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Gefjon

Gefjun (Old Norse: Gefjón), also spelled Gefion, is a goddess in Norse mythology, primarily attested as a virgin figure associated with agriculture, fertility, and the acquisition of land. She is best known for the myth in which she plows the island of Sjælland (Zealand) from the Swedish mainland using four oxen—her sons by a giant—as a reward from King Gylfi for her entertainments, thereby shaping the geography of Denmark and Sweden.^[1] This act is celebrated in a verse by the skald Bragi inn gamli Boddason, emphasizing her role in expanding Danish territory.^[1] As one of the Ásynjur (goddesses) in the Æsir pantheon, Gefjun is described in the Prose Edda as a maiden (mær) attended by the spirits of women who die as virgins, linking her to themes of chastity and the afterlife for the unmarried.^[2] She appears among the goddesses at Ægir's banquet in Ásgarðr, underscoring her place among divine figures like Frigg and Freyja.^[3] In the Ynglinga Saga, Odin dispatches her to explore new lands northward, where she marries his son Skjǫldr (Scyld) and settles at Lejre, becoming an ancestor of the Skjǫldungar dynasty of Danish kings.^[1] Her name, potentially deriving from roots related to "giving" or abundance (gefa, "to give"), reflects possible connections to prosperity and nobility, though scholarly analyses debate its precise etymology in relation to wealth or luck.^[4] Gefjun also features in the Poetic Edda's Lokasenna, where she intervenes in Loki's taunts against the gods, only to be accused by him of exchanging sex for a necklace from a "fair boy", highlighting tensions around sexuality and deception in her myths.^[5] Additionally, she is invoked in the late medieval Vǫlsa þáttr during a ritual oath, suggesting lingering cultic or folkloric significance into the Christian era.^[4] While her attributes blend elements of trickery, magical prowess, and generative power—evident in her transformation of sons into oxen—Gefjun remains a relatively minor figure compared to major deities, with her stories preserved mainly in Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century compilations drawing from earlier oral traditions.^[4]

Name and Etymology

Etymology

The name Gefjun (also spelled Gefjon) is traditionally derived from the Old Norse elements gef-, from the verb gefa meaning "to give," combined with the suffix -jun, which some scholars link to notions of love or youth, yielding an interpretation as "the giving one" or "generous one." This etymology, proposed in early 20th-century linguistic analyses, aligns the goddess with themes of abundance and provision.^[6] However, this derivation has faced scrutiny due to phonological inconsistencies, such as the unexpected i-umlaut in the stem, leading to a revised proposal in contemporary scholarship. The name is now often reconstructed as stemming from a Proto-Norse form gaƀjanu, a so-called Hoffmann formation (gaƀī "riches, nobility" + -nō suffix), evolving through intermediate stages like *gaƀjanō > *gaƀjanu > gafjanu > Gefjǫn > Gefjun, suggesting a meaning like "she who pertains to or rules over riches." This interpretation, proposed by Kevin French in 2015, draws on comparative Germanic linguistics and emphasizes connections to Proto-Germanic roots associated with wealth and status rather than giving.^[6] Historical manuscripts attest over 150 instances of the name, with variations including Gefjǫn, Gefion, and Gefyun, reflecting scribal practices and analogical changes, such as the loss of unstressed ǫ in later Icelandic texts like the Flateyjarbók. These spellings underscore the name's fluidity in medieval transmission while preserving its core phonetic structure. Some earlier comparisons to Proto-Germanic roots have tentatively linked Gefjun to terms evoking "enclosure" (e.g., via gardaz "yard" or protective bounds) or "virgin" (potentially through associations with purity and isolation), though these remain speculative and are not supported by primary linguistic evidence.^[6]

Linguistic Variations

The name of the Norse goddess Gefjon exhibits several orthographic variations in Old Norse manuscripts, reflecting scribal conventions, regional dialects, and phonetic evolutions in medieval Icelandic texts. The most common form is Gefion, appearing in approximately 85 instances across 149 total attestations, often in nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive cases such as Gefionar or Gefiunar.^[4] Other frequent variants include Gefjun (3 nominative instances) and Gefiun (7 nominative instances), with less common spellings like Giefion (7 instances), Giefon (6 instances), Gefíon (4 instances), and Giefivnar (3 genitive instances).^[4] These differences arise from inconsistencies in vowel representation (e.g., i vs. ie, o vs. u) and consonant doubling (e.g., ff in Geffion), typical of 13th- to 19th-century copies of works like Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál, and Heimskringla.^[4] In other Germanic languages, potential cognates suggest broader linguistic connections, though direct attestations as a divine name are absent. Old English records the noun geofon (also spelled geofen, gifen, or gyfen), a poetic term for 'sea' or 'ocean', which scholars have linked to Gefjon through shared Proto-Germanic roots, positing it as a possible theonym like Geofen. In Gothic, the feminine noun gabei ('riches') appears as a morphological parallel, potentially reflecting an earlier form influencing the Norse name.^[4] Old Saxon geƀan ('to give'), with historical proposals (e.g., by Jacob Grimm) suggesting a semantic link to 'ocean' for cognates, shows a similar overlap but lacks explicit ties to a goddess figure.^[4] Modern Scandinavian languages adapt the name as Gefion, particularly in Danish contexts.^[7] This includes the Gefion Fountain in Copenhagen, a 1908 sculpture depicting the goddess and her oxen, drawing on interpretations of the Zealand myth. Anglicized forms include Gefjon and Gefion, used in English-language scholarship and popular media to approximate the original pronunciation.^[7]

Characteristics and Associations

Attributes in Texts

In the Prose Edda, composed by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, Gefjun is described as one of the Ásynjur (goddesses) among the Æsir, specifically portrayed as a virgin (mær) to whom all maidens who die unmarried go as handmaidens in the afterlife.^[8] This attribute emphasizes themes of chastity and posthumous service within Norse cosmology.^[9] Gefjun's connections to agriculture are prominently featured in the same text's Gylfaginning section, where she is depicted as employing four oxen—her sons by a jötunn—to plow a vast tract of land from Sweden, thereby creating the island of Zealand (Sjælland) for the Danes as a reward from King Gylfi of Sweden.^[9] This narrative highlights her agency in land formation and fertility, with the oxen symbolizing her command over agrarian labor and the transformative power of cultivation, as the plowing leaves a depression that becomes Lake Mälaren.^[8] Additionally, in the Poetic Edda's Lokasenna, a poem likely dating to the 10th-11th centuries but preserved in 13th-century manuscripts, Odin intervenes during Loki's insults to affirm Gefjun's prophetic abilities, stating that she knows the fate of all as clearly as he does, positioning her as a seeress whose foreknowledge renders her a formidable figure even among the divine assembly.^[10] This portrayal aligns her with other Norse deities endowed with foresight, such as Frigg, though her specific association with virgins distinguishes her oracular role.^[11]

Symbols and Iconography

Gefjon's most prominent emblem is the ox, derived from the central myth recounted in the Prose Edda, where she harnesses her four sons by a giant as oxen to plough a vast tract of land from Sweden, thereby creating the island of Zealand for Denmark. These oxen symbolize her power over agriculture, transformation, and territorial expansion, as they enable the extraordinary feat of displacing earth with supernatural force. Closely tied to the oxen is the plough, serving as a key symbol of Gefjon's domain in fertility and cultivation; in the narrative, it represents the tool through which she claims and shapes the land, embodying themes of productivity and divine intervention in human geography. Scholarly analysis links this imagery to broader agricultural motifs, portraying Gefjun as personifying the ploughed earth itself in relation to fertility and growth.^[12] In Scandinavian folklore, Gefjon's associations extend to fertility symbols involving plows and earth-working customs, where rituals mimicking ploughing evoke her role in ensuring bountiful harvests and land renewal.^[13] No confirmed medieval iconographic depictions of Gefjon survive in archaeological records, such as runestones, though her emblems of oxen and plough appear in textual descriptions as enduring visual motifs in Norse tradition.^[11]

Attestations in Primary Sources

Poetic Edda

In the Poetic Edda, Gefjon is primarily attested in the poem Lokasenna, a flyting where Loki hurls insults at the assembled gods and goddesses during a divine banquet. She intervenes in stanza 19 to rebuke Loki for stirring hatred among the deities with his bitter words, portraying her as a defender of the divine assembly. Loki retorts in stanza 20 by accusing her of engaging in a sexual act with a fair-haired youth in exchange for a precious necklace, an allegation that underscores themes of impropriety directed at female figures like Gefjon and Freyja. This insult implicitly contrasts with later traditions emphasizing her virginity, positioning her as a target in Loki's catalog of divine flaws.^[5] Óðinn intervenes in stanza 21 to silence Loki, declaring that Gefjon possesses knowledge of the gods' fates equivalent to his own as Valföðr, which highlights her prophetic insight and elevates her stature among the Æsir. This defense not only protects her honor but also affirms her integral role within the Æsir pantheon, distinct from the Vanir, as she is enumerated alongside core figures like Frigg and the major gods in the poem's roster of attendees. Scholarly analysis views this portrayal as evidence of Gefjon's authority and wisdom, akin to Óðinn's, reinforcing her as a powerful Æsir goddess rather than a marginal figure.^[5]^[4]

Prose Edda

In Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, particularly in the Gylfaginning section, Gefjun is portrayed as one of the Ásynjur, the group of goddesses aligned with the Aesir gods in the divine hierarchy of Asgard. She is enumerated as the fourth Ásynja, described explicitly as a virgin goddess whose domain includes receiving unmarried maidens who die as her handmaidens in the afterlife. This role positions her as a guardian figure for a specific category of the deceased, emphasizing the structured division of responsibilities among the gods in overseeing human destinies and the postmortem realm.^[14] This arrangement integrates her firmly into the broader cosmological framework of Norse mythology as presented by Snorri, in which Asgard serves as the central hub for the Aesir and Ásynjur, connected to Midgard and other worlds via mechanisms like the world tree Yggdrasil and the rainbow bridge Bifröst. Her role represents a specialized afterlife domain, parallel to those of other deities such as Odin's Valhalla for warriors or Freyja's Fólkvangr, thereby contributing to the organized pantheon that maintains cosmic order and balances life, death, and fate.^[14] Furthermore, Gefjun's prophetic abilities are highlighted within the Prose Edda's incorporation of Eddic material, portraying her as possessing knowledge of human fates comparable to that of Odin himself. This attribute, drawn from poetic kennings, underscores her wisdom and foresight, aligning her with the Ásynjur's collective role in divination and the weaving of destiny alongside figures like Frigg. Such capabilities reinforce her place in the mythological cosmos, where divine insight sustains the interplay between gods, giants, and mortals across the nine worlds.^[15]^[4]

Heimskringla and Sagas

In the Ynglinga saga, the opening component of Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla (c. 1220–1235), Gefjon features prominently in chapter 5 as a figure in the euhemerized history of early Scandinavian kings. Described as a woman of the Æsir race dispatched by Odin to explore foreign lands, she encounters King Gylfi of Sweden, who, in admiration of the Æsir's prowess, grants her as much land as four oxen can plough during a day and night.^[1] Gefjon then journeys to Jötunheim, where she bears four sons to a giant and transforms them into exceptionally strong oxen. Yoking these magical oxen to a plough, she vigorously works the earth, detaching a massive tract of Swedish soil and dragging it into the sea, thereby creating the island of Zealand (Sjælland), positioned opposite Odense in Fyn, Denmark. The resulting chasm in Sweden forms Lake Mälaren, with its bays and inlets corresponding to the plough's furrows, illustrating her cunning exploitation of Gylfi's offer to seize territory through supernatural means.^[1] This myth ties Gefjon directly to Swedish royal genealogy and Danish origins, as she settles in Zealand and bequeaths the land to the sons of Dan, establishing it as a Danish domain. Furthermore, Skjold—Odin's son and progenitor of the Skjoldung dynasty—marries Gefjon, and their offspring, Halfdan, cultivates Zealand while extending Danish control over adjacent regions like Småland, thereby embedding the narrative in legends of territorial expansion and historical rivalries between Sweden and Denmark.^[1] The Heimskringla version emphasizes these events within the broader chronicle of the Yngling kings' migrations and conquests, paralleling but distinct from the mythological framing in the Prose Edda by integrating them into a pseudo-historical account of monarchical lineages.^[1]

Other Medieval Texts

In the short narrative Völsa þáttr, preserved in the 14th-century manuscript Flateyjarbók as part of Óláfs saga helga, Gefjun is invoked during a pagan household ritual centered on the veneration of Völsi, a preserved horse penis treated as a sacred heirloom. The tale depicts a Norwegian farmer's family continuing this pre-Christian practice until interrupted by King Óláfr Haraldsson and his retinue. When the ritual reaches the farmer's youngest daughter—a thrall's child who has been baptized Christian—she is coerced into participating and utters an oath swearing by Gefjun (ek sver at Gefjuni) while lifting the object and reciting a formulaic verse, marking one of the few attestations of Gefjun in a folkloric, ritualistic context outside major mythological compilations.^[16] Gefjun appears frequently in glosses within medieval Icelandic translations of classical and biblical texts, where her name serves to interpret or equate Greco-Roman deities, often emphasizing themes of fertility, virginity, and land. In the 14th-century Stjórn, a vernacular Old Norse retelling of biblical history, Gefjun glosses Venus in passages related to love and prosperity. Similarly, in Breta sögur (a 14th-century translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, preserved in Hauksbók), Gefjun substitutes for Diana, appearing in a dream vision that guides the Trojan exile Brutus to claim Britain as his territory, thereby associating her with divine sanction for land acquisition. Other examples include glosses for Minerva in Trójumanna saga and Vesta in Fídesar saga, reflecting translators' perceptions of Gefjun as a multifaceted goddess bridging Norse and classical traditions.^[4] Manuscript marginalia and orthographic variants in texts like Gylfaginning (e.g., in AM 242 fol. and GKS 2367 4to) further attest Gefjun, with notes such as dative forms "Gefion" or "Gefian" appearing alongside discussions of her role in land formation, sometimes linking her plow myth to broader folk beliefs in landvættir or dísir as protective spirits of territory. These annotations, dating from the 13th to 17th centuries, preserve folkloric echoes of Gefjun as a giver of abundance tied to agrarian prosperity, though direct references in Icelandic family sagas or law codes remain scarce.^[4]

Key Myths and Narratives

The Ploughing of Zealand

In Norse mythology, the central myth involving the goddess Gefjon recounts her acquisition of land from the Swedish king Gylfi, which forms the Danish island of Zealand (Sjælland). According to the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, King Gylfi, ruler of the lands now known as Sweden, encountered Gefjon disguised as a beggar-woman seeking hospitality. Impressed by her service, Gylfi promised her as much land as four oxen could plough in a day and night.^[13] Gefjon traveled to Jötunheimr (Giantland) and retrieved four exceptionally strong oxen, who were her sons by a giant. Yoking them to a plough, she worked through the night, cutting so deeply into the earth that the beasts dragged an immense chunk of fertile soil westward across the sea. The detached land settled opposite the Swedish coast, becoming the island of Zealand, which Gefjon then settled and cultivated.^[13] This act highlights Gefjon's association with fertility and cunning resourcefulness in transforming barren prospects into prosperous domains. The ploughed-out hollow in Sweden filled with water, forming a lake known as "the Lake" (Old Norse Loginn), identified with Lake Mälaren near Stockholm. The myth links the island's geography directly to this body of water: Zealand's headlands and bays correspond precisely to the lake's inlets and shores, as if the land were a mould inverted from its origin.^[13] A parallel account appears in the Ynglinga Saga from Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, where Odin dispatches Gefjon northward to seek new territories. She again secures a boon from Gylfi for a "ploughgate" of land (a measure typically four oxen could till in a day). Returning to Jötunheimr, Gefjon bears four sons by a giant and magically transforms them into oxen, emphasizing their otherworldly strength. The ploughing mirrors the Prose Edda version but specifies the land's relocation opposite Odinsö (now Fyn island), with the resulting lake called Löginn.^[17] A verse by the skald Bragi the Old (9th century) embedded in the saga describes the oxen vividly: "Four heads, eight forehead stars had they, / Bright gleaming, as she ploughed away," interpreting the "stars" as eyes, thus portraying eight-eyed beasts hauling the sodden mass into the sea to expand Danish holdings.^[17] These sources vary slightly in scale and emphasis: the Prose Edda focuses on the reward's generosity without Odin's involvement, while the Heimskringla integrates the event into the Yngling dynasty's founding, noting Gefjon's marriage to Skjöld (Odin's son) and their establishment at Leidre (near modern Lejre, Denmark). Both affirm the myth's core as an origin story for Zealand's creation, underscoring the island's size—roughly comparable to the ploughed area—as a boon rivaling Swedish domains.^[13]^[17]

Role in Other Legends

In the poem Lokasenna from the Poetic Edda, Gefjon participates in the flyting among the gods by attempting to deescalate the escalating insults directed at them by Loki, positioning her as a mediator in a divine dispute. Loki responds by accusing her of exchanging sexual favors for a necklace from a youth, an allegation that underscores her association with prophetic insight and moral virtue but does not form a separate narrative arc. Gefjon also features in Norse conceptions of the afterlife, where she is described as receiving and being attended by women who die as virgins or unmarried, serving as their protector in a dedicated hall.^[9] This role highlights her patronage over chastity and youth, distinct from the battle-oriented realms of Valhalla or Fólkvangr.

Scholarly Theories and Interpretations

Fertility, Agriculture, and Folk Customs

Gefjon's association with ploughing carries profound symbolic weight in Norse mythology, representing not merely land acquisition but a ritualistic act of fertility and renewal. The act of ploughing the earth evokes the penetration and invigoration of the soil, mirroring sexual union and the engendering of growth, a motif common in agrarian societies where tilling the land was seen as awakening its productive potential. In Gefjon's myth, this symbolism is amplified by her use of four oxen—born of her union with a giant—to draw the plough, embodying virility and raw power as the beasts' immense strength tears the land from Sweden to form Zealand, thereby ensuring abundance for her people.^[18]^[4] This agricultural symbolism extends into Scandinavian folk customs, particularly in Denmark and Sweden, where rituals involving land blessings echo Gefjon's legacy. Plough processions, documented in early 20th-century ethnographic studies, involved communities parading a decorated plough through fields at the onset of the planting season to invoke bountiful harvests and ward off barrenness, practices that parallel Gefjon's transformative ploughing as a divine endorsement of the soil's fertility. These customs, though Christianized over time, preserved pre-Christian elements of earth veneration tied to Gefjon's domain. Gefjon's attributes find parallels in other agricultural deities across Indo-European traditions, highlighting shared motifs of earth motherhood and cultivation. She resembles the Germanic goddess Nerthus, described by Tacitus as an earth mother whose wagon processions brought fertility to fields, much like Gefjon's plough-drawn land-shaping ensured regional abundance; both figures embody chthonic power over soil and water, with Gefjon as a localized Danish variant.^[18] Similarly, her role aligns with the Greek Demeter, whose myths center on ploughing and the earth's regenerative cycles, as both goddesses wield tools of tillage to reclaim or bestow fertile territories, emphasizing themes of loss, labor, and harvest renewal in agrarian cosmologies.^[4]

Connections to Frigg and Freyja

Scholars have long debated whether Gefjun represents an aspect or alternate name for Freyja, primarily due to overlapping attributes in fertility, sexuality, and magical prowess. This identification is supported by functional parallels, such as both goddesses' associations with virginity juxtaposed against sexual agency—Freyja's duality as a maiden (mær) and lover mirrors Gefjun's portrayal as a virgin goddess who begets sons through a giant king, blending innocence with fertility. The French thesis notes possible shared origins, such as with Freyja's alias Hǫrn, but treats them as distinct.^[4] Evidence from poetic kennings further bolsters theories of syncretism between Gefjun and Freyja, especially in contexts of earth and creation. In Snorri Sturluson's Skáldskaparmál, Gefjun appears in kennings for land (e.g., "Gefjun's plow" or "Gefjun's gift"), echoing Freyja's epithets related to abundance and the earth's bounty, suggesting a merged conceptual function in skaldic verse.^[4] This syncretism reflects broader patterns where Vanir attributes, like Freyja's seiðr magic and land-giving, were attributed to Æsir figures like Gefjun to harmonize the divine families. Connections to Frigg are more tentative but center on shared roles in prophecy and maidenhood, potentially arising from the same post-war syncretism. Both Gefjun and Frigg are designated as mær in medieval texts, emphasizing their virginal or prophetic qualities—Frigg's foreknowledge of fate parallels Gefjun's strategic deception of Gylfi, interpreted by some as divinatory insight. Kennings occasionally interchange names in functions tied to giving or protection, underscoring how these deities may represent hypostases of a unified maternal-prophetic archetype in evolving Norse cosmology.^[6] The etymological link between Gefjun and Freyja's byname Gefn, both deriving from roots meaning "to give," reinforces these interpretive debates without resolving them definitively. Recent scholarship, such as Kevin French's 2014 thesis, proposes an alternative etymology for Gefjun as *gaƀjanō, meaning "she who rules or pertains to riches/nobility" via a Hoffmann suffix, rejecting a direct deverbal from *gefa ("to give") and emphasizing prosperity over mere gifting.^[4]

Manuscript Alterations and Parallels in Beowulf

In the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda (GKS 2365 4º), the poem Lokasenna (stanza 30) depicts Loki accusing Gefjon of trading sexual favors with a youth for a necklace, a narrative motif closely paralleling Freyja's acquisition of the Brísingamen necklace from four dwarfs in the Prose Edda (Gylfaginning ch. 35).^[10] This overlap has prompted scholars to hypothesize scribal or oral alterations during the manuscript's compilation around 1270, potentially adapting Freyja's attributes to Gefjun to diversify the poem's taunts or resolve perceived redundancies among goddesses.^[4] Further evidence of textual fluidity appears in the Prose Edda's Codex Regius (AM 2367 4to, ca. 1300–1350), where Gefjon's name varies between forms like "gefion," "gefiun," and "Gefiun" across seven attestations, reflecting 14th-century Icelandic scribal conventions that could inadvertently blend or shift epithets from related deities such as Freyja, whose heiti include "Gefn."^[4] These variations, while minor, underscore the challenges in reconstructing original pagan attributions amid Christian-era copying. The Old English poem Beowulf offers intriguing parallels, with the term geofon interpreted by some as invoking Gefion as a generous lady (ideles brygd) and land-giver, aligning with her Norse role in ploughing Zealand from Sweden (Ynglinga saga ch. 5).^[18] Notably, during Scyld Scefing's sea-burial (lines 47–49), the phrase "Geafon on gársecg"—translated as "Gefion [bears him] on the gory sea"—links the rite to Gefion, identified in Norse tradition as Scyld's (Skjöld's) wife and a chthonic earth goddess who bestows fertility and territory.^[18] Additional allusions in Beowulf (lines 362: "ofer geofenes begang," over the sea's/earth's circuit; 515, 1394: "ne on gyfenes grund," not on the giver's ground; and 1690) portray geofon as embodying maritime and terrestrial bounty, reinforcing Gefion's image as a provider in early Danish lore.^[18] These references, embedded in a 10th–11th-century Anglo-Saxon context, reflect suppression of overt goddess worship in favor of patrilineal heroism. Such parallels illuminate Anglo-Saxon contributions to Norse mythology via shared Germanic substrates, as Beowulf retains pre-Christian elements like Gefion's cult—echoing Tacitus's description of Nerthus worship among the Angles (Germania ch. 40)—while navigating Christian influences that marginalized female deities.^[18] Scholar Richard North connects geofon linguistically to Gefjun, suggesting descent from a common root shared with Freyja's epithet "Gefn."

Modern Influence and Reception

In Literature and Art

In the 19th century, Danish Romantic poet Adam Oehlenschläger incorporated Gefjon into his epic poem Nordens Guder (The Gods of the North, 1819), particularly in the section "Bragis Sang om Gefion" (Bragi's Song about Gefion), where he poetically retells the myth of her ploughing Zealand as a symbol of Danish national identity and mythological heritage.^[19] Oehlenschläger's work, drawing inspiration from the core Norse legends in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, portrays Gefjon as a powerful, divine figure harnessing oxen-sons to carve land from Sweden, emphasizing themes of ingenuity and territorial creation amid the Romantic revival of Scandinavian folklore.^[20] This nationalist interpretation aligned with Denmark's cultural resurgence following the Napoleonic Wars, positioning Gefjon as an emblem of resilience and ancient glory in Oehlenschläger's broader celebration of Nordic gods.^[21] Visual arts of the 19th and early 20th centuries frequently depicted the ploughing scene to evoke Gefjon's mythic role in forming Zealand, with the most prominent example being the Gefion Fountain in Copenhagen. Created by sculptor Anders Bundgaard and unveiled in 1908, this large-scale bronze ensemble shows Gefjon directing four massive oxen as they tear earth from the sea bed, symbolizing the island's legendary origin and installed as a gift from the Carlsberg Foundation to commemorate Denmark's industrial heritage. The fountain, located in Langelinie Park near the Little Mermaid statue, draws directly from medieval sources like Heimskringla while serving as a public monument blending mythology with modern civic pride, and it remains a key piece in Scandinavian public art collections.^[22] Scholarly literature from the 19th and early 20th centuries further explored Gefjon through mythological analysis, notably in Viktor Rydberg's Teutonic Mythology (Undersökningar i germanisk mythologi, 1886–1889). Rydberg, a Swedish poet and philologist, interpreted Gefjon primarily as an epithet or aspect of the goddess Freyja, linking her to themes of fertility, foreknowledge, and the afterlife, where she serves as a maid-goddess attended by deceased virgins and possesses insight equal to Odin's into human fates.^[23] In Volume III, he connects her ploughing myth to broader Teutonic cosmogony, citing sources like the Poetic Edda and Saxo Grammaticus to argue for her integration into Freyja's narrative of abduction, liberation, and divine service at feasts like Ægir's, contributing to a systematic reconstruction of Norse pantheon dynamics.^[24] Rydberg's work influenced subsequent mythologists by prioritizing etymological and narrative parallels, framing Gefjon as a multifaceted figure in Germanic religious evolution rather than a standalone deity.^[25]

In Popular Culture and Neopaganism

Gefjon appears in modern video games inspired by Norse mythology, often depicted as a powerful figure tied to her traditional attributes of agriculture and land creation. In the action-adventure game God of War Ragnarök (2022), the character Mimir exclaims "Great Gefjon's ghost!" in surprise upon encountering a massive Hafgufa creature in the Alfheim region, referencing her legendary scale in a moment of awe during gameplay. Similarly, in the mobile RPG Empires & Puzzles (2017), Gefjon is portrayed as a legendary hero with abilities reflecting destruction and renewal, such as dealing area damage and countering enemy summons, aligning with her mythical ploughing prowess in a Norse-themed fantasy setting. In neopagan practices, particularly within Ásatrú and Heathenry, Gefjon is invoked in rituals centered on fertility, agriculture, and land stewardship, drawing from her mythological role as a giver of prosperity and creator of Zealand. Devotional works in modern pagan literature highlight her as one of Frigg's handmaidens, suitable for ceremonies honoring unmarried women, virgins, or bountiful harvests, where practitioners may offer mead or perform symbolic ploughing acts to connect with themes of abundance and boundary-making.^[26] For instance, contemporary Ásatrú texts describe her in contexts of mythological significance, integrating her into broader practices of generosity and resourcefulness during seasonal rites like those at midsummer or planting times.

References

[1]
Gylfaginning | Sacred Texts Archive
King Gylfi was a wise man and skilled in magic; he was much troubled that the Æsir-people were so cunning that all things went according to their will.
[2]
THE YNGLINGA SAGA | Sacred Texts Archive
THE YNGLINGA SAGA, OR THE STORY OF THE YNGLING FAMILY FROM ODIN TO HALFDAN THE BLACK. 1. OF THE SITUATION OF COUNTRIES. It is said that the earth's circle which ...Missing: Gefjun | Show results with:Gefjun
[3]
Skáldskaparmal | Sacred Texts Archive
A certain man was named Ægir, or Hlér. He dwelt on the island which is now called Hlér's Isle,[2] and was deeply versed in black magic.<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
None
Summary of each segment:
[5]
The Poetic Edda: Lokasenna | Sacred Texts Archive
The Lokasenna consists chiefly of Loki's taunt; to the assembled gods and goddesses, and their largely ineffectual attempts to talk back to him.
[6]
We need to talk about Gefjun: Toward a new etymology of an Old ...
The study reveals that Gefjun's etymology is likely from a Proto-Norse form *gaƀjanu, challenging prior interpretations linking it to 'the giving one'.
[7]
Gefjun - Norse Mythology for Smart People
Most of our information about Gefjun has been filtered through the mind and pen of the thirteenth-century Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson. While Snorri's ...
[8]
The Younger Edda - Project Gutenberg
The fourth is Gefjun, who is a may, and those who die maids become her hand-maidens. The fifth is Fulla, who is also a may, she wears her hair flowing and has a ...
[9]
Gylfaginning | Sacred Texts Archive
Summary of each segment:
[10]
Lokasenna 26-30 - Voluspa.org
The wrong and shame thou hast wrought; The fate of all | does Frigg know well, Though herself she says it not." Loki spake: 30. "Be silent ...
[11]
(PDF) Gods of the North - Academia.edu
... Prose Edda a later combined account of Norse myth and poet's handbook by ... For instance, Snorri mentions in his list "Gefjun the virgin goddess: they ...
[12]
English Folk-Drama. II - jstor
form to the goddess Gefjun, the goddess of agriculture-. Gefjun personifying the ploughed land as Frigg represents the fruit-bearing earth. In the myth of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[13]
Gefion's Home Page - University of Pittsburgh
Gefion (also spelled Gefjon) was the fourth goddess of the Æsir, following Frigg (the wife of Odin), Sága, and Eir (the best of physicians).
[14]
The Position of the Woman in the Poetic Edda - Folklore.ee
Idunn, Gefjon, Sigyyn are seldom met in the epic. All of them are presented in "Lokasenna" in a negative light, as the name of the lay demands. Idunn must ...2. Giantesses · 4. Mortal Women · 5. Family RelationsMissing: scholarly sources
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The Poetic Edda - Svipdagsmál (Gróugaldr and Fjǫlsvinnsmál)
On this basis, Gg. and Fj., which appear to represent the start and conclusion of the hero's quest, are often presented together in editions under the modern ...Missing: Gefjun | Show results with:Gefjun
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http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/SSK.pdf
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[PDF] STORIES FROM SAGAS OF KINGS - Viking Society Web Publications
Except for Völsa fláttr, where the only Icelander is fiormó›r, the chief character in every story in this book is Icelandic, though in the first Halldórs fláttr ...Missing: þáttr | Show results with:þáttr
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https://grendelsmotherthenovel.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/battaglia-grendel_s-mother-earth-goddess.pdf
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(PDF) The German Earth Goddess in Beowulf? - Academia.edu
Moreover, Norse mythology describes the Goddess Freyia as having a feline aspect. ... 1978 "The myth of Gefjon and Gylfi and its function in Snorra Edda and ...
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[PDF] THE GERMANIC EARTH GODDESS IN BEOWULF? Frank Battaglia
In Old English poetry, geofon is a word for ocean which has been seen since ... 1978 "The myth of Gefjon and Gylfi and its function in Snorra Edda and.
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Adam Oehlenschläger - Bragis Sang om Gefion - Kalliope
Bragis Sang om Gefion. Da Asaskokke. I tætte Flokke. Fra Østen rede,. Med Sværd af Skede,. Giennem tykke Skove,. Over sølvblaa Vove,. Over steile Bierge;.Missing: literature | Show results with:literature
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Gods of the North: an epic poem
Title: The Gods of the North: an epic poem. Author: Adam Oehlenschläger. Translator: William Edward Frye. Release date: August 13, 2015 [eBook #49696] Most ...
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Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger | Danish Poet, Playwright & Novelist
Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger was a poet and dramatist who was a leader of the Romantic movement in Denmark and traditionally has been considered the great ...
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Gefionspringvandet. Fountain with bronze statue of the goddess ...
RF MHACGK–Bronze fountain completed in 1908, depicting Norse goddess Gefion plowing the sea with 4 oxen.
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None
Below is a merged response summarizing Viktor Rydberg’s interpretations of Gefjon in *Teutonic Mythology* (Vol. III), consolidating all the information from the provided segments into a dense and comprehensive format. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize the key points, followed by a narrative summary that ties everything together. Since the system restricts "thinking tokens," I’ll focus on directly presenting the synthesized information without additional analysis or elaboration beyond what’s provided.
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Teutonic Mythology - Project Gutenberg
Teutonic Mythology Gods and Goddesses of the Northland in three volumes by Viktor Rydberg, Ph.D., member of the Swedish Academy.
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Teutonic mythology : gods and goddesses of the Northland
Jan 25, 2008 · Teutonic mythology : gods and goddesses of the Northland. by: Rydberg, Viktor, 1828-1895; Anderson, Rasmus Björn, 1846-1936. Publication date ...
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Norse Goddess Magic - Inner Traditions
Free delivery over $35 30-day returns``In this important and original work Alice Karlsdóttir, a leading expert on Norse religion, makes new and dramatic teachings available and applies these ...
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[PDF] Ways of the Asatru - Temple of Our Heathen Gods
Her hair is a light brown, braided and tied in the back with a gold head ring. Gefjon ... One great book that would help to gain a personal insight on the Ásatrú.