some computational contexts, the empty braces {} are commonly employed to represent it, as seen in languages like Python, where set() denotes an empty set, while {} denotes an empty dictionary (which may cause confusion in contexts where both are used).^[12] In typesetting, particularly with LaTeX, two main commands produce variants of the symbol: \emptyset, which renders a slashed zero-like form (∅), and \varnothing from the amssymb package, which produces a more circular slashed version (∅); the former has become dominant in modern digital typography due to its adoption in systems like TeX by Donald Knuth in 1979.^[10]^[13] To avoid ambiguity, the empty set symbol ∅ is distinguished from similar characters: it differs from the Greek lowercase phi φ (often used for functions or angles) and the Latin capital Ø (U+00D8), which is a distinct letter not intended for mathematical sets.^[10]

Basic Properties

Equality and Cardinality

The empty set is unique in the sense that there is exactly one such set in any given universe of discourse. This follows from the axiom of extensionality, which states that two sets are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements: if A and B are both empty, then for all x, x \in A if and only if x \in B holds vacuously, since no x satisfies the antecedent, implying A = B.^[14] Thus, no distinct empty sets can exist. The cardinality of the empty set, denoted |\emptyset|, is 0. Cardinality measures the "size" of a set via the existence of a bijection to a canonical representative; the empty set admits a bijection only to itself, and 0 is the unique cardinal number corresponding to this equivalence class of sets with no elements.^[15]^[16] In foundational systems such as those using von Neumann ordinals, the natural number 0 is defined as the empty set itself, reinforcing that |\emptyset| = [0](/page/0).^[14] The empty set is the unique set possessing zero elements and thus cannot be equal to any non-empty set, as the latter contains at least one element, violating extensionality.^[17] While the empty set is a subset of every set, it equals only itself among all sets.^[14]

Membership and Subsets

The empty set contains no elements, meaning that for every object x, x \notin \emptyset.^[18] This property ensures that any statement of the form \forall x (x \in \emptyset \to P(x)) is vacuously true for any predicate P(x), as the premise x \in \emptyset never holds.^[19] A key consequence is the empty set's role as a universal subset: \emptyset \subseteq A for every set A. This follows from the definition of subset, which requires \forall x (x \in \emptyset \to x \in A); since no x satisfies x \in \emptyset, the implication holds vacuously.^[19]^[18] The power set of the empty set, denoted \mathcal{P}(\emptyset), consists solely of the empty set itself, so \mathcal{P}(\emptyset) = \{\emptyset\}. This yields a cardinality of |\mathcal{P}(\emptyset)| = 1, as there are no other subsets possible.^[20]^[21] Since \emptyset has no proper subsets, it serves as the terminal element in any strictly decreasing chain of subsets under inclusion, preventing infinite descent within the subset lattice of any set. This property underpins well-foundedness in set-theoretic constructions, ensuring that descending chains of subsets terminate.^[22]

Operations and Algebraic Structure

Union and Intersection

The union of the empty set with any set A results in A itself, as the empty set contributes no elements to the collection.

\] $\emptyset \cup A = A$ for all sets $A$.\[

This property establishes the empty set as the identity element in the semigroup of sets under union.$$] In contrast, the intersection of the empty set with any set A yields the empty set, since there are no elements common to both.[

$\emptyset \cap A = \emptyset$ for all sets $A$.

] Thus, the empty set acts as an absorbing element for the intersection operation, where intersecting with \emptyset nullifies any set.[$$ Regarding set difference, removing the empty set from any set A leaves A unchanged, as no elements are subtracted.

\] $A \setminus \emptyset = A$ for all sets $A$.\[

Conversely, the difference of the empty set minus any set A remains empty, since \emptyset has no elements to retain after exclusion.

\] $\emptyset \setminus A = \emptyset$ for all sets $A$.\[

Within a fixed universal set U, the complement of the empty set is U itself, encompassing all elements not in \emptyset.

\] $\overline{\emptyset} = U$.\[

This underscores the empty set's role as the minimal element whose negation covers the entire universe.[]

Cartesian Products and Functions

The Cartesian product of the empty set with any other set is empty. For sets A and B, the Cartesian product A \times B consists of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a \in A and b \in B.^[23] If A = \emptyset and B is any set (empty or non-empty), no such pairs exist because there are no elements in A to form the first component, so \emptyset \times B = \emptyset.^[23] Similarly, A \times \emptyset = \emptyset for any set A, and thus \emptyset \times \emptyset = \emptyset.^[23] In the context of functions, the empty set admits a unique function to any set. A function f: \emptyset \to S for any set S is a subset of \emptyset \times S that relates every element of \emptyset to exactly one element in S; since \emptyset \times S = \emptyset, the only such subset is the empty set itself, called the empty function.^[24] This empty function exists and is unique regardless of whether S is empty or non-empty.^[24] In particular, the unique function \emptyset \to \emptyset is also the empty function.^[24] Relations involving the empty set follow similarly from the Cartesian product structure. A binary relation on sets A and B is any subset of A \times B; the empty relation is the empty set \emptyset, which is a valid subset of any Cartesian product, including \emptyset \times \emptyset = \emptyset.^[25] Thus, the empty relation holds vacuously on the empty set. These properties imply that the empty set serves as the initial object in the category of sets (denoted Set), where objects are sets and morphisms are functions. An initial object I requires a unique morphism I \to X for every object X; here, the unique empty function \emptyset \to X satisfies this for any set X, and the empty set is the unique such object up to isomorphism.^[7]^[26]

Role in Set Theory

Axiomatic Foundations

In axiomatic set theory, particularly Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), the existence of the empty set is postulated by the empty set axiom, which asserts that there exists a set S such that for all x, x \notin S, formally stated as \exists S \, \forall x \, \neg (x \in S).^[27] This axiom ensures the foundation for constructing all other sets, as it provides the initial object from which further structures are built. In some formulations of ZF, the empty set axiom is considered redundant and can be derived using the axiom of pairing and the axiom schema of separation: given any set x, the separation schema yields the subset \{ y \in x \mid y \neq y \}, which contains no elements since the condition y \neq y is always false, thus producing the empty set.^[28] The uniqueness of the empty set follows directly from the axiom of extensionality, which states that two sets are equal if they have the same elements: \forall x \forall y \, (\forall z (z \in x \leftrightarrow z \in y) \to x = y).^[27] To see this, suppose A and B are sets with no elements. Then for any z, z \notin A and z \notin B, so z \in A \leftrightarrow z \in B holds vacuously for all z. By extensionality, A = B.^[17] Thus, there is exactly one empty set, conventionally denoted \emptyset. The empty set plays a central role in the von Neumann construction of the natural numbers within ZF set theory. Here, the number zero is defined as $0 = \emptyset, the successor of a set x is S(x) = x \cup \{x\}, and the natural numbers are built iteratively: $1 = S(0) = \{\emptyset\}, $2 = S(1) = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}, and so on.^[17] This construction identifies each natural number n with the set of all preceding natural numbers, ensuring that the ordinals are transitive sets well-ordered by membership, as formalized in von Neumann's axiomatization.^[29] The empty set also serves as the base of the cumulative hierarchy in set theory, denoted V_\alpha for ordinals \alpha, which organizes all sets by their rank. Specifically, V_0 = \emptyset, and for successor ordinals, V_{\alpha+1} = \mathcal{P}(V_\alpha) (the power set of V_\alpha), while for limit ordinals \lambda, V_\lambda = \bigcup_{\beta < \lambda} V_\beta.^[27] This hierarchy, introduced by von Neumann, captures the iterative process of set formation starting from the empty set, underpinning the structure of the entire universe of sets V = \bigcup_{\alpha} V_\alpha.^[29]

Universal and Initial Object

In category theory, the empty set \emptyset serves as the initial object in the category \mathbf{Set}, whose objects are sets and morphisms are functions between them. An initial object I in a category \mathcal{C} is an object such that, for every object A in \mathcal{C}, there exists a unique morphism ! : I \to A. In \mathbf{Set}, this unique morphism from \emptyset to any set A is the empty function, which exists regardless of whether A is empty or non-empty, as there are no elements in \emptyset to map. This uniqueness arises because any purported function f : \emptyset \to A must satisfy the function definition for all elements in the domain, but since the domain \emptyset contains no elements, the condition is vacuously true for the empty assignment, and no other assignment is possible.^[26] Initial objects are unique up to unique isomorphism: if I and J are both initial objects in \mathcal{C}, then there exists a unique isomorphism I \to J, ensuring that \emptyset is the only initial object in \mathbf{Set} up to this equivalence. While \emptyset is not a terminal object in \mathbf{Set}—terminal objects in \mathbf{Set} are singleton sets, for which there is a unique function from any set B to the singleton—the empty set does act as a terminal object in other categories built on sets, such as the category \mathbf{Rel} of sets and relations, where it is both initial and terminal.^[30] In categories where the initial and terminal objects coincide to form a zero object, such as \emptyset in \mathbf{Rel}, this object enables the construction of a zero morphism between any pair of objects X and Y, defined as the composite X \to \emptyset \to Y via the unique morphisms; this zero morphism composes appropriately and simplifies limits, colimits, and exact sequences in additive or pointed categories.

Applications in Mathematics

Topology and Geometry

In topology, the empty set ∅ serves as the underlying set for the empty topological space, which admits a unique topology consisting solely of ∅ itself.^[31] This structure is both discrete and indiscrete, as the power set of ∅ coincides with the topology, satisfying the axioms vacuously while having no proper subsets. The interior of ∅ in any topological space is ∅, being the largest open subset contained within it, and its closure is also ∅, as the smallest closed set containing it.^[32] By definition, ∅ is open in every topological space, as topologies must include the empty set to ensure arbitrary unions (including the empty union) yield open sets.^[32] Similarly, ∅ is closed, since its complement is the entire space, which is open, or equivalently, as the empty intersection of closed sets.^[32] These properties hold universally, independent of the specific topology on a nonempty space. The empty set exhibits compactness vacuously in any topological space: every open cover of ∅ has a finite subcover, namely the empty collection, as there are no points to cover.^[33] It is also connected, since it cannot be expressed as a union of two nonempty disjoint open sets—any such decomposition would require nonempty components, which ∅ lacks.^[34] In geometry, ∅ functions as the empty manifold, which satisfies the axioms of a smooth or topological manifold of any dimension vacuously and is included in definitions for convenience in cobordism and homotopy theory. For instance, in oriented cobordism, the empty manifold acts as the unit element under disjoint union.^[35] In simplicial complexes, ∅ is the unique (-1)-simplex, serving as the base case where the empty complex has dimension -1 and includes no higher simplices, facilitating inductive constructions in algebraic topology.^[36] This role underscores ∅ as the initial object in geometric decompositions, such as the absence of 0-simplices in void structures.^[37]

Category Theory and Algebra

In category theory, the empty set \emptyset serves as a foundational example of an initial object, extending its properties from the category of sets to broader algebraic and categorical structures. In the category \mathbf{Set}, \emptyset is initial because there exists a unique function from \emptyset to any set X, namely the empty function. This notion generalizes to other categories where structures analogous to \emptyset—such as trivial or zero objects—play the role of initial objects, ensuring unique morphisms to every other object in the category. In the category of groups \mathbf{Grp}, the trivial group \{e\} (with e the identity) corresponds to the empty set in the sense that it is the initial object, as there is a unique group homomorphism from \{e\} to any group G, sending e to the identity of G. Similarly, in the category of rngs \mathbf{Rng} (rings without multiplicative identity), the zero ring (with a single element $0where0+0=0and0 \cdot 0=0) is the initial object, admitting a unique rng homomorphism to any rng R

, which maps &#36;0

to $0_R. These examples illustrate how the "emptiness" of \emptyset manifests as minimal algebraic structures that initiate homomorphisms universally. The empty set also relates to free constructions in universal algebra, where the free algebra on the empty set of generators yields the initial algebra in the corresponding variety. For instance, the free monoid on the empty set is the trivial monoid (singleton with identity), which is initial in the category of monoids \mathbf{Mon}, as it generates unique monoid homomorphisms to any monoid by mapping the identity to the target's identity. This pattern holds across algebraic categories: the free group on no generators is the trivial group, initial in \mathbf{Grp}; the free rng on no generators is the zero rng, initial in \mathbf{Rng}. Such free structures on \emptyset thus coincide with the initial objects, providing a generative perspective on minimality.^[38] In homotopy theory, the empty space (the topological space with underlying set \emptyset) acts as the initial object in the homotopy category of topological spaces \mathbf{Ho}(\mathbf{Top}), where morphisms are homotopy classes of continuous maps. There is a unique homotopy class from the empty space to any space Y, corresponding to the empty map, preserving the initiality of \emptyset under homotopy equivalence. This underscores the empty set's role in capturing "nothingness" as a starting point even in geometric and homotopical abstractions. However, the empty set's analogue is not always initial across all algebraic categories. For example, the category of fields \mathbf{[Field](/page/Field)} has no initial object, as no field admits a unique field homomorphism to every other field—homomorphisms between fields of different characteristics are impossible, and even within the same characteristic, no universal source exists. This limitation highlights that while \emptyset initializes many categories, structural constraints like no zero divisors in fields prevent a direct counterpart.^[39]

Analysis and Measure Theory

In measure theory, the empty set is always measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is defined to be zero, \mu(\emptyset) = 0. This property follows directly from the axioms of measure, where the measure of the empty set is required to be zero to ensure consistency with the additivity over disjoint unions; for instance, since \emptyset is the disjoint union of itself and itself, \mu(\emptyset) = \mu(\emptyset) + \mu(\emptyset) implies \mu(\emptyset) = 0.^[40] The additivity of the Lebesgue measure further reinforces this, as the empty set contributes nothing to the measure of any union, allowing it to serve as the zero element in the sigma-algebra of measurable sets.^[41] The role of the empty set extends to integration in real analysis. For any integrable function f, the Lebesgue integral over the empty set is zero: \int_{\emptyset} f \, d\mu = 0. This result holds because the integral over a set of measure zero, such as \emptyset, is the integral of the zero function almost everywhere, and the Lebesgue integral of the zero function is zero by definition.^[40] This property ensures that integrals remain well-defined and finite even when the domain of integration is empty, avoiding pathological behaviors in limits or sums that might otherwise involve undefined operations. In probability theory, which builds on measure theory with the probability measure normalized to total measure one, the empty event—the event consisting of no outcomes—has probability zero: P(\emptyset) = 0. This follows from the axioms of probability, where the empty set is disjoint from any event A, so P(A) = P(A \cup \emptyset) = P(A) + P(\emptyset), implying P(\emptyset) = 0.^[42] Consequently, the empty event represents an impossible occurrence, providing a foundational null case for probability spaces. The empty set also plays a stabilizing role in analysis involving the extended real numbers, where expressions like -\infty + \infty are left undefined. By convention in the extended reals, the supremum of \emptyset is -\infty and the infimum is +\infty, which allows limits and extrema over potentially empty sets to be handled uniformly without introducing indeterminate forms in applications such as optimization or convergence theorems.^[43] This convention ensures that analytic constructions, like those in measure-theoretic limits, remain consistent even when no elements are present.

Historical and Philosophical Aspects

Historical Development

The concept of the empty set, denoting a collection containing no elements, emerged gradually in the history of mathematics, with roots in the treatment of nothingness and voids. In ancient Greek mathematics, such as Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC), there was no explicit recognition of an empty collection or zero, as Greek philosophy generally rejected the idea of void or non-being, leading to a mathematics focused on positive quantities and filled spaces. Similarly, the Indian Sulba Sutras (c. 800–200 BC), which detail geometric constructions for Vedic altars, emphasize practical measurements and approximations but offer no direct treatment of emptiness, though later Indian developments of shunya (void or zero) in philosophical and numerical contexts foreshadowed ideas of absence.^[44] The 19th century marked the first formal introductions of the empty set in logical and set-theoretic contexts. George Boole, in his 1847 work The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, incorporated the "empty class" or "nothing" as the complement of the universe of discourse, representing a class with no members and assigning it the symbol 0 in his algebraic logic of classes. Giuseppe Peano, in his 1889 pamphlet Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita, used the symbol Λ to denote the null class in his axiomatization of arithmetic, though this notation created ambiguities by overlapping with symbols for falsehood in logical expressions. Georg Cantor advanced the concept significantly in the 1880s through his theory of transfinite numbers and point sets; in his 1880 paper "Über unendliche, lineare Punktmannigfaltigkeiten, V," he denoted the absence of points with the letter O, treating the empty collection as a valid set with cardinality zero in his hierarchy of infinities. In the 20th century, the empty set gained axiomatic prominence in foundational systems. Ernst Zermelo's 1908 paper "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I" provided the first axiomatic set theory, where the existence of the empty set follows as a theorem from the axiom schema of separation applied to any set with the contradictory property (e.g., the subset where no element satisfies x ≠ x), ensuring its role as a building block for all sets.^[45] Hermann Weyl, in his 1918 monograph Das Kontinuum: Kritische Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Analysis, formalized aspects of analysis using predicative methods inspired by Poincaré and Russell, incorporating the empty set as the foundational null domain from which constructive sequences of sets are built to avoid impredicative definitions.^[46] Later, the collective work of the Bourbaki group, beginning in the 1930s with their Éléments de mathématique, emphasized a structuralist perspective on mathematics, positioning the empty set as the unique initial object in the category of sets—defined rigorously as the set y such that ∀x (x ∉ y)—central to their axiomatic treatment of structures like groups, topologies, and algebras.^[14]

Philosophical Debates

The ontological status of the empty set has been a point of contention in philosophy of mathematics, particularly regarding whether it truly "exists" as a set or merely subsists in some abstract sense. Bertrand Russell, in his early work, argued that the null class—the class with no members—does not exist in the sense of having instances, but it subsists as a formal structure necessary for logical consistency.^[47] This distinction allows the empty set to function mathematically without committing to the existence of nonexistent objects, avoiding paradoxes like those in Meinongian ontology where nonexistents are treated as having being. Critics, however, question whether such subsistence amounts to a watered-down form of existence, rendering the empty set an ontological curiosity rather than a robust entity.^[48] Epistemologically, the empty set raises issues with vacuous truths, statements that hold true solely because their subject is empty, such as "all elements of the empty set are even numbers." These truths challenge intuitive understanding, as they seem to assert properties over nothing, yet they are logically valid under classical semantics where universal quantification over an empty domain yields truth. Philosophers debate whether such vacuity undermines epistemic warrant, with some arguing it reflects a mismatch between formal logic and human cognition, potentially leading to over-acceptance of counterintuitive claims.^[49] Others defend vacuous truths as essential for preserving deductive closure in mathematics, emphasizing that intuition must yield to rigorous proof.^[50] In intuitionism, L.E.J. Brouwer's constructive mathematics accommodates the empty set by defining it as the species with no realizable elements, integrating it without violating constructivist principles that require mathematical entities to be mentally constructible through finite processes. However, later intuitionist G.F.C. Griss proposed a stricter "negationless" intuitionism that rejected the empty set, viewing it as incompatible with the absence of negation and the need for inhabited domains.^[51] Mereology, the theory of part-whole relations, contrasts the empty set with pure absence by debating the inclusion of a "null individual"—an entity that is a part of everything yet overlaps with nothing substantial. Proponents of classical mereology often reject such a null item to avoid trivializing the domain into a single element, preferring absence as a non-entity rather than an empty fusion of parts. This debate highlights tensions between set-theoretic emptiness, which posits a structured void, and mereological nothingness, which denies any such structure to prevent ontological inflation.^[52]

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### Definition of Terminal Object
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[PDF] 6 Simplicial complexes
For example, a graph is a one-dimensional abstract simplicial complex. Being a set system, A defines the poset (A, C), where C denotes set inclusion, see figure ...
[37]
[PDF] Simplicial Complexes - People @EECS
Feb 4, 1999 · The sets meet in triplets but not in quadruplets, which implies that the nerve is 2-dimensional. to a vertex, and k+ 1 sets with non-empty ...
[38]
Category of rings - Wikipedia
The ring of integers Z is an initial object in Ring. · The zero ring is a terminal object in Ring. · The product in Ring is given by the direct product of rings.As a concrete category · Properties · Related categories and functors
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How Free and Initial algebras relate? - Math Stack Exchange
Sep 20, 2023 · In the examples of groups or rings, for instance, the initial algebra is the free algebra over an empty set of generators. Daniel Schepler.abstract algebra - Usage of the term "Free" - Math Stack ExchangeIs the free group on an empty set defined? - Math Stack ExchangeMore results from math.stackexchange.com
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What category without initial object do you care about? - MathOverflow
Aug 27, 2010 · The category of varieties (or just integral schemes) has no initial object. (The empty set is not irreducible; this does not prove my claim ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
[PDF] The Lebesgue Integral
Before we can discuss the the Lebesgue integral, we must first discuss “measures.” Given a set X, a measure is, loosely-speaking, a map that assigns sizes ...
[42]
[PDF] Chapter 2: Lebesgue Measure - UC Davis Math
(bn − an). If n = 1 or n = 2, the volume of a rectangle is its length or area, respectively. We also consider the empty set to be a rectangle with µ(∅) = 0.
[43]
Impossible event - StatLect
The impossible event has zero probability. One of the basic properties of probability is that the empty set must have zero probability (see the lecture on ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Infimum and supremum of the empty set - Math Stack Exchange
Jun 29, 2013 · It is customary to define the infimum of the empty set as being ∞. This makes sense since the infimum is the greatest lower bound and every real number is a ...Why is the empty set bounded? - Math Stack ExchangeWhat is the infimum/supremum of a set in the extended real line?More results from math.stackexchange.com
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II. Sulba Sutras - Indian Mathematics - Redressing the balance
The Sulba-sutras have been dated from around 800-200 BC, and further to the expansion of topics in the Vedangas, contain a number of significant developments.
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Giuseppe Peano - Biography
### Summary of Peano's Notation for Empty Set in 1889
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Zermelo's Axiomatization of Set Theory
Jul 2, 2013 · This final axiom asserts the existence of an infinitely large set which contains the empty set, and for each set a that it contains, also ...Missing: descent | Show results with:descent
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Hermann Weyl - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 2, 2009 · The year 1918, the same year in which Space-Time-Matter appeared, also saw the publication of Das Kontinuum (The Continuum), a work in which ...
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(PDF) WEYL REEXAMINED: “DAS KONTINUUM” 100 YEARS LATER
Jun 10, 2020 · We propose a precise formalization of that system, which is the first to be completely faithful to what is written in the book. Finally, we ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Nonexistent Objects - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 22, 2006 · Russell argues that since it is a principle of MOT$^o$ that to every set of properties there is a corresponding object and since existence is ...
[51]
On the Onto-Epistemological Status of the Empty Set and the Pure ...
Jun 26, 2021 · This article discusses the quiddity of the empty set from its epistemological and linguistic aspects. It consists of four parts.
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Why a Gricean-style defense of the vacuous truth of ...
Jan 5, 2024 · The paper analyzes two approaches to explaining why certain counterpossibles, though perhaps true, may appear to be false.
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Logical Truth - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 30, 2006 · A logical truth ought to be such that it could not be false, or equivalently, it ought to be such that it must be true.The Nature of Logical Truth · Modality · Formality · The Mathematical...
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Intuitionism in the Philosophy of Mathematics
Sep 4, 2008 · 3.2 Intuitionistic logic. Brouwer rejected the principle of the excluded middle on the basis of his philosophy, but Arend Heyting was the ...
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Mereology - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 13, 2003 · Absent (P.1) or (P.2), (P.4′) is logically stronger. Yet again one may rely on the alternative definition of ' ...