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Felt

Felt is a non-woven textile produced by matting, condensing, and pressing fibers—traditionally wool or animal fur, but also synthetic materials—together through the application of heat, moisture, and mechanical agitation or pressure.^[1]^[2] This process creates a dense, interlocking structure without weaving or knitting, resulting in a versatile fabric known for its durability, insulation properties, and ability to be molded into various shapes.^[3] The origins of felt trace back over 6,000 years, with the earliest archaeological evidence from around 6500 BC, making it one of humanity's oldest textiles.^[3] It played a central role in the lives of nomadic peoples in Central Asia and Mongolia for millennia, serving as essential material for tents (yurts), clothing, rugs, saddles, and protective gear due to its warmth, water resistance, and portability.^[4]^[5] Felt's production and use spread across Eurasia, influencing cultures from ancient Scythians to medieval Europeans, where it was prized for hats, boots, and ecclesiastical vestments.^[6] In modern applications, felt remains popular for its thermal and acoustic insulation, finding use in fashion items like hats and linings, industrial components such as machinery seals and vibration dampeners, and crafts including toys, decorations, and home furnishings.^[3]^[7] Key types include traditional wool felt, valued for its natural felting properties from the scales on wool fibers; synthetic felt, made from materials like acrylic or rayon for cost-effectiveness and uniformity; and specialized variants like pressed felt for heavy-duty uses or needled felt for sculptural art.^[3]^[8] Its eco-friendly potential is highlighted in contemporary sustainable practices, where recycled fibers are increasingly incorporated to reduce environmental impact.^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Composition and Formation

Felt is a non-woven textile produced by matting, condensing, and pressing fibers together, rather than weaving or knitting them into yarns. This process creates a dense, cohesive fabric without the need for spinning or interlacing threads. While traditionally made from natural fibers such as wool or animal fur, felt can also incorporate hair, cotton, or synthetic materials like acrylic and rayon, allowing for varied textures and properties depending on the fiber blend.^[3]^[9] At the molecular level, the felting process relies on the unique structure of wool fibers, which consist of a central cortex surrounded by an outer cuticle layer of overlapping scales resembling roof tiles. These scales, oriented from the root to the tip of the fiber, create directional friction: lower when stroked toward the tip (with-scale) and higher when rubbed against it (against-scale). When wool fibers are subjected to agitation, moisture, and heat, the scales interlock like ratchets, causing irreversible migration and entanglement that compacts the fibers into a solid mass. This phenomenon, known as felting shrinkage, is enhanced by the fibers' crimp—a natural waviness that promotes initial tangling—and is most effective in wools with sufficient scale coverage and length, typically 5–20 cm for optimal matting.^[10]^[11] Natural fibers dominate felt production, with sheep's wool being the primary choice due to its scaliness and crimp, which facilitate strong interlocking. Merino wool, prized for finer felt, features fibers of 17–25 micrometers in diameter with high crimp frequency (typically 4–8 waves per centimeter), resulting in softer, more uniform fabrics compared to coarser wools.^[12]^[13]^[14] Synthetic fibers such as acrylic or rayon, often derived from petroleum or wood pulp, can mimic these properties but require mechanical or chemical assistance to achieve similar cohesion, as they lack inherent scales. Fiber length influences density, with longer staples providing greater strength during compression, while crimp and scale structure determine the ease and permanence of bonding.^[15] Unlike woven or knitted fabrics, which exhibit anisotropic strength due to aligned yarns creating directional patterns and potential weak points, felt's random fiber orientation yields isotropic properties, distributing mechanical stress evenly in all directions for enhanced uniformity and flexibility.^[16]^[17]

Physical Properties

Felt exhibits a wide range of densities typically between 0.1 and 0.4 g/cm³, with variations depending on the intended application; for instance, lightweight craft felts often fall in the 0.17-0.25 g/cm³ range, while denser industrial varieties can reach 0.36 g/cm³ or higher.^[18]^[19]^[20] Thickness also varies significantly, from thin sheets of 0.5-1 mm used in crafts to robust industrial felts up to 10-30 mm or more for insulation and padding purposes.^[21]^[22] The material's thermal insulation stems from its entangled fiber structure, which traps air and yields low thermal conductivity values, often comparable to or better than other fibrous insulators per unit weight.^[23] Acoustically, felt provides effective sound absorption due to its porosity and density, with absorption coefficients ranging from 0.77 to 0.98 (77-98%) at moderate frequencies (around 500-2000 Hz) and approaching 1.0 at higher frequencies, enhancing its utility in noise control.^[24]^[25] In terms of durability, wool felt demonstrates tensile strength typically from 225 to 500 psi (approximately 1550-3447 kPa), offering resistance to tearing under load.^[26] It also exhibits good abrasion resistance, with SAE-grade felts rated excellent in this property, and can absorb up to 30-35% of its weight in moisture without structural compromise or loss of shape.^[27]^[28]^[29] Felt's elasticity and moldability arise from the interlocking wool fibers, allowing it to be shaped when damp and retain form upon drying, with compression recovery rates often exceeding 99% after deflection.^[30]^[31] Natural wool felt dyes effectively with acid dyes due to the fiber's affinity for them, achieving vibrant colors with generally good fastness properties; however, synthetic felt variants may experience fading under prolonged UV exposure.^[32]^[33]^[34]

History

Ancient Origins

The ancient origins of felt are traced to the Neolithic period in Anatolia, with direct archaeological evidence of felt remains—animal hair pressed together—from sites like Çatalhöyük dating to around 5700 BC.^[35] Archaeological evidence from the Central Asian steppes indicates that nomadic tribes, including predecessors of the Scythians, utilized felt for practical items like yurts, rugs, and clothing, with preservation issues limiting early finds and the most well-preserved examples dating to later periods.^[35] The most well-preserved examples come from the Pazyryk burials in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, dated to the 5th century BCE, where frozen conditions protected intricate felt artifacts such as embroidered wall hangings, boots, caps, and horse trappings depicting mythical creatures like griffins. These items, often layered with leather and fur, underscore felt's role in elite burial rites, horse gear for nomadic warfare, and cultural symbolism among Scythian-like peoples, with techniques showing advanced appliqué and dyeing. Felt's spread is evident in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia (c. 550–330 BCE), where it was used for saddle covers and protective gear, as seen in artifacts with applied felt decorations influenced by Central Asian styles.^[36] The earliest known written records of felt appear in Han Dynasty texts (206 BCE–220 CE) describing production from wool for armor and tents, indicating its adoption along Silk Road trade routes.^[35] Primarily made from sheep wool due to its natural scaliness that facilitates felting, early felt was dominated by animal fibers for durability in harsh steppe climates.^[35]

Historical Development and Professionalization

In medieval Europe, the 12th century saw pivotal advancements in felt production through the introduction of fulling mills, which enabled large-scale wet felting of wool by mechanizing the cleaning, shrinking, and matting processes previously done by hand or foot. These water-powered mills, driven by trip-hammers, first appeared in England around the late 12th century, spearheaded by Cistercian monks who adapted existing grain mills for industrial use, marking an early step toward organized textile manufacturing.^[37] In France, similar innovations emerged concurrently, with fulling mills documented along rivers like the Loire from the 12th century onward, supporting the growing wool trade and transforming felt from a localized craft into a regional industry.^[38]^[39] The professionalization of feltmaking accelerated in the 13th century with the formation of specialized guilds that standardized practices, enforced quality controls, and managed apprenticeships to protect trade secrets and economic interests. In London, fullers' guilds—key to wool felting—received royal recognition as early as 1130, evolving into formal associations that regulated production and mediated disputes among artisans.^[40] Similarly, in Florence, the Arte della Lana (Wool Guild), one of the city's seven greater guilds, was established by the early 13th century (with roots tracing to 1182), overseeing felt-related wool processing and integrating fullers into a structured hierarchy that influenced Italy's textile dominance.^[41] These guilds not only fostered technical expertise but also elevated feltmakers' social status, linking the craft to broader mercantile networks across Europe. The 17th to 19th centuries witnessed a boom in the fur felting industry, particularly for hats, driven by the "carroting" process that treated beaver pelts with mercury nitrate to loosen and mat the underfur into fine felt, enabling durable, water-resistant products. Introduced in the 17th century, this method revolutionized hat production, fueling demand for beaver fur and making felt hats a staple of fashion from Europe to colonial America, where they symbolized status among settlers and traders amid the fur trade's expansion.^[42]^[43]^[44] The Industrial Revolution further shifted production in the 19th century, with mechanization in the United Kingdom and Germany replacing much hand labor through steam-powered machinery for cutting, forming, and pressing felt, as seen in expansive factories like those in Denton, England, which became global leaders in automated hat felting.^[45]^[46] Mercury-based carroting declined sharply by the early 20th century due to its severe health risks, including "Mad Hatter syndrome"—a chronic mercury poisoning causing tremors, irritability, and neurological damage among exposed workers—prompting regulatory bans and safer alternatives like acid treatments.^[47]^[48] Post-World War II, the development of synthetic felt from materials like acrylic and polyester expanded its applications beyond traditional wool, providing lightweight, moldable sheets for military gear such as padding and insulation, as well as automotive components including gaskets, soundproofing, and upholstery in vehicles.^[49] Concurrently, a cultural revival of handmade felt in crafts emerged in the mid-20th century, driven by interest in traditional techniques for artistic expression and home decor, countering the industrialization of the material.^[50]

Manufacturing Processes

Wet Felting

Wet felting is the traditional method of producing felt by matting wool fibers through the application of moisture, heat, friction, and pressure, leveraging the natural scaly structure of wool to interlock the fibers irreversibly.^[51]^[52] This process exploits the directional scales on wool fibers, which open under alkaline conditions and warm water, allowing the fibers to migrate and tangle when agitated.^[52] Typically performed with sheep's wool due to its high felting propensity, the technique requires temperatures between 40–60°C and soapy solutions with a pH of 8–10 to facilitate scale expansion and fiber entanglement.^[51] The process begins with laying out loose wool fibers, known as roving or batts, in thin, overlapping layers on a flat surface to form the desired shape and thickness, often 2–4 layers for even density.^[53] The fibers are then wetted thoroughly with warm, soapy water—using natural soaps like olive oil-based or dish soap—to reduce surface tension and aid lubrication.^[54] Agitation follows through manual methods such as rolling the wet mass in a mat, rubbing it between hands or against a textured surface, or throwing it repeatedly to generate friction and compression, causing the scales to hook together.^[51] This step, known as prefelling, lasts until the fibers begin to cohere, typically 30–60 minutes depending on scale.^[53] Fulling then shrinks and densifies the material by further agitation in hot water, reducing the piece by up to 50% in size and creating a firm, non-woven fabric.^[51] Finally, the felt is shaped, rinsed to remove excess soap, and air-dried flat to prevent distortion.^[54] Basic equipment includes a felting table or pool table covered with a protective layer, wooden poles or rollers for compression, and mats like bamboo blinds or bubble wrap to prevent sticking during rolling.^[53] For larger-scale production, semi-industrial setups employ mechanical rollers or even modified washing machines to automate agitation while maintaining the wet process.^[51] These tools emphasize manual labor in artisanal settings but allow scalability from small handmade pieces to broader sheets.^[55] This method's advantages lie in its ability to produce large, uniform sheets of felt efficiently, ideal for flat items like rugs and blankets, without the need for weaving or spinning, making it faster and more resource-efficient than many textile processes.^[55]^[51] It scales well from handcrafting to early mechanized fulling mills, historically enabling mass production of durable goods.^[55] Variations include nuno felting, where wool fibers are laid onto pre-woven silk or other fabrics and felted together to create lightweight, translucent textiles with embedded patterns.^[54] Resistance felting uses inflatable barriers, like balloons or resist fabrics, to form three-dimensional shapes such as vessels or hats by felting around the mold.^[54]

Needle Felting

Needle felting is a dry technique for creating felt by mechanically entangling loose fibers, primarily wool, using specialized barbed needles. The process begins with laying out roving or batts of fiber on a dense foam or sponge base, which serves as a cushion to prevent needle damage and allow barbs to pull fibers through. The barbed needle, inserted repeatedly at a perpendicular angle, catches and hooks individual fibers, tangling them into a matted structure that condenses and solidifies with continued stabbing; this interlocking relies on the scales of wool fibers, enabling three-dimensional sculpting or flat panels without moisture or agitation.^[56] Essential tools include felting needles, typically triangular or star-shaped with inward-facing barbs for efficient fiber entanglement, available in gauges 36 to 42—the lower numbers (e.g., 36 or 38) for coarse, rapid shaping of bulk forms, and finer ones (40 or 42) for detailed surface work and blending colors. Needle felting kits commonly provide a variety of these sizes, along with a foam working surface, finger protectors, and wool in roving or tops form; for complex 3D figures like animals or portraits, wire armatures act as internal skeletons to maintain shape during building. Materials emphasize natural protein fibers like wool or alpaca, which felt readily due to their scaly structure, though synthetic blends can be used for durability.^[57] This method excels in precision, permitting intricate detailing, seamless color gradients by layering thin fiber wisps, and small-batch production ideal for custom crafts or prototypes. Its dry nature eliminates the need for water, soap, or large equipment, rendering it highly portable and approachable for novices, while requiring minimal space compared to wet processes.^[56]^[58] The technique emerged as a handcraft in the 1980s, when artists adapted industrial felting needles for individual use, sparking popularity through craft workshops and communities by the 1990s; this shift democratized detailed fiber art previously limited to factories. Industrially, variants employ automated needle looms with thousands of barbed needles punching through fiber webs to produce non-woven fabrics like geotextiles or insulation, scaling the process for high-volume output while maintaining mechanical entanglement principles.^[59]^[60] Safety considerations are paramount, as the sharp, brittle needles can break during use, embedding barbs in skin and causing infections if not removed promptly; practitioners are advised to work slowly, use protective gloves or thimbles, and dispose of fragments carefully. Repetitive motions also pose risks of strain injuries to hands, wrists, shoulders, and neck, mitigated by ergonomic positioning, frequent breaks, and varying tasks to avoid prolonged static postures.^[61]^[62]

Other Techniques

The carroting process, developed in the 17th century and widely used through the 19th century, involved treating beaver and rabbit fur pelts with a mercury nitrate solution to stiffen the fibers and facilitate felting by causing them to mat more easily during subsequent steaming and beating steps.^[63]^[64] This chemical pretreatment enhanced the interlocking of fur scales, producing denser felt suitable for hat production, but it exposed workers to toxic mercury vapors, leading to neurological disorders known as "mad hatter's disease."^[43]^[65] The process was largely phased out by the 1940s due to its severe health risks and regulatory bans on mercury use in felting.^[43] In modern industrial settings, felting often employs steam and high-pressure methods to consolidate pre-formed fiber webs into cohesive sheets, distinct from traditional wet processes. Factories use heated steam to soften fibers, followed by mechanical compression via calendering rollers that apply controlled pressure to densify and smooth the material, resulting in uniform nonwoven felts for various applications.^[66]^[67] This technique is particularly effective for large-scale production, where rollers with temperatures up to 200°C and pressures of 40–60 tons ensure fiber entanglement without excessive moisture.^[68] For synthetic fibers in non-wool applications, chemical felting relies on adhesives or binders to bond fibers, while electrostatic methods use static charges to align and deposit short fibers onto adhesive-coated substrates, creating matted structures common in automotive interiors. These approaches enable the production of durable, lightweight felts from materials like polyester or acrylic, where chemical binders such as latex emulsions provide cohesion without mechanical agitation.^[69]^[70] Electrostatic application ensures even fiber distribution, enhancing uniformity in components like dashboard liners and insulation panels.^[71]^[72] Hybrid methods integrate felting with lamination or additional punching to produce reinforced materials with improved strength and interlayer bonding. For instance, needle punching can be combined with lamination to create Z-direction reinforcement in multi-layer composites, where fibers from one layer are pulled through adjacent layers for enhanced interlaminar shear resistance.^[73] In carbon or natural fiber hybrids, felting webs are laminated under pressure and heat, yielding structures with up to 20% higher tensile strength compared to non-hybrid felts.^[74]^[75] Recent environmental advancements have accelerated the adoption of mercury-free alternatives, building on the 1940s phase-out, with 2020s regulations promoting bio-based binders for sustainable nonwoven production to reduce reliance on petrochemical adhesives. These bio-based options, derived from renewable sources like starch or lignin, offer up to 40% lower carbon footprints while maintaining binding efficacy in felting processes for technical textiles.^[76]^[77] EU and global standards, such as REACH updates, have driven this shift, enabling fully biodegradable felts without compromising durability.^[78]^[43]

Applications

Apparel and Textiles

Felt has played a significant role in apparel since ancient times, particularly among nomadic cultures in Central Asia and the Eurasian steppes. Shepherds and nomads crafted durable cloaks known as kepenek from wool felt to shield against harsh weather, along with boots and hats for protection during migrations.^[79]^[80] In the Mongol Empire, felt was essential for everyday clothing, including robes and outerwear, valued for its ability to insulate while remaining lightweight.^[81] By the 19th century, felt dominated menswear in Europe and America, with top hats emerging as a symbol of formality and status from the 1850s onward, crafted from beaver or rabbit fur felt for their sleek finish.^[82] Fedoras, introduced in the late 1800s, became a versatile alternative, often made from wool felt and adopted by urban professionals as a softer, more practical option to rigid top hats.^[83] In contemporary fashion, wool felt remains popular for its natural warmth and water resistance, making it ideal for coats, scarves, and hats in cold climates.^[84]^[85] The material's crimped fibers trap air for insulation while allowing moisture to evaporate, ensuring comfort during wet conditions without feeling clammy.^[86] Synthetic felt, produced from polyester or acrylic, offers affordable alternatives for costuming and uniforms, providing durability and ease of shaping for theatrical productions and workwear.^[87]^[88] Wool felt's breathability, derived from its moisture-wicking properties, also supports its use in activewear, such as lightweight jackets for outdoor pursuits.^[89] Felt integrates seamlessly into woven garments through techniques like appliqué and edging, where pre-felted wool pieces are applied without fraying, adding texture and reinforcement to seams or hems.^[90] In cultural contexts, felt elements appear in traditional Mongolian deel robes, often lined or accented with felt for added warmth, paired with felt hats and boots.^[91] Similarly, Turkish shepherds incorporate wool felt into cloaks for mountainous regions, leveraging its insulating qualities.^[80] Since the 2010s, sustainable fashion has embraced eco-felt made from recycled textile fibers, reducing waste in garment production; brands like H&M and Louis Vuitton have adopted it for accessories and apparel to promote circular economy principles.^[92]^[93]

Home Furnishings and Decor

Felt plays a significant role in home furnishings and decor, valued for its natural insulation, sound absorption, and versatility in creating cozy, aesthetically pleasing interiors. Its non-woven structure allows it to conform to various surfaces, providing both practical benefits like noise reduction and decorative elements that enhance ambiance without overwhelming spaces. Historically, felt contributed to medieval European home decor as a luxurious material for carpets, which were coveted by nobility and influenced the intricate patterns observed in contemporary tapestries.^[94] These felt pieces served as floor coverings and wall elements, offering warmth in drafty castles and manors while showcasing artistic motifs drawn from nomadic traditions. Hand-felted wool rugs represent a cornerstone of traditional home furnishings, particularly in Central Asian and Russian cultures. Kyrgyz artisans produce shyrdaks and ala-kiyizs through wet felting, creating symmetrical or asymmetrical designs from colored wool that adorn home floors as durable, insulating carpets integral to daily life and cultural rituals.^[95] In Russia's Ingushetiya region, women revive ancient wet-felting techniques to craft vibrant rugs from sheep's wool, using them as floor mats or wall hangings to insulate homes and preserve familial stories through embedded motifs.^[96] Modern machine-felted underlays underpin rugs and carpets in contemporary homes, enhancing durability by preventing excessive wear and stretching while delivering superior thermal and acoustic insulation for quieter, more comfortable living spaces.^[97] Made from recycled fibers, these underlays meet environmental standards, avoid harmful chemicals, and suit high-traffic areas like living rooms and bedrooms. As of 2024, felt applications have expanded into healthcare and hospitality sectors for acoustic panels and furnishings, improving sound control in sensitive environments.^[98] In soft furnishings, felt excels in curtains, wall hangings, and upholstery padding due to its inherent sound-dampening properties, which absorb mid-to-high frequency noises for serene interiors. Wool or polyester felt panels line acoustic curtains to block external sounds, while wall-mounted versions clad home theaters, reducing reverberation for clearer audio experiences.^[99] As upholstery padding, industrial-grade felt provides firm cushioning and vibration isolation in sofas and chairs, prolonging fabric life and minimizing household echoes.^[100] Felt decorative items offer simple yet elegant accents for tabletops and seasonal displays, with coasters and placemats crafted from dense wool to protect surfaces from heat and moisture while adding subtle texture. These pieces, often in neutral or vibrant hues, extend to holiday crafts like garlands and ornaments, where needle-felted shapes create festive, lightweight hangings for mantels or trees.^[101] Contemporary innovations prioritize sustainability in felt home decor, with upcycled materials from textile waste forming acoustic panels that serve dual purposes of sound control and eco-conscious design in modern living areas. This approach reduces landfill contributions while maintaining felt's acoustic efficacy, as seen in products derived from 100% traceable recycled polyester for wall applications.^[102]

Industrial and Technical Uses

Felt serves as a versatile filtration medium in industrial settings, particularly for air and liquid purification. Nonwoven felt filters, often used in baghouses for dust collection, are employed in sectors such as power plants, steel mills, and cement production to capture particulates effectively.^[103] In chemical plants, these filters handle liquids and gases, with synthetic variants designed for high-temperature environments, maintaining integrity up to 200°C or more.^[104] Typical pore sizes in industrial felt filters range from 1 to 100 microns, allowing for efficient separation while accommodating varying flow rates.^[105] In mechanical applications, felt functions as seals and wipers in automotive engines, providing lubrication retention and excluding contaminants without excessive wear.^[106] Its use in polishing wheels for metalworking is widespread, where dense wool or synthetic felt buffs surfaces to a high sheen, often with abrasives like cerium oxide, achieving finishes suitable for precision components.^[107] These wheels, available in densities from soft to rock-hard, conform to irregular shapes during operation, reducing surface defects in materials like stainless steel and aluminum.^[108] Historically, in 19th-century black powder rifles, wool felt wads were inserted over the powder charge to seal the bore, prevent gas leakage, and lubricate the projectile for improved accuracy and barrel protection.^[109] In modern firearms, synthetic felt contributes to recoil pads, absorbing impact energy to reduce shooter fatigue, with materials like compressed polyester offering durability over traditional wool.^[110] Beyond these, felt finds utility in roofing underlayment, where synthetic types provide a water-resistant barrier beneath shingles, enhancing longevity against moisture infiltration.^[111] It also serves as gaskets in industrial seals and battery components, including separators that prevent short-circuiting while permitting ionic flow in alkaline and lithium cells.^[112] In the 2020s, nonwoven synthetic felts have gained prominence in electric vehicle soundproofing, lining cabins to dampen road and aerodynamic noise, compensating for the absence of engine sound and improving occupant comfort.^[113] As of 2024, natural fiber-based rigid felt has been introduced for sustainable insulation in construction, enhancing energy efficiency in industrial settings.^[114] A key advantage of industrial felt lies in its compressibility, allowing deformation under pressure for conformal sealing with high recovery (e.g., 99% after 10% deflection), as seen in SAE F-1 grade wool felts used in confined assemblies.^[115] Synthetic felts, such as those made from polyester or PTFE, exhibit superior chemical resistance to acids, solvents, and oils, making them ideal for harsh industrial environments where natural wool would degrade.^[116] This durability, combined with low compression set, ensures long-term performance in dynamic applications.^[117]

Arts, Crafts, and Musical Instruments

Felt has long been employed in arts and crafts for its moldability, enabling artists and hobbyists to create intricate, textured forms through techniques like needle and wet felting. In hobbies, needle felting allows for the sculpting of detailed three-dimensional objects such as dolls, animals, jewelry, and brooches by repeatedly puncturing wool fibers with barbed needles to interlock them into solid shapes.^[118] This method's accessibility has made it popular for personal expression, with practitioners often starting with simple motifs like embroidered beads or miniature figures to build skills in form and texture. Wet felting, involving agitation of wool in soapy water, produces larger two-dimensional wall art and sculptural pieces, as seen in the landscape-inspired works of artist Frances Stubbs, who layers colored wools on a granite surface to achieve depth and vibrancy.^[119] In fine arts, felt's tactile qualities lend themselves to contemporary installations and mixed-media works that explore texture and sustainability. Artists like Anish Kapoor have collaborated on projects using felted wool to investigate material properties, creating layered forms that evoke metaphysical depth through industrial and hand-felted processes.^[120] Similarly, Rachel Montroy's sculptures at the Hunterdon Art Museum incorporate felt with natural elements to meditate on organic beauty, blending wet felting with other fibers for ethereal, site-specific installations. Cultural applications include modern adaptations of traditional crafts, where felt enhances regalia and decorative items in Indigenous-inspired art, though historical uses predate industrial felting. These works highlight felt's role in evoking heritage and environmental themes, often using recycled materials for textured surfaces. Felt plays a crucial role in musical instruments, particularly in percussion and keyboard mechanisms, where its density controls tone and attack. In pianos, hammers are covered with high-quality wool felt—typically 14 to 16 pounds per cubic foot—to strike strings and produce a soft, resonant timbre that balances warmth and projection; denser felts yield brighter sounds, while softer ones enhance mellow tones.^[121]^[122] Percussionists use felt mallets for timpani, bass drums, and vibraphones, with hard felt heads (around 25 on the hardness scale) providing clear, articulate strikes and disc-shaped tips allowing versatile projection in ensembles.^[123] These applications underscore felt's acoustic damping properties, essential for nuanced performance. Educational and therapeutic uses of felting promote skill-building and mental well-being through hands-on workshops. In schools and community programs, felting sessions teach fiber manipulation and creativity, fostering patience and focus among participants of all ages. Therapeutically, needle felting serves as an art therapy tool, reducing stress and enhancing emotional expression by engaging sensory and rhythmic processes, as demonstrated in clinical programs where patients create felt pieces to process emotions.^[124]^[125] Since the 2020s, hybrid innovations have integrated digital felting with 3D printing, using printed armatures as bases for wool sculpting to enable precise, customizable designs in artistic production.^[126]

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SAE wool felt is 100% wool, made to SAE standards, with good vibration absorption, abrasion resistance, and oil wicking properties. Lower SAE numbers are more ...Missing: durability tensile strength
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[PDF] CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL Fact Sheet
Wool is durable, resists wrinkles, soiling, and flames, is elastic, absorbs moisture, and is a temperature regulator. It also resists tearing.Missing: tensile strength
[28]
Improving indoor air quality and mitigating health risks with sheep ...
Depending on the level of relative humidity, sheep wool fibers can absorb moisture up to 35 % of their weight [43] and up to 20 % without reducing the thermal ...
[29]
[PDF] SAE/ASTM Wool Felt Specifications - Superior Felt & Filtration
Compression Recovery. 99%. 1. 0.938 -1.062. 7.84 -9.12 .848-1.152. 7.20. Effect of Sunlight and Oxidation. None. Wool Felts are naturally self extinguishing.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[30]
[PDF] Wool Felt Material - Zatkoff Seals & Packings
Recovery (within 1 min after 10% defl) %. 99. 99. 99. Abrasion Resistance (3). Excellent. Excellent. Excellent. Chemical & Environmental Properties. Effect of ...
[31]
[PDF] Dyeing methods for wool - Woolwise
5.5 Dyeing wool with acid dyes ... fastness improvement of milling dyes over acid levelling types on wool. Page ...
[32]
https://www.woolwise.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/02.2-Dyeing-Methods-for-Wool-Notes.pdf
[33]
What is the colorfastness of wool bonded felt? - Blog
Light is also a major culprit when it comes to color fading. Ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun can break down the chemical bonds in the dyes, causing the color ...
[34]
An Early Date for the Origin of Felt | Anatolian Studies
Jun 15, 2015 · The earliest documentation on it comes from China, c. 2300 B.C. but it is from the Central Asian Steppes that archaeologists have so far found ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/anatolian-studies/article/an-early-date-for-the-origin-of-felt/E58221D596DF67034E638E6118DA53F8
[36]
The Fulling Mills of the Isle of Wight
In the late 12th century, the Cistercian monks were at the forefront of a minor "industrial revolution", that saw the introduction of fulling mills to Britain.
[37]
The mills of Meung-sur-Loire - - 28378
Apr 13, 2017 · Watermills were therefore set up very early on, from the 12th century onwards, and they continued to work until the 1950s. ... fulling mills.
[38]
[PDF] The process of fulling of wool - EXARC
In Europe, fulling by trampling was introduced by the Romans and persisted up to 1800 AD. However, from the full Middle Ages (10th – 12th century) many.
[39]
Guilds - CatholiCity.com
The weavers and fullers were the first crafts to obtain royal recognition of their guilds, and by 1130 they had guilds established in London, Lincoln, and ...Missing: 13th | Show results with:13th
[40]
[PDF] The guilds of Florence
A complete and connected History of the Guilds has never been compiled. The present work is put forth, perhaps rather tentatively than exhaustively, to supply ...Missing: 13th | Show results with:13th
[41]
https://archive.org/download/guildsofflorence00staluoft/guildsofflorence00staluoft.pdf
[42]
Poisons Part I: The Mercurial World of Felt
Jul 19, 2017 · Fur was readied for use in both men's and women's hats through a process known as felting or carroting, in which animal hairs were removed from ...Missing: beaver colonial
[43]
Beaver Felt Hat | Teachers' Zone - Canadian Museum of History
This felt hat was made from beaver pelt, silk and wool. Such hats were a fashion staple for men of status between the 17th and the early 19th centuries.
[44]
(PDF) Denton and the Archaeology of the Felt Hatting Industry
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Denton was home to some of the largest and most mechanized felt hat factories in the world, such as J ...
[45]
Hat Works Museum - European route of industrial heritage – ERIH
The displays begin with fur-felt hat-making, which began to concentrate here from the seventeenth century. It then shows aspects of mechanisation and a ...Missing: mechanization 19th
[46]
How the Hatter Went Mad - LACMA Unframed
Mar 7, 2011 · The manufacture of top hats is a labor-intensive and hazardous process. In the eighteenth century, the best hats were made from the fine underfur of the beaver.Missing: carroting 17th- colonial
[47]
NIOSH Backgrounder: Alice's Mad Hatter & Work-Related Illness
Hatters or hat-makers commonly exhibited slurred speech, tremors, irritability, shyness, depression, and other neurological symptoms; hence the expression “mad ...
[48]
Unraveling the Fabric of History, the Untold Story of American Felt, pt.2
Aug 1, 2025 · The felt produced by the company was used in various parts of automobiles, including gaskets, upholstery, and soundproofing materials. This not ...Missing: invention military<|separator|>
[49]
History of Felt-making - Fabulous Felting
Jul 4, 2021 · From about 400 B.C.E., felt was used so extensively in Central Asia that the area was known to the Chinese as "the land of felt." The goal of ...
[50]
Manufacturing Process of Felt: History, Raw Materials and Methods
Jan 16, 2013 · Wet Felting: This process uses the inherent nature of wool and other animal hairs, because the fibers have scale on them which are directional ...
[51]
Wool-Felt - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
They have good strength and dimensional stability. They are durable. To illustrate, a wool fiber can be flexed back and forth on itself more than 20,000 times ...Missing: abrasion | Show results with:abrasion
[52]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/wool-felt
[53]
A Guide; Understanding the Magic of Wool Felting - Made By Barb
Mar 15, 2024 · Wet felting is one of the oldest methods of creating felt and involves saturating wool fibres with water and soap, then agitating them to ...
[54]
History of Feltmaking - FeltCrafts
The origin and use of felt fabrics since ancient times are extremely fascinating. Learn more about the interesting history of felt-making today.
[55]
What is Feltmaking? | NEFG
Needle felting is a technique which uses barbed needles to entangle loose wool or animal fiber into a cohesive textile structure. . Here is a great explanation ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
[PDF] Nonwovens - Groz-Beckert
Felting uses barbed needles to mechanically bond nonwoven fabrics by increasing friction between fibers, integrating them into the fabric.
[57]
Needle Punch Felt, What Is It and How Is It Made?
Nov 2, 2020 · Needle punch felt is a nonwoven made by using a needle loom with barbed needles to entangle fibers, creating a strong bond.
[58]
Needle Felting | Iowa PBS
May 31, 2022 · Felting is the process of taking an animal fiber, such as sheep's wool, and tangling the individual fibers together to make a fabric and/or artwork.
[59]
Nonwovens - Groz-Beckert
Groz-Beckert offers card clothing, felting and structuring needles, jet strips, and accessories for nonwovens, which are textile fabrics made using roller ...
[60]
Felting Safety Tips - Dharma Trading
When needle felting the biggest risk is that of poking yourself with the needle, which since they are barbed can be especially uncomfortable. Make sure your ...Missing: advantages | Show results with:advantages
[61]
Needle Felting Safety - Sydney More
Dec 20, 2019 · Neck, shoulder, and wrist injuries are a definite threat when needle felting. Taking regular breaks to move your body around, and change posture ...Missing: advantages concerns
[62]
The History of Fur Felt Hat Bodies: A Story of Trade, Migration, and ...
Jan 8, 2025 · The history of fur felt hat bodies intertwines deeply with the economic, cultural, and technological forces that shaped the modern world.
[63]
What Is Felting & How Does It Work? - Herdy
Beaver, rabbit, or hare skins were treated with a dilute solution of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, or Hg(NO3)2, serving as the “agitator”.
[64]
Ending the Danbury Shakes: A Story of Workers' Rights and ...
Carroting the fur accomplished two important steps in hat making: it made it easier to separate the fur from the animal pelt and it caused the fur to shrink, ...
[65]
Felt and felt making explained - Swicofil
Felt is made by matting and compressing fibers using heat, moisture, and pressure. The process involves mixing, carding, steam treating, pressing, and ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[66]
Calendering | Southern Felt - Lydall Industrial Filtration
Calendering uses a very large pair of heated rollers to physically squeeze the needle felt as it is passed through the gap between them.
[67]
Felt Calender - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Calendering is a type of mechanical levelling and segmenting process for 'finishing' fabrics or webs to produce a special effect, namely flattening, lustre, ...Missing: industrial | Show results with:industrial
[68]
https://www.scribd.com/doc/142066570/1-Calendering
[69]
Die-Cut Fabric Materials - JBC Technologies
JBC works with a variety of felt, flocking, and hook and loop materials to provide solutions for automotive interior harshness issues. Learn more today.Missing: electrostatic felting fibers
[70]
The flock process - Flocking.biz
Electrostatic flocking is used extensibly in the automotive industry for coating window rubbers, glove boxes, coin boxes, door cards, consoles, and dashboards.
[71]
Understanding and utilizing textile-based electrostatic flocking ... - NIH
Generally, flock fibers are applied to a wetted, adhesive-coated surface via an electrostatic current. Flock fibers are generally considered small, synthetic, ...Missing: felting | Show results with:felting
[72]
Felting as a new method for Z-reinforcement of fabric-layered ...
Dec 17, 2020 · The fabric pack is punched with needles for felting, which partly pull out and damage the warp/weft threads by barbs, pulling some fibers in ...
[73]
Mechanical properties of woven laminates and felt composites using ...
Although the felt/resin composites showed lower strengths than the woven laminates, the felt reinforcement had the advantage of improving interlaminar ...
[74]
Mechanical behaviour of jute cloth/wool felts hybrid laminates
This experimental work is aimed at the characterization of new fibre reinforced composites based on epoxy resin with both protein (wool) and lignocellulosic ...
[75]
Arkema introduces bio-based acrylic binders to lower the product ...
Jan 22, 2025 · These binders, with up to 30% bio-based content (1) , and up to 40% carbon footprint reduction (2) compared to traditional textile resins, are supporting the ...Missing: mercury- 2020s
[76]
Biobased binders and water repellants for nonwovens and technical ...
With our biobased, biodegradable, and plastic-free binders OC-BioBinder®, we replace existing plastic binders used in nonwoven and technical textiles. It is ...
[77]
Full article: Recent Advances in Bio-Based Nonwoven Materials
Sep 30, 2025 · Bio-based nonwoven materials are becoming prominent as environmentally friendly alternatives in food packaging due to their capacity for ...Missing: mercury- | Show results with:mercury-
[78]
Felted Garments Wearable Art Marie-Therese Wisniowski
Jul 30, 2016 · The oldest archaeological finds containing evidence of the use of felt are in Turkey. Wall paintings that date from 6500 to 3000 BC ... making ...
[79]
Explore the Making of Traditional Felt Textiles Around the Globe
Oct 6, 2022 · Artisans use a wet-felting technique of rolling the wet wool, which is usually white, in a large straw mat until it's felted.
[80]
Clothing in the Mongol Empire - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 14, 2019 · Felt was used for clothing, blankets, and the yurt tents which are still used today by Asian nomads. Goats were herded in large numbers and the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
Felt dress hats History
From 1850-1900, the tall top hat continued to be the popular dress hat for both formal day and evening wear.
[82]
https://www.hathistory.org/dress/felt.html
[83]
Why Wool Felt is the Ultimate Hat Material for Winter - Sunhats.eu
Dec 18, 2024 · Wool felt provides natural insulation, is breathable, and is water-resistant, making it ideal for winter hats. It is also packable and durable.Missing: clothing | Show results with:clothing
[84]
https://sunhats.eu/blogs/news/why-wool-felt-is-the-ultimate-hat-material-for-winter
[85]
https://www.davidmorgan.com/shop-content/wool/
[86]
Washable Synthetic Craft Felt Archives - The Felt People
The DURAFELT is bright, colorful, washable, heavyweight, 72" wide, available in 50 colors, and suitable for apparel, crafts, novelty, and costumes.
[87]
Felt Uniform Costumes for sale - eBay
4.6 3K · Free deliveryGet the best deals on Felt Uniform Costumes when you shop the largest online selection at eBay.com. Free shipping on many items | Browse your favorite ...
[88]
Wool Activewear | Woolmark
Merino wool is nature's original performance fibre for activewear. It's odour resistant, breathable and wicks moisture better than any other technical ...Missing: felt | Show results with:felt
[89]
Felting Wool for Applique Tutorial - Quilted Strait
Jan 5, 2012 · Wool that has been tightly felted does not ravel, making felted wool very easy to work with for appliqué projects as the edges of the wool ...
[90]
Traditional Mongolian Dress, known as the Deel 1 ... - Facebook
Sep 25, 2024 · Mongolian costumes consist of four main elements: hat, deel, boots, and accessories. Each element has its own variations, styles, and meanings.
[91]
How celebs like Gwen Stefani wear recycled felt fashion, made in ...
Feb 29, 2024 · The main purpose: to market a fabric made from felt from recycled textile waste that fashion companies such as H&M will use for their clothing.
[92]
Louis Vuitton launches Felt Line: luxury and sustainability for the ...
Jul 16, 2021 · The absolute novelty? Sustainable eco-felt, an innovative fabric that joins all the other materials of the three bags, completely recycled.<|control11|><|separator|>
[93]
Felt in the Culture of the Peoples of the Great Steppe - Abai Center
Felt held particular significance for the nomads of Central Asia, becoming integral to their culture and way of life.
[94]
Ala-kiyiz and Shyrdak, art of Kyrgyz traditional felt carpets
Traditional felt carpets are one of the foremost arts of the Kyrgyz people and an integral part of their cultural heritage. The Kyrgyz traditionally produce two ...
[95]
Memories are crafted in wool in this tiny Russian republic
Oct 11, 2022 · In Ingushetiya, a new generation of women is reviving the traditional art of felting rugs.
[96]
The benefits of using felt underlays | CFJ - Contract Flooring Journal
Firmer underlays will prevent excessive vertical movement and stretching of the carpet in use and will therefore help prevent rucking problems.
[97]
FilzFelt: Home
FilzFelt carries German-milled 100% Wool Design Felt and felt products including acoustic solutions, drapery, floor coverings, hanging panels, wall panels ...Acoustic Panels · Felt by the Yard · About Felt · Hanging Panels
[98]
F-15 Industrial Felt Samples - 1/8" 1/4" 1/2" Thick
In stock 7–13 day deliveryFeatures: Soft, flexible and moderately firm, soft and fuzzy feel. Advantages: Excellent cushioning, insulation, and sound damping properties. Applications: ...<|separator|>
[99]
https://www.filzfelt.com/
[100]
From Textile Waste To Sound Insulation – The Acoustic Felt Made ...
Jun 18, 2021 · The Acoustic Felt is a sound absorber made from 100% traceable, upcycled textile waste brought to market by award-winning design studio Form ...
[101]
[PDF] Research Thrust #3: Filtration and Separation
• Large industrial application: – Power station. – Steel. – Cement. – Rubbish ... • Filtration media: Needle felt filters,. Membrane filters, high density ...
[102]
EPA Research in Fabric Filtration: Annual Report on IERL-RTP ...
Section through felted filter media showing ... 4.2 FABRIC FILTRATION RESEARCH The fabric filtration industry operates largely in the empirical mode.
[103]
Evaluation of environmental filtration control of engineered ... - NIH
These woven and nonwoven (felt) filters are typical of the sort used for baghouses in industry (Neundorfer Particulate Knowledge Baghouse 2011); and the ...
[104]
SAE Felt Specifications | US Felt
SAE felt specifications include grade, weight, color, wool content, tensile strength, hardness, compression, vibration absorption, and abrasion resistance. For ...Missing: kPa | Show results with:kPa
[105]
Wool Felt Polishing Wheels - Supergrit® Abrasives
Free deliveryWool felt polishing wheels are used for buffing and polishing, with or without cutting agents. They come in soft, medium, hard, and rock hard densities.
[106]
Guide to Buffing and Polishing Wheels
Sep 13, 2018 · Felt buffs are made of dense and tightly compressed wool felt. These wheels are medium hardness and suitable for all-purpose polishing and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[107]
historical methods of wadding | The Muzzleloading Forum
Sep 6, 2020 · I have found records of several unusual wads being used. Besides tow and brown paper, there are cork, felt from old hats, moss from apple trees, ...Felt wad in riflesWAD MATERIALMore results from www.muzzleloadingforum.com
[108]
https://blog.esslinger.com/guide-to-buffing-and-polishing-wheels/
[109]
48-in x 250' Synthetic Felt 1000Sf - Underlayments & Leak Barrier
In stock Free deliveryKey Features · 5X more coverage per roll as compared to traditional #30felt · 100% Recyclable water resistant polyolefin construction · 90 day UV resistant ...Missing: gaskets separators
[110]
Battery Thermal Management Gasket Materials & Gap Pads
Accurate Felt & Gasket creates die cut battery thermal management gaskets and components from a wide variety of materials.
[111]
Nonwoven Felts in Electric Vehicles: Improving Efficiency - BIT Felt
Oct 7, 2024 · Discover how nonwoven felts enhance thermal management, acoustic insulation, and sustainability in electric vehicles. Learn more here.
[112]
[PDF] F-50 SPECIFICATIONS - Buffalo Felt Products
Commercial Standard Grade. 16R1X. SAE Number. F-50. NTA Number. 34R1. GENERAL PROPERTIES. Minimum Wool Content. 95%. Density (1”). 15.60 lbs/sq yd.
[113]
PTFE Felt: Chemical Composition and Physical Properties
Jan 26, 2024 · The chemical inertness of PTFE, which is resistant to almost all industrial chemicals and solvents, complements its heat resistance. PTFE's ...
[114]
https://www.datainsightsmarket.com/reports/rigid-felt-1876581
[115]
21 needle felting ideas for beginners - Gathered
Apr 11, 2022 · Beginner needle felting ideas include embroidered beads, mini teacup pincushion, a cute whale, and a family of highland animals.
[116]
Felt, with Feeling | College of Fine Arts - Boston University
Stubbs typically uses a wet felting technique. Working on a granite counter in her basement studio, she lays different shades of wool in layers, building an ...
[117]
Anish Kapoor - The Fabric Workshop and Museum
Anish Kapoor collaborated with FWM to explore the possibilities of felted and woven wool—both handmade and industrially-produced.
[118]
Why Are The Hammers Important On A Piano?
Oct 31, 2023 · The basic construction of a piano hammer is a hard wood molding with very hard dense wool felt wrapped around it. In the best pianos this felt ...
[119]
Researching Pianos – Hammer Felt Matters
Apr 13, 2018 · The center part of the hammer is the moulding. It provides the physical structure for the hammer felt. Changing the type of wood also changes ...
[120]
Felt mallets - Kolberg Percussion
Disc-shaped hard felt head - 3 sizes - Hardness scale 25. View products · %. Felt mallets, disc-shaped head, soft, 2nd choice. - Disc-shaped hard felt head
[121]
[PDF] Experience of the implementation of felt therapy classes (using of ...
May 10, 2021 · Below we give a description of one of the author's art-therapeutic techniques aimed at studying and correcting the emotional state of patients.<|separator|>
[122]
Local school projects: felting as an art therapy
For many, it was a soothing escape from everyday stress. The rhythm of the movements and the slow, visible progress helped even our most restless learners ...
[123]
Robotic Felting - YouTube
Aug 28, 2024 · This project aims to conduct initial research into the development of a new additive manufacturing process able to create structures with ...