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Fasting during Ramadan

Fasting during Ramadan, known as sawm in Arabic, is an obligatory pillar of Islam for healthy adult Muslims, requiring abstinence from food, drink, smoking, sexual intercourse, and intentional vomiting from dawn (fajr) until sunset (maghrib) each day of the lunar month of Ramadan.^[1]^[2] This practice, prescribed in the Quran (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:183-185), aims to foster taqwa (God-consciousness and self-restraint) through physical and spiritual discipline.^[1]^[3] The fast begins with the sighting of the new moon marking Ramadan's start and ends similarly for Eid al-Fitr, varying annually by 10-11 days on the Gregorian calendar due to the lunar Hijri system.^[4] Observant Muslims break the fast at sunset with iftar, often starting with dates and water, emulating the Prophet Muhammad's tradition, followed by communal prayers and meals.^[4] Exemptions apply to those who are ill, traveling, menstruating, pregnant, breastfeeding, elderly, or pre-pubescent, with provisions to make up missed days later or provide fidya (compensation) in cases of permanent inability.^[5]^[6] Empirical studies on health effects reveal mixed outcomes: short-term weight loss of 0.8-1.4 kg and potential benefits like improved blood pressure and immune function in healthy individuals, though risks of hypoglycemia, dehydration, and complications arise for those with diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or during pregnancy.^[7]^[8]^[9] Peer-reviewed research indicates no uniform detriment to kidney function or overall wellbeing in compliant fasters, but emphasizes pre-Ramadan medical consultation for at-risk groups to mitigate adverse causal pathways like electrolyte imbalance.^[9]^[10] Controversies include debates over exemptions' application, with some women fasting despite pregnancy risks, and varying scholarly interpretations on conditions like mild illness.^[11]^[12]

Religious Foundations

Quranic Injunctions

The Quran prescribes fasting as an obligation for Muslims in Surah Al-Baqarah, verses 183–185, stating: "O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you that you may become righteous."^[13] This injunction frames fasting as a continuation of practices observed by prior religious communities, aimed at fostering taqwa (God-consciousness or mindfulness of Allah).^[13] The verses specify that fasting applies during a prescribed number of days, with exemptions for the ill or travelers, who must make up the missed fasts later or, for those with ongoing incapacity, provide compensation by feeding a poor person.^[14] Verse 185 identifies Ramadan explicitly as the month of fasting: "The month of Ramadhan [is that] in which was revealed the Quran, a guidance for the people and clear proofs of guidance and criterion. So whoever sights [the new moon of] the month, let him fast it."^[15] This ties the obligation to the lunar calendar, requiring abstinence from dawn until sunset for those present in the month, with the same provisions for makeup or fidya (expiatory feeding) for exemptions.^[15] The purpose extends to gratitude for divine guidance, emphasizing that Allah intends no undue hardship but completion of the period to attain piety.^[15] Further details in verse 187 delineate the fast's boundaries: eating, drinking, and sexual relations are prohibited from the appearance of the white thread of dawn until nightfall, while permitted at night until the next dawn. Marital intimacy is allowed during non-fasting hours, likened to spouses being "garments" for one another, underscoring mutual protection and Allah's knowledge of human needs. These limits are presented as divine ordinances to be observed strictly, reinforcing the fast's role in self-discipline and devotion. No other Quranic surahs mandate fasting specifically for Ramadan, rendering Al-Baqarah the primary textual basis, with interpretations derived from these verses alone.^[16]

Prophetic Traditions and Hadith

The Prophetic traditions, preserved in collections such as Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, elaborate on the Quranic injunction for Ramadan fasting by detailing its virtues, preconditions, and behavioral requirements. A foundational hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah states that the Prophet Muhammad declared, "Whoever fasts the month of Ramadan out of sincere faith and seeking reward from Allah, then all their previous sins will be forgiven." This underscores the spiritual purification tied to intentional observance, with the reward contingent on faith (iman) and hope for divine recompense (riyah Allah). Similarly, another narration from Abu Hurairah describes the month's sanctity: "When the month of Ramadan starts, the gates of heaven are opened, the gates of Hell are closed, and the devils are chained."^[17] These traditions highlight Ramadan's unique status as a period of heightened mercy and protection from temptation, encouraging believers to maximize devotion. Intention (niyyah) is a prerequisite for the fast's validity, as actions are judged by intentions—a principle from a well-known hadith qudsi extended to fasting. Specific to obligatory fasts like Ramadan, the Prophet instructed that the intention must precede dawn (fajr), with one narration in Sunan Abi Dawud affirming, "There is no fasting for the one who does not intend to fast before dawn," rendering post-dawn resolutions insufficient for the day's obligation. The Prophet also warned against preemptively fasting one or two days before confirmed sighting of the Ramadan crescent moon, unless it aligns with habitual voluntary fasts (nawafil), to avoid error in lunar calendar determination. Regarding conduct, the Prophet emphasized internal discipline: "Whoever does not leave evil words and deeds while fasting, Allah does not need him to leave food and drink," equating mere abstinence from physical intake with incomplete worship if accompanied by falsehood or immorality. Additional hadiths outline practical etiquettes, such as the virtue of the pre-dawn meal (suhoor). The Prophet advised, "Eat suhoor, for there is blessing in it," recommending even a few dates or water to sustain the faster. He modeled breaking the fast promptly at sunset with dates or water, stating, "The people will remain on the right path as long as they hasten the breaking of the fast," linking this to communal righteousness. These traditions, drawn from the Prophet's observed practices and statements during his lifetime (circa 610–632 CE), form the basis for fiqh rulings on fasting, prioritizing sincerity and holistic restraint over ritual alone.

Historical Origins

Pre-Islamic Antecedents

In pre-Islamic Arabia, fasting was a recognized practice among polytheistic tribes, influenced by interactions with Jewish and Christian communities present in the region. Jewish settlements, dating back to at least the first century BCE, were prominent in northwestern Arabia, including Medina, and in the Himyarite kingdom of Yemen, where Judaism became the dominant religion by the early sixth century CE under royal patronage.^[18] These communities observed Torah-prescribed fasts, such as those on Yom Kippur, and likely disseminated similar customs to neighboring Arabs through trade, alliances, and conversions.^[19] A key example was the fast on Ashura, the tenth day of Muharram, observed by the Quraysh tribe of Mecca during the Jahiliyyah period. This involved abstaining from food and drink, commemorating events like the deliverance of Moses from Pharaoh—a tradition shared with Medina's Jewish tribes.^[20]^[19] Pre-Islamic Arabs also practiced intermittent fasting, such as three days per lunar month, often tied to vows, expiation, or sacred occasions, with the Quraysh specifically fasting Ashura annually.^[21] Sacred months in the pre-Islamic calendar, including possibly the month later known as Ramadan, featured truces and ritual abstinence, elements that scholars link to broader lunar observances among Arabian tribes.^[22] Historians like S.D. Goitein have noted continuity from these practices, where periods of fasting and restraint during hot, intense months aligned with seasonal and tribal customs, though not identical to the later Islamic form.^[22] Such antecedents provided a cultural foundation, blending pagan Arab rituals with Abrahamic influences, before the Quranic prescription formalized Ramadan fasting in 624 CE.^[23]

Establishment in Early Islamic Period

The obligation of fasting (sawm) during the month of Ramadan was established in the second year after the Hijrah (migration) of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE, corresponding to 624 CE. This injunction came through the revelation of Quranic verses 2:183–185, which mandate fasting for able-bodied adult Muslims as a means of piety and self-discipline, emulating previous prophets.^[24]^[25] Prior to this formalization, the Prophet had observed voluntary fasts, including on the day of Ashura (10th of Muharram) and three days each lunar month, practices rooted in pre-Islamic Arabian customs but adapted to Islamic monotheism. The Ramadan-specific fasting replaced or supplemented these, becoming one of the Five Pillars of Islam, with the revelation occurring in Sha'ban of the second Hijri year, immediately preceding the first obligatory observance in Ramadan 2 AH. The Prophet Muhammad led the community in Medina in this practice, breaking the fast at sunset (iftar) typically with dates and water, setting the precedent for daily intermittent abstinence from dawn (fajr) to dusk.^[26]^[20] In the early Medinan era, the fast was initially more continuous, akin to some pre-Islamic or Judeo-Christian traditions, but was soon adjusted to the dawn-to-sunset model via further prophetic guidance and hadith, accommodating the Arabian climate and labor demands. This establishment coincided with the consolidation of the Muslim community (ummah) in Medina, where Ramadan fasting reinforced communal solidarity and spiritual focus amid conflicts like the Battle of Badr in 624 CE, which occurred during that Ramadan. Historical accounts from hadith collections, such as Sahih Muslim, document the Prophet's enforcement, including exemptions for travelers, the ill, and women in menstruation or postpartum states, ensuring the practice's feasibility.^[27]^[20]

Core Practices

Prohibitions and Obligations

Fasting during Ramadan, or sawm, imposes clear obligations on eligible Muslims, defined as sane, pubescent individuals who are healthy and resident, to observe abstinence for the lunar month's 29 or 30 days as a form of devotion and self-discipline. This obligation stems directly from the Quranic injunction in Surah Al-Baqarah, which mandates fasting "as it was prescribed for those before you, that you may become righteous."^[13] Exemptions apply to the ill, travelers, menstruating women, and prepubescent children, with provisions for makeup fasts or fidya (feeding the needy) in cases of permanent inability.^[14] The intention (niyyah) to fast must be formed sincerely in the heart before dawn (fajr) each day, distinguishing obligatory Ramadan fasting from voluntary acts, though a single overarching intention for the month suffices in some scholarly views if renewed daily in practice.^[28]^[29] The core prohibitions activate from the appearance of the true dawn until sunset, encompassing deliberate intake of food, water, or any nourishment through the mouth, including smoking or inhaling substances that reach the throat, as these nullify the fast by analogy to eating and drinking. Sexual intercourse during these hours invalidates the fast and incurs kaffara (expiation), such as fasting 60 consecutive days or feeding 60 poor persons, per prophetic tradition.^[30] Other acts breaking the fast include intentional vomiting, deliberate use of enemas or suppositories that provide nutrition, and induced emissions through masturbation, while unintentional occurrences like wet dreams do not.^[31] Beyond physical restraint, obligations extend to spiritual and behavioral discipline: the faster must guard against sins such as lying, backbiting, or anger, as fasting serves as a "shield" protecting from the Fire, with the Prophet Muhammad stating that one should respond to provocations by affirming, "I am fasting."^[32] The five daily prayers remain obligatory, often augmented by voluntary tarawih prayers at night, and acts like reciting the Quran or giving charity enhance the fast's reward, though they are recommended rather than required.^[33] Violations through forgetfulness, such as accidental eating, do not invalidate the fast provided repentance follows, but habitual disregard renders the obligation unfulfilled.^[34]

Exceptions and Exemptions

The obligation of fasting during Ramadan applies to adult Muslims who are sane, healthy, and not traveling, as established in Islamic jurisprudence derived from the Quran and Sunnah.^[4] The Quran explicitly exempts those who are ill or on a journey, permitting them to complete an equal number of fasts on other days (Al-Baqarah 2:184-185).^[14] This provision underscores the principle of avoiding undue hardship, with the directive emphasizing that fasting aims to foster piety rather than impose harm.^[5] Additional exemptions include menstruating or postpartum women, who are prohibited from fasting due to ritual impurity and must make up missed days afterward, based on scholarly consensus from Hadith narrations such as those in Sahih al-Bukhari prohibiting prayer and fasting during menstruation.^[35] Pregnant or breastfeeding women are exempt if fasting poses a risk to their health or the child's, with requirements to either make up the fasts later or provide fidya (feeding the poor) varying by jurisprudential school; for instance, the Hanafi school mandates qada' (make-up) if no harm occurred, while others allow fidya if harm is feared.^[5] Children who have not reached puberty and individuals with mental incapacity are not held accountable, as the obligation begins at puberty and requires sound intellect.^[4] For the chronically ill or elderly unable to fast or make up missed days, the Quran allows fidya by feeding one poor person per missed fast (Al-Baqarah 2:184), interpreted by scholars like Ibn Qudamah as applicable to those whose weakness prevents observance without perpetual harm.^[11] Travelers may shorten prayers but must fast unless the journey involves hardship, with the threshold often set at approximately 80-90 kilometers in classical fiqh, though making up is required unless travel coincides with Ramadan extensively.^[35] These exemptions reflect a balance between devotion and mercy, ensuring the practice remains feasible; however, many exempted individuals, particularly those with manageable conditions, voluntarily fast to fulfill spiritual goals, as noted in medical reviews of Muslim patient adherence.^[36]

Breaking the Fast and Iftar Rituals

Iftar marks the breaking of the daily Ramadan fast, commencing precisely at sunset, which aligns with the time of the Maghrib prayer.^[37]^[38] Observant Muslims hasten to break their fast upon sighting the new moon or confirmed sunset, avoiding any delay as emphasized in prophetic traditions. The ritual begins with consuming an odd number of dates—preferably fresh, followed by dry dates if unavailable, or water—emulating the practice of Prophet Muhammad. A hadith narrated by Salman ibn 'Amir states: "When one of you breaks his fast, let him break it with dates, for in them is blessing; if he cannot find dates, then let him break it with water, for it is purifying."^[39]^[40] Similarly, Anas ibn Malik reported that the Prophet broke his fast with fresh dates before Maghrib prayer, substituting dry dates or water as needed.^[41] This sequence provides quick energy from natural sugars and hydration after abstinence from dawn.^[42] Upon initial breaking, a specific supplication is recited, such as "Dhahaba al-ʿaṣhbu wa bāṭila al-ʿurūqu wa thabata al-ajru in shāʾa Allāh" (The thirst has gone, the veins are moistened, and the reward is confirmed, if Allah wills).^[43] The Maghrib prayer follows promptly, prior to the main meal, underscoring spiritual priority over immediate feasting.^[39] The ensuing iftar meal typically includes nutrient-dense foods like soups, fruits, and breads, though core rituals remain consistent across Sunni traditions.^[42] Etiquette dictates moderation to prevent overindulgence, with emphasis on gratitude and sharing, reflecting the Prophet's guidance against excess after fasting.^[44] Communal iftars often extend invitations to the needy, but individual rituals prioritize the sunnah sequence for validity and blessing.^[41]

Daily Rulings and Etiquette

The intention (niyyah) for fasting must be formed in the heart before the dawn prayer (Fajr) each night preceding the day of fasting, specifying the obligation of Ramadan; a single intention at the month's start suffices only for the first day according to scholars of the Shafi'i school, while Hanafi and Maliki views allow a general monthly resolve if not interrupted, though daily renewal ensures validity across madhhabs.^[28]^[45] Verbal articulation is recommended but not obligatory, as the resolve itself constitutes the niyyah.^[46] During the fasting hours—from true dawn (when a white thread can be distinguished from black at horizon level) until sunset (when the sun fully disappears)—obligatory abstinence includes refraining from intentional ingestion of food or drink, smoking, sexual intercourse, and emission of semen through masturbation; such acts invalidate the fast, necessitating qada (make-up fast) and, for deliberate major violations like intercourse, kaffara (expiation via 60 consecutive days of fasting or feeding 60 poor persons).^[47]^[48] Unintentional consumption due to forgetfulness does not break the fast, as prophetic tradition holds that Allah responds to the faster's invocation by feeding and quenching them spiritually.^[49] Induced vomiting, nutrient enemas or injections reaching the stomach, and cupping (phlebotomy) also nullify it intentionally, while mere blood donation or accidental vomiting does not.^[47] Etiquette emphasizes moral restraint beyond physical abstention: the Prophet Muhammad instructed that fasting acts as a shield, urging fasters to avoid obscene language, anger, lying, backbiting, and false oaths, equating such lapses to rendering the fast akin to non-fasting in reward.^[50]^[33] Increased worship, such as voluntary prayers and Quran recitation, is encouraged daily, alongside delaying the pre-dawn meal (suhoor) until near dawn for blessing and hastening iftar at sunset; excessive argumentation or displays of hunger should be shunned to preserve the fast's spiritual integrity.^[4]^[51] Women in menstruation or postpartum bleeding, travelers, the ill, and elderly incapable of endurance are exempt daily, with alternatives like fidya (feeding the poor) for the latter.^[50]

Variations Across Groups

Sectarian Differences

The obligation to fast during Ramadan, known as sawm, constitutes one of the Five Pillars of Islam and is upheld by both Sunni and Shia Muslims as a core religious duty requiring abstinence from food, drink, sexual intercourse, and certain other acts from dawn until sunset.^[52] However, jurisprudential interpretations derived from differing hadith collections and scholarly authorities lead to variations in the precise timing of the fast's commencement and conclusion. Sunni scholars, drawing from traditions in Sahih al-Bukhari and similar compilations, permit breaking the fast (iftar) immediately upon the sun's setting, even if residual redness (shafaq) remains visible on the horizon, as this aligns with the Prophet Muhammad's reported practice of hastening to break the fast.^[53] In contrast, Twelver Shia jurisprudence, based on narrations from the Imams such as Ja'far al-Sadiq, requires the complete disappearance of the red twilight (shafaq ahmar) before iftar, which typically delays it by 10 to 30 minutes depending on location and atmospheric conditions, emphasizing caution to avoid inadvertently consuming during daylight.^[53] A parallel distinction applies to the pre-dawn meal (suhoor): Sunnis may end it at the onset of civil twilight (faint light on the horizon), while Shias adhere to true dawn (al-fajr al-sadiq), when light spreads across the sky, potentially shortening the eating window.^[54] These temporal differences stem from divergent methodologies in authenticating prophetic traditions; Sunni reliance on broader companion narrations contrasts with Shia prioritization of reports from the Ahl al-Bayt, leading to stricter delineations in Shia fiqh to preserve the fast's validity.^[52] Consequently, in mixed communities, Shia and Sunni Muslims may observe iftar at staggered times, affecting communal meals, though the core prohibitions—intentional ingestion, vomiting, or sexual activity—remain substantively aligned across sects, with invalidation requiring qada (make-up fasts) and potential kaffara (expiation) for deliberate breaches.^[54] Among Sunni madhhabs (schools of law), intra-sect variations exist, such as Hanbali permissiveness toward certain non-sexual physical contacts versus stricter Hanafi views, but these are minor compared to Sunni-Shia divergences.^[53] For determining Ramadan's start and end, Sunnis predominantly follow physical moon sighting (ru'yat al-hilal) as per hadith in Sahih Muslim, accepting local or regional testimonies, whereas some Shia groups, including Twelvers in practice and Ismailis historically, incorporate astronomical calculations to predict new moon visibility, reducing disputes over cloudy nights but occasionally causing date discrepancies of one or two days between sects.^[55] Shia observance also integrates unique commemorations, such as reflecting on Imam Ali's martyrdom on the 19th, 21st, or 23rd nights (Laylat al-Qadr candidates), which may influence spiritual focus during fasting but do not alter the physical regimen.^[52] Smaller sects like Ibadis align closely with Sunni timing but emphasize individual accountability over communal sighting. Empirical observations in diverse regions, such as Iraq or Lebanon, confirm these practices result in synchronized yet subtly offset fasting schedules, with no evidence of doctrinal invalidation across lines.^[54]

Regional and Cultural Modifications

While the core obligation of fasting from dawn (fajr) to sunset (maghrib) remains uniform across Muslim communities, the duration of the fast varies significantly by geographic location due to differences in daylight hours. In equatorial regions like Indonesia or parts of West Africa, fasting periods typically range from 11 to 13 hours daily, allowing relatively manageable abstinence. In contrast, northern latitudes such as the United Kingdom or Canada experience 16 to 18 hours of fasting in mid-Ramadan, while southern regions like Australia or South Africa mirror similar extended periods during their summer. These variations stem directly from astronomical calculations of sunrise and sunset, with no doctrinal modifications to the prohibitions on food, drink, or other indulgences during daylight.^[56] In polar and high-latitude regions above approximately 66 degrees north—such as parts of Norway, Iceland, or Greenland—where the midnight sun persists for weeks or months during summer, traditional dawn-to-sunset fasting becomes impractical due to the absence of true twilight transitions. Muslim scholars have issued diverse fatwas to address this, including aligning fasting times with the nearest location at 45 degrees latitude (yielding 12 to 18 hours), following Mecca's prayer schedule, or adopting a fixed duration of 13 to 16 hours based on community consensus to preserve the spirit of restraint without undue hardship. For instance, Norwegian Muslim communities in 2013 opted for 14 to 16-hour fasts, prioritizing collective observance over literal sunrise absence, while some Greenland residents in 2025 reported up to 23-hour potential fasts but adjusted via travel or alternative timings to avoid health risks. These adaptations reflect ijtihad (scholarly reasoning) rather than core doctrinal change, with empirical consensus emphasizing feasibility over rigidity.^[57]^[58]^[59] Cultural practices surrounding the pre-dawn suhoor meal and sunset iftar breaking further diversify observance without altering fasting rules. In the Middle East, iftar often begins with dates and water emulating the Prophet Muhammad's tradition, followed by cannon blasts (midfa al-iftaar) in places like Lebanon to signal communal breaking, enhancing social cohesion. African Muslim communities, such as in Nigeria or Senegal, incorporate vibrant, region-specific iftar gatherings with staples like millet porridge or grilled meats, blending local agrarian customs with heightened charity (zakat al-fitr). In South Asia and Southeast Asia, suhoor features nutrient-dense foods like yogurt-based dishes or rice preparations to sustain longer tropical fasts, while diaspora communities in non-Muslim majority countries adapt by hosting inclusive iftars that integrate halal versions of local cuisines, fostering cultural exchange amid work schedule constraints. These modifications prioritize nutritional sustenance and communal bonding, supported by nutritional guidelines recommending hydration-focused suhoor to mitigate dehydration risks in arid or hot climates.^[60]^[61]^[62]

Health and Physiological Impacts

Empirical Evidence of Benefits

Empirical studies on Ramadan fasting, a form of diurnal intermittent fasting typically spanning 12-18 hours daily for 29-30 days, have documented modest improvements in body composition among healthy participants. A 2020 study of 112 adults found average weight reductions of 0.81-1.4 kg, accompanied by decreases in body mass index (BMI) and fat mass, though some muscle mass loss was observed.^[7] Similarly, a 2021 meta-analysis comparing Ramadan and non-Ramadan intermittent fasting protocols reported significant fat mass and overall weight losses, with non-Ramadan variants showing slightly greater fat reduction but comparable efficacy.^[63] These changes are attributed to caloric restriction and altered meal timing, though long-term retention varies.^[64] Cardiovascular markers exhibit positive shifts in multiple investigations. A 2021 analysis of observational data from over 2,000 participants linked Ramadan fasting to reductions in systolic blood pressure by 3-5 mmHg and diastolic by 1-3 mmHg, particularly in normotensive individuals and those with mild hypertension.^[65] Metabolic syndrome components also improve, with a 2023 study of 95 adults showing decreased waist circumference, triglycerides, and fasting glucose levels post-fasting, alongside ameliorated inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein.^[66] These effects align with broader intermittent fasting research, suggesting enhanced lipid profiles and reduced oxidative stress.^[67] Biochemical and hormonal adaptations further support potential benefits. Participants often experience elevated high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and improved liver enzyme profiles, as evidenced in a controlled trial measuring pre- and post-Ramadan biomarkers.^[7] Hormonal responses include increased ghrelin, which may promote satiety post-fasting, per a meta-analysis of 16 studies.^[68] Emerging evidence points to anti-inflammatory and autophagic processes, with reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines observed in fasters.^[69] Mental health outcomes show preliminary gains, including lowered anxiety and depression scores in systematic reviews of observational data, without heightened fatigue.^[70] A 2024 randomized trial of modified Ramadan protocols with pre-fasting lifestyle advice reported enhanced quality of life and emotional resilience.^[71] However, these benefits are context-dependent, influenced by hydration, nutrition during non-fasting hours, and individual health status, with most studies limited to short-term effects in Muslim populations.^[9]

Documented Risks and Adverse Effects

Fasting during Ramadan, involving abstinence from food and fluids from dawn to sunset for approximately 12–18 hours daily over 29–30 days, has been associated with dehydration due to prolonged fluid restriction, particularly in hot climates or among individuals with high physical activity levels. This can lead to symptoms such as dry mouth, fatigue, and reduced urine output, with evidence from observational studies reporting increased incidences of volume depletion and orthostatic hypotension in fasters.^[72] Dehydration exacerbates risks during physical exertion, contributing to heat-related illnesses, though empirical data indicate these effects are generally mild in healthy adults but more pronounced in elderly or obese individuals.^[73] Among individuals with diabetes, particularly type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), Ramadan fasting elevates the risk of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Prospective studies document a pronounced increase in severe hypoglycemic events requiring hospitalization, with relative risks up to 1.6 times higher compared to non-fasting periods, attributed to disrupted medication timing and meal patterns.^[74] ^[75] For type 2 diabetes patients, while risks are lower with proper adjustments, meta-analyses confirm elevated incidences of both hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, with factors like male gender, sedative use, and prior hypoglycemic history as significant predictors.^[76] Guidelines from endocrine societies, such as the American Diabetes Association, classify fasting as high-risk for uncontrolled diabetics, recommending exemptions to mitigate complications like thrombosis and metabolic decompensation.^[77] ^[78] Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) or cardiovascular disease face heightened adverse events, including acute kidney injury from dehydration-induced hypoperfusion and worsened electrolyte imbalances. Narrative reviews of clinical data highlight increased hospitalization rates for renal complications during Ramadan, especially in moderate-to-severe CKD stages, where fluid restriction compounds baseline vulnerabilities.^[79] Cardiovascular risks may include arrhythmias or exacerbations in heart failure due to electrolyte shifts and hemodynamic stress, though randomized controlled trials are limited, relying instead on cohort studies showing trends toward poorer outcomes.^[80] Minor adverse effects reported in healthy fasters include headaches, heartburn, constipation, and disrupted sleep patterns, often linked to altered circadian rhythms and gastrointestinal motility changes from nocturnal eating. Surveys and small-scale studies note these symptoms in up to 20–30% of participants, typically resolving post-Ramadan, but contributing to temporary reductions in cognitive performance and productivity.^[73] For pregnant women, while exemptions are prescribed, evidence from cohort analyses suggests potential risks of low birth weight or preterm labor in those who fast, though systematic reviews indicate inconclusive data due to self-selection bias and small sample sizes.^[81] Overall, risks are mitigated by pre-Ramadan medical counseling, but non-compliance among exempt groups underscores the need for targeted interventions.^[82]

Communal Iftar and Charity

Communal iftars represent a central social practice during Ramadan, where Muslims gather at mosques, homes, or community venues to collectively break the daily fast at sunset, typically beginning with dates and water in emulation of the Prophet Muhammad's tradition before proceeding to a shared meal. These gatherings foster family and community bonds, emphasizing hospitality, solidarity, and social exchange, as recognized by UNESCO for their role in strengthening interpersonal ties across Muslim societies. Mosques frequently organize iftars specifically for the needy, providing meals to those unable to host or afford private gatherings, thereby integrating charitable acts into the communal breaking of the fast.^[83]^[84] Charity constitutes an integral dimension of Ramadan observance, with obligatory Zakat al-Fitr—also termed Fitrana—requiring each able Muslim to donate a sa' (approximately 2.5-3 kilograms) of staple food such as wheat, rice, or dates, or its cash equivalent, per family member before the Eid al-Fitr prayer to purify the faster and enable the poor to celebrate the holiday. This form of almsgiving must be disbursed during Ramadan or by Eid morning, directly aiding the destitute and ensuring broader participation in festivities, as outlined by Islamic charitable organizations. Voluntary sadaqah, encompassing additional donations like funding community iftars or aiding orphans, is highly encouraged throughout the month, amplifying acts of generosity amid heightened spiritual focus.^[85]^[86]^[87] Empirical studies indicate that these practices enhance social cohesion; for instance, a 2025 cross-sectional survey in Muslim communities found 65% of respondents exhibited strong social bonding during Ramadan, attributed to shared iftars and charitable giving that mediate solidarity through generosity. Such communal efforts alleviate poverty by distributing resources to vulnerable groups, promoting interfaith understanding in diverse settings, and reinforcing collective empathy, though outcomes vary by regional enforcement and economic conditions.^[88]^[89]^[90]

Culmination in Eid al-Fitr

Eid al-Fitr, known as the "Festival of Breaking the Fast," commemorates the completion of the obligatory fast of Ramadan, signifying spiritual renewal and gratitude for divine sustenance after a month of abstinence from food, drink, and other physical indulgences during daylight hours.^[91]^[92] The holiday commences on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, determined either by the physical sighting of the new crescent moon or, in some traditions, by the completion of 30 days of fasting if clouds obscure the sky.^[93] A key preparatory obligation is Zakat al-Fitr, an obligatory alms-giving required of every capable Muslim on behalf of themselves and dependents, including infants and fetuses, to purify any verbal or behavioral impurities accrued during fasting and to ensure the poor can partake in the festivities.^[94] The amount equals one sa' (approximately 2.5–3 kilograms) of staple food such as dates, barley, wheat, or rice, depending on regional norms, and must be distributed before the Eid prayer, ideally during Ramadan but no later than dawn on Eid day to avoid invalidation.^[95]^[96] Delaying payment beyond the Eid prayer renders it a compensatory debt rather than fulfilling the Ramadan-specific rite.^[97] The central ritual is Salat al-Eid, a congregational prayer consisting of two rak'ahs performed in unison after sunrise and before noon, typically in open musalla areas or mosques to accommodate large gatherings.^[98] It features six additional takbirs (declarations of "Allahu Akbar")—three in each rak'ah after the opening takbir and before Quranic recitation—distinguishing it from standard prayers, followed by a khutbah (sermon) emphasizing gratitude and community.^[99]^[100] Participants often wear new or festive attire, with men growing beards or applying perfume as sunnah practices, and the prayer underscores collective joy and forgiveness.^[101] Post-prayer observances include communal feasts breaking the fast's austerity with sweets, meats, and shared meals; family visitations; exchange of greetings like "Eid Mubarak"; and acts of charity and reconciliation, fostering social bonds strained by the month's introspective demands.^[91] These elements transition Muslims from Ramadan's discipline to sustained piety, with empirical observations noting heightened community cohesion and economic activity through gift-giving and market surges in confectionery and apparel.^[93] The festival lasts one to three days, varying by country, but its core remains a mandated expression of thanksgiving rooted in prophetic traditions.^[102]

Controversies and Criticisms

Medical and Health Debates

Ramadan fasting, involving abstinence from food and fluids from dawn to sunset for approximately 29–30 days, has sparked debates among medical professionals regarding its net health impacts, particularly weighing potential metabolic benefits against risks of dehydration and metabolic disruptions. Proponents cite observational studies indicating improvements in cardiometabolic markers, such as reduced body mass index (BMI), lipid profiles, and blood pressure in stable cardiac patients, attributing these to caloric restriction and circadian-aligned eating patterns.^[103] ^[104] However, critics argue that such benefits are often short-term and confounded by lifestyle factors like increased evening meals, with weight loss typically regained post-Ramadan due to compensatory overeating.^[105] A key contention involves intermittent fasting's effects on hormonal regulation, where systematic reviews show elevated ghrelin levels but no consistent changes in leptin, insulin, or gastrin, potentially aiding appetite control yet risking disrupted energy homeostasis.^[106] Some research suggests anti-inflammatory and oxidative stress reductions, alongside ameliorated inflammatory profiles, positioning Ramadan fasting as comparable to other intermittent fasting regimens for healthy adults.^[67] ^[66] Conversely, evidence highlights performance decrements in athletes, including altered energy metabolism and sleep disruptions, challenging claims of universal physiological adaptation.^[107] Debates intensify for vulnerable populations, where fasting elevates risks of hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, dehydration, and thrombosis in diabetics, with studies like EPIDIAR reporting a 7.5-fold increase in severe hypoglycemia during observance.^[108] ^[109] Medical guidelines recommend pre-Ramadan assessments and exemptions for those with uncontrolled conditions, yet social pressures in some communities may lead to non-adherence, exacerbating adverse outcomes.^[77] ^[110] For patients with gastrointestinal or hepatic issues, intermittent fasting poses challenges like altered liver function and increased complication risks, underscoring calls for personalized risk stratification over blanket endorsements.^[111] ^[112] Mental health aspects remain contested, with meta-analyses indicating reduced anxiety and depression without heightened fatigue, potentially linked to communal discipline, though sleep fragmentation and irritability from hunger could offset gains in susceptible individuals.^[70] Overall, while empirical data supports safety for most healthy observers, the absence of randomized controlled trials limits causal inferences, fueling skepticism toward overstated benefits amid documented harms in at-risk groups.^[9]

Enforcement and Coercion Issues

In several Muslim-majority countries, public observance of Ramadan fasting is enforced through legal measures prohibiting eating, drinking, or smoking in public during daylight hours, with penalties including fines, imprisonment, flogging, or deportation.^[113]^[114] In Saudi Arabia, authorities have explicitly warned non-Muslim expatriates against such acts, threatening expulsion, as expatriates comprise a significant portion of the workforce and are expected to respect local customs despite exemptions for personal observance.^[115] Similarly, in the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, foreigners have faced arrest for public consumption, underscoring the extension of rules beyond Muslims to maintain social order.^[116] Enforcement often involves dedicated patrols or "morality police," as seen in Malaysia where officials have disguised themselves as vendors to detect non-fasting Muslims, leading to arrests for violating Islamic norms.^[117] In Nigeria's northern states, 25 individuals were arrested in March 2025 for either failing to fast or selling food publicly, reflecting localized Sharia-based policing.^[118] Aceh province in Indonesia applies corporal punishment, with nine vendors sentenced to flogging in 2015 for operating food stalls during fasting hours, though national policy permits discretion for non-Muslims elsewhere.^[119] Morocco's 2009 crackdown, which Human Rights Watch criticized as infringing on personal freedoms, targeted public eating but formally exempted non-Muslims, highlighting tensions between state coercion and minority rights.^[120] Beyond state action, familial and communal coercion pressures adherence, particularly for those questioning faith or facing medical exemptions, with non-observance risking social ostracism, domestic violence, or accusations of apostasy in conservative settings.^[121] In contexts where apostasy carries severe penalties under Sharia interpretations—such as imprisonment or death in countries like Saudi Arabia—individuals may fast publicly to avoid scrutiny, even if privately dissenting, compounding psychological strain during the month-long period.^[122] Human rights organizations argue these practices undermine bodily autonomy and religious freedom, as exemptions for illness or travel in Islamic jurisprudence are inconsistently applied amid enforcement zeal.^[120]^[113]

Societal and Economic Consequences

Fasting during Ramadan has been associated with measurable reductions in economic productivity and output in Muslim-majority countries, primarily due to daytime caloric restriction and altered work patterns. Empirical analysis of panel data from 1981 to 2008 across 188 countries found that longer average daylight fasting hours during Ramadan correlate with lower contemporaneous real GDP per worker growth, with an additional hour of fasting linked to approximately a 0.7 percentage point decline in annual GDP growth for affected nations.^[123] This effect is attributed to shifts away from formal employment and reduced labor effort, rather than direct physiological impairment alone, and persists even after controlling for factors like population growth and institutional quality.^[124] In agriculture-dependent economies, such as rural India, fasting during peak planting or harvest seasons has led to 20-40% drops in worker productivity, contributing to about 1% declines in sectoral GDP.^[125]^[126] Consumption patterns shift markedly, with heightened nighttime spending on food and goods offsetting some daytime economic slowdowns but exacerbating inflationary pressures in certain sectors. Households in Muslim-majority countries often allocate 15% of annual food expenditures to Ramadan, driving 50-100% increases in grocery and dining bills, particularly for dates, sweets, and prepared meals consumed post-sunset.^[127] In Turkey, food price indices rise significantly during the month compared to non-Ramadan periods, while industrial production falls, reflecting deferred daytime activities and supply chain disruptions.^[128] Overall, these dynamics yield a net negative on aggregate growth, though retail and hospitality sectors experience temporary booms, with commerce extending into evenings.^[124] Societally, Ramadan fasting correlates with elevated risks of traffic accidents and injuries, linked to factors like dehydration, fatigue, and disrupted sleep from late-night iftar meals. A study of daily data from Tehran, Iran, from 2018-2022 showed average daytime traffic accidents rising to 27.24 per day during Ramadan versus 24.77 in other months, with injuries increasing significantly (p=0.001).^[129] In Saudi Arabia, emergency responses to road traffic crashes averaged 12,969 during Ramadan 2011, exceeding the monthly norm of 11,573, with 39% of incidents tied to speeding during peak afternoon hours (14:00-18:00) when fasting effects peak.^[130] Vulnerable road users, including pedestrians and motorcyclists, face heightened risks, though some analyses report no overall rise in fatalities when adjusted for traffic volume.^[131] These patterns underscore causal links between fasting-induced physiological strain and impaired vigilance, particularly in high-heat environments without adjusted work or school schedules.^[132] On interpersonal levels, fasting fosters communal bonds through shared iftars and charity but can strain family dynamics via irregular routines and potential irritability. While acts of zakat (obligatory almsgiving) enhance social cohesion, empirical evidence points to broader productivity drags affecting education and long-term human capital, such as reduced student achievement from intense fasting exposure during school years.^[89]^[133] In workplaces, Muslim employees exhibit fewer injuries (down 4%) possibly from cautious behavior, yet overall output and performance decline, prompting adaptations like shortened hours in countries like the UAE and Indonesia.^[134] These consequences highlight trade-offs between spiritual observance and secular efficiency, with minimal evidence of compensatory gains in non-economic societal metrics.^[135]

Contemporary Observance

Adaptations to Modern Lifestyles

In Muslim-majority countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, governments often implement reduced work hours during Ramadan, shortening public sector shifts from eight to six hours daily to mitigate fatigue from fasting and align with later iftar times.^[136] Private sector employers frequently follow suit, offering flexible start times or compressed workweeks to accommodate dawn-to-dusk abstinence, which can span 12 to 18 hours depending on latitude and season.^[137] Employers in non-Muslim majority nations provide accommodations like telework, adjusted schedules, and private prayer areas to support fasting employees, as required under laws such as Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act for reasonable religious adjustments absent undue hardship.^[138]^[139] For instance, companies like Google enable flexible hours and iftar breaks for Muslim staff, while some designate quiet spaces for tarawih prayers or suhoor preparation.^[140] Shift workers may negotiate exemptions or compensatory fasts post-Ramadan, per Islamic jurisprudence allowing flexibility for those whose jobs involve irregular hours or travel.^[141] Mobile applications aid precise observance amid modern routines, delivering geolocated prayer times, fasting countdowns, and hydration reminders to coordinate suhoor before dawn and iftar at sunset.^[142] Tools like Muslim Pro, with over 170 million downloads as of 2023, integrate Quran recitation, qibla compasses, and halal food locators, facilitating compliance during commutes or remote work.^[143] Wearable devices and wellness trackers monitor biometrics like heart rate during extended fasts, particularly in high-latitude regions where abstinence exceeds 20 hours, helping users adjust sleep and activity to sustain productivity.^[144] In diaspora communities of non-Muslim countries, adaptations include virtual iftars via platforms like Zoom for global families and community centers hosting adjusted prayer sessions to counter daylight variations, with studies noting sustained fasting rates through peer support despite cognitive dips from prolonged abstinence.^[145]^[146] Remote work, amplified since 2020, permits napping during daylight and evening productivity peaks, balancing professional demands with spiritual discipline.^[147]

Recent Scientific and Cultural Developments

Recent studies have examined the metabolic and hormonal impacts of Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF), revealing shifts such as elevated ghrelin levels without significant changes in leptin, insulin, or gastrin, potentially influencing appetite regulation during the fasting period.00006-8/fulltext) A 2024 analysis linked RIF to improved dopamine-related outcomes, including elevated total and free phenylethylamine sulfate, suggesting neuroprotective effects amid caloric restriction.^[148] In type 2 diabetes patients, RIF has demonstrated enhancements in liver function, gut microbiota diversity, and metabolic markers like insulin sensitivity, positioning it as a potential adjunct for glycemic control when medically supervised. Comparative research highlights distinctions from secular intermittent fasting protocols; while both reduce body weight and fat mass, non-Ramadan variants yield greater fat loss due to more consistent daily patterns, whereas RIF's nocturnal disruptions and dehydration risks may attenuate benefits.^[63] A 2025 study on intermittent Islamic fasting reported significant reductions in body weight and systolic blood pressure, alongside improved lipid profiles, in participants with metabolic syndrome, though long-term adherence and causality remain under investigation given observational designs.^[149] Dawn-to-dusk dry fasting shows preliminary promise in mitigating cardiometabolic risks and obesity, but evidence underscores variability by climate, baseline health, and exemptions for vulnerable groups like the elderly or ill.^[150] Culturally, the COVID-19 pandemic prompted adaptations in observance, including virtual iftars and curtailed congregational tarawih prayers to curb transmission, altering communal rituals while emphasizing household spirituality.^[151] These shifts exacerbated sleep disturbances and reduced training among Muslim athletes under lockdowns, compounding fatigue from fasting.^[152] Post-pandemic, observance has integrated hybrid elements, with increased focus on digital platforms for education and charity, alongside sustained emphasis on social cohesion through generosity.^[153] In modern contexts, RIF coincides with evolving lifestyle demands, prompting research into cognitive effects like potential short-term impairments from self-deprivation, balanced against reported reductions in oxidative stress.^[154] Global trends reflect heightened cultural tourism and culinary innovations during non-fasting hours, fostering economic activity but raising concerns over compensatory overconsumption.^[155]

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Understanding Zakat al-Fitr, Zakat al-Maal, and Fidya
Zakat al-Fitr: A Purification for Fasting. Zakat al-Fitr is an obligatory charity that every Muslim must pay before the end of Ramadan, usually before the Eid ...
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Zakat Al-Fitr - IHR - International Humanitarian Relief
Zakat al-Fitr should be paid before the Eid prayer. It is forbidden to delay it after Eid, and it must be made up if it is missed. It is preferable to pay it ...<|separator|>
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Zakat al Fitr: When and How to Fulfill this Duty - IQRA Network
Apr 8, 2024 · Timing: The obligation becomes due the night before Eid al-Fitr, and it remains due until just before the Eid prayer. However, it is recommended ...
[97]
Zakat Al Fitr: Amount, Timing, Recipients - Bonyan organization
Jan 15, 2024 · The obligation commences from sunset on the last day of fasting in Ramadan and continues until the commencement of the Eid al-Fitr prayer, which ...
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Description of Eid prayer - Islamway
The Eid prayer is one where the imam attends and leads the people in praying two rak'ahs. 'Umar (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The prayer of ...
[99]
How to Pray Eid Salah - Amaliah
Eid prayer is two units (rak'ahs) performed in the morning, after sunrise, before zawaal. It includes takbeers, Surah al-Fatiha, and a portion of the Quran.
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How to's of Eid day and Eid ul-Fitr Salat | SoundVision.com
Eid Salat (prayer) consists of two Rakat (units of prayer) with six Takbeers (saying of the words “Allahu akbar”, which means God is the Greatest) in a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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How to pray Eid salah (prayer) - Islamic Relief Worldwide
Mar 28, 2025 · First, perform ghusl/wudhu, eat something, say takbir tashriq. Then, say opening takbir, supplication, 3 takbir, listen to imam, and follow the ...
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Eid al-Fitr: celebration and spirituality - Life ONG
It is a joyful occasion that brings Muslim communities around the world together in a celebration of spirituality, generosity, and gratitude to Allah.
[103]
Review on the effects of fasting on cardiac patients - PMC - NIH
Sep 18, 2025 · Available data suggests that fasting in Ramadan is safe for stable cardiac patients, with improvements in BMI, lipid profiles, blood pressure, ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[104]
The impact of religious fasting on human health - Nutrition Journal
Nov 22, 2010 · Some of the more favorable effects of these fasts include the lowering of body mass, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio.Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[105]
Body Weight Changes During Ramadan Intermittent Fasting: A ...
Feb 5, 2025 · Similarly, another meta-analysis, despite the variations in fasting-related factors, found a significant reduction in body weight and body fat ...
[106]
Effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on hormones regulating ...
Conclusion: Ramadan intermittent fasting significantly increases ghrelin concentrations while showing no significant effects on leptin, insulin, and gastrin.
[107]
Effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on performance ... - Frontiers
Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) has been shown to induce alterations in energy metabolism, hormonal fluctuations, and sleep pattern disruptions, which all ...
[108]
Diabetes Management During Ramadan - Endotext - NCBI Bookshelf
May 18, 2022 · Rigorous exercise/activity during the fasting period should be avoided as this can increase the risk of hypoglycemia and dehydration, especially ...
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Recommendations for Management of Diabetes During Ramadan
Aug 1, 2010 · The effect of fasting during Ramadan on rates of hypoglycemia in patients with diabetes is not known with certainty.
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Mayo Clinic Q and A: Diabetes and fasting during Ramadan
Apr 7, 2022 · There are potential risks of complications from fasting, such as low or high blood sugar, and dehydration.
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Ramadan intermittent fasting for patients with gastrointestinal and ...
Ramadan intermittent fasting can pose challenges and risks for some groups of patients. Based on a narrative literature review and our clinical expertise, ...
[112]
The effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on liver function in ...
Growing evidence is suggestive that intermittent fasting likely to improve liver function; however, still the evidences are controversial to draw a ...
[113]
Who are Islamic 'morality police'? - BBC News
Apr 22, 2016 · They have the power of arrest, and possible offences range from day-time eating during Ramadan to women and men being "in close proximity".
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Saudi Arabia threatens to expel non-Muslims caught eating, drinking ...
Jul 20, 2012 · Saudi authorities warned non-Muslim expatriates on Friday, the first day of Ramadan, not to eat, drink, or smoke in public until the end of the ...Missing: UAE Indonesia<|separator|>
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Non-Muslims told not to eat in public in Ramadan - Arab News
The Interior Ministry has warned that it would deport non-Muslim expatriates found eating and drinking in public during Ramadan.Missing: arrests UAE Indonesia
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7 Countries Where Drinking Water in Ramadan Could Land You in Jail
Jun 26, 2017 · Foreigners have been arrested for 'breaking fast' in Kuwait and United Arab Emirates strictly forbids anyone to eat/drink during daylight in ...
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Malaysia sends out 'Ramadan police' to bust non-fasting Muslims
May 23, 2019 · Malaysian officials are disguising themselves as cooks and waiters to catch Muslims who don't fast during Ramadan.
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Nigerian Muslims arrested for eating in public during Ramadan - BBC
Mar 3, 2025 · A total of 25 people are arrested for either not fasting or selling food during the fasting month.Missing: enforcement | Show results with:enforcement<|separator|>
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Aceh: nine sentenced to flogging for selling food during Ramadan
Jun 25, 2015 · As reported in recent days by the Christian newspaper Sinar Harapan, authorities arrested nine food vendors within their kiosks, for selling ...Missing: eating | Show results with:eating
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Morocco: End Police Actions Against Persons Accused of Breaking ...
Sep 19, 2009 · Article 222 exempts Morocco's non-Muslim minorities - such as Jews and non-Muslim foreigners - from the ban on public eating during Ramadan.Missing: enforcement | Show results with:enforcement
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The other side of Ramadan | New Humanist
Jul 15, 2013 · As for ex-Muslims, many of whom are unable to freely express their apostasy ... coercive, hypocritical side of Ramadan. In this sense it is also a ...
[122]
2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saudi Arabia
The law criminalizes “anyone who challenges, either directly or indirectly, the religion or justice of the King or Crown Prince.” The law prohibits “the ...
[123]
[PDF] Does Religion Affect Economic Growth and Happiness: Evidence ...
This evidence indicates that the negative effect of Ramadan fasting on GDP growth is mostly driven by occupational choice out of formal employment and into the ...
[124]
https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/130/2/615/2330341
[125]
Heather Schofield Study Shows Muslims Less Productive During ...
Jul 2, 2016 · The study found that fasting by Indian agriculture workers led to a 20-40% drop in productivity when the holy month fell in the planting or ...
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[PDF] RAMADAN FASTING AND AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT
Overlap between Ramadan and labor-intensive farming causes declines in production, about 1% of agricultural GDP, and 20-40% decrease in productivity per ...
[127]
The economic impact of Ramadan on the food sector
Ramadan sees increased food consumption, 50-100% higher bills, 15% of annual food expenditure, and increased sales for retail and hospitality, with 46% of ...
[128]
Ramadan Effect on Prices and Production: Case of Turkey
Aug 9, 2025 · We observed that the Food Price Index and prices of some goods increase, and production decrease in Ramadan, significantly more than in other months.
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Does fasting in Ramadan increase the risk of traffic accidents? A ...
Feb 24, 2025 · The number of traffic accidents during the daytime in the month of Ramadan was 27.24 ± 1.14 on average and 24.77 ± 0.34 in other months, which ...
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[PDF] Road traffic crashes in Ramadan: an observational study
Data analysis revealed that the service responded to 12 969 RTC emergencies during August. 2011 (Ramadan), compared with an average of 11 573 RTCs per month ...
[131]
[PDF] Vulnerable road users are at greater risk during ramadan
The aim of the current study was to assess the frequency and outcome of RTCs during non-Ramadan and Ramadan as well as the association with the time of the day ...
[132]
Does fasting in Ramadan increase the risk of traffic accidents? A ...
Feb 24, 2025 · Results: The average daily traffic accidents (p-value = 0.040) and injuries (p-value = 0.001). increased significantly in the month of Ramadan.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Ramadan intensity and subsequent student achievement - CEPR
Jan 22, 2022 · The observance of fasting during Ramadan has been widely associated with detrimental health effects as well as poor economic performance.<|separator|>
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The Ramadan effect in the workplace - ScienceDirect.com
Nov 26, 2024 · We show a decrease by 4% in injuries for Muslim workers. We investigate the effects on labor market and find significant changes at the extensive margin.
[135]
[PDF] Does Religion Affect Economic Growth and Happiness? Evidence ...
Longer Ramadan fasting negatively affects output growth in Muslim countries, but increases subjective well-being among Muslims.<|separator|>
[136]
Adjusting Work Hours During Ramadan: How Different Countries ...
Mar 6, 2025 · But beyond religious devotion, Ramadan also brings significant changes to daily routines—including work schedules. Businesses and governments in ...
[137]
The impact of fasting on workplace productivity and wellbeing
Aug 6, 2025 · People may adjust their working hours during Ramadan, often shifting to shorter hours or different timings to accommodate fasting and prayer ...
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Ramadan Starts Soon: Considerations for Employers - Ogletree
Employers can consider flexible work hours and/or telework to accommodate Muslim employees' religious needs. Some employees may need to request time off to ...
[139]
Religious Accommodation During Ramadan | OutSolve Blog
A Ramadan religious accommodation may be to provide a break at sundown. Muslim employees may want to take time off at the end of Ramadan for Eid al-Fitr.What Is Ramadan? · Ramadan Work Accommodations... · Flexible Scheduling Can...
[140]
Ramadan and the Tech Industry: Building a More Inclusive Workplace
Apr 8, 2023 · Google also provides flexible working schedules accompanied by Ramadan-themed events and thought-out food options for fasting Muslim employees.Missing: adaptations modern lifestyles
[141]
Ramadan in the Workplace: Best Practices for Employers - ExtensisHR
Feb 28, 2025 · To accommodate those working during Ramadan, employers may offer flexible scheduling, provide private prayer spaces, and more.
[142]
Top Eight Apps for Making the Most of Ramadan - Blog
1. Muslim Pro · Daily suhoor and iftar notifications. Audio and visual Quran recitation. Qibla direction finder ; 2. Quranly · Personalized Quran reading plans ...
[143]
Eight essential apps for Muslims observing Ramadan - The Guardian
Jun 17, 2015 · Eight essential apps for Muslims observing Ramadan · 1. al Quran · 2. Zabihah · 3. Muslim Pro (Ramadan 2015) · 4. Ramadan Legacy · 5. Good Habits · 6.
[144]
How to Use Wellness Tech to Navigate Ramadan | Vogue
Mar 9, 2025 · From wellness apps that track fasting benefits to smart devices designed to aid prayer and mindfulness, innovation is helping bridge tradition ...
[145]
Celebrating Ramadan in the digital age - Focus - Al-Ahram Weekly
Mar 19, 2024 · Technology has revolutionised the way Ramadan is celebrated by offering virtual alternatives for gatherings, prayers, and community events.
[146]
Challenges of Observing Ramadan in Non-Muslim Countries - VOA
May 5, 2019 · "Being part of an environment or community where fasting is encouraged and accommodated can increase the likelihood of people fasting ...
[147]
How to Balance Remote Work and Ramadan: Tips & Challenges
Apr 17, 2023 · Technology helps you stay present at work and experience Ramadan simultaneously. Ramadan isn't just about balancing work and life with family. ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[148]
Ramadan intermittent fasting is associated with improved ... - Nature
Jun 15, 2024 · Interestingly, in the current study, we found that RIF was associated with increased levels of both total and free PS but no significant ...
[149]
Effect of intermittent Islamic fasting in management of metabolic ...
Jul 16, 2025 · Intermittent Islamic fasting (ISF) demonstrated a statistically significant enhancement in weight regulation, systolic blood pressure, ...
[150]
Cardiometabolic and obesity risk outcomes of dawn-to-dusk, dry ...
Dawn-to-dusk, dry RIF shows promise as a complementary therapy and preventive measure for reducing cardiometabolic and obesity-related risks.
[151]
The COVID-19 Crisis: Adaptations and Tensions During the Month ...
In this conversation, participants discussed the impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on religious practices and gatherings during Ramadan and the role of faith ...
[152]
Ramadan Observance Exacerbated the Negative Effects of COVID ...
Ramadan Observance Exacerbated the Negative Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Sleep and Training Behaviors: A International Survey on 1,681 Muslim Athletes - PMC.
[153]
Ramadan: the month of fasting for muslim and social cohesion ...
This study identifies that through the spiritual practices of fasting and acts of generosity, Ramadan can promote social cohesion (Moller, 2005; Shalihin et al.
[154]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2153599X.2025.2487277
[155]
Ramadan Reimagined – Travel, Food, and Community in 2025
Jan 16, 2025 · Aside from fasting and prayer, Ramadan is also a time for cultural discovery, with unique travel experiences and a thriving food scene that emerges during ...