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Glass cliff

The glass cliff is a concept in organizational psychology positing that women are more likely than men to be promoted into leadership roles amid organizational crises or declining performance, thereby facing heightened risks of failure and scrutiny. Coined in 2005 by psychologists Michelle K. Ryan and S. Alexander Haslam, the term draws an analogy to the glass ceiling—referring to invisible barriers to women's advancement—but emphasizes precarious timing rather than outright exclusion.^[1]^[2] Initial empirical support came from archival analyses of FTSE 100 companies and experimental studies, where participants preferred female candidates for leadership in simulated failing firms, attributing this to stereotypes of women as adept at "turning around" troubled entities through communal traits like empathy.^[2]^[3] Subsequent research extended the idea to politics, legal firms, and underrepresented groups beyond gender, with a 2020 meta-analysis of 29 studies affirming a small but consistent pattern across contexts, particularly where diversity pressures intersect with poor performance.^[4]^[5] However, the phenomenon's robustness remains contested, as multiple replications—especially in European corporate data—have found no disproportionate negative trends preceding female appointments, suggesting selection effects may stem from availability biases or broader pipeline issues rather than targeted crisis placements.^[6]^[7] Critics argue that early evidence, often from small samples or U.K.-centric business media prompts, overstates causality, with confounding factors like self-selection into high-risk roles or measurement inconsistencies undermining claims of systemic discrimination.^[8] This debate underscores challenges in attributing leadership outcomes to gender absent rigorous controls for firm-specific risks and individual competencies, highlighting the need for causal inference over correlational patterns.^[3]

Definition and Conceptual Origins

Core Definition

The glass cliff refers to the observed tendency for women to be appointed to leadership roles, particularly in corporate or organizational settings, at times of impending crisis or poor performance, where the positions involve elevated risks of failure and scrutiny. This phenomenon posits that while women may surmount barriers to advancement akin to the glass ceiling, such promotions often occur into precarious situations characterized by declining financial metrics, such as falling stock prices or market share erosion, rather than stable or prosperous contexts. The term was coined by psychologists Michelle K. Ryan and S. Alexander Haslam in a 2005 study analyzing appointments to the boards of FTSE 100 companies, which found that female directors were overrepresented in firms experiencing recent share price drops compared to those with gains.^[9] Proponents of the concept argue it extends beyond mere coincidence, suggesting underlying dynamics where decision-makers perceive women as better suited—or more expendable—for turnaround efforts, potentially due to stereotypes associating females with communal traits like nurturing or consensus-building in turbulent times. Archival data from the original research indicated that, between 1999 and 2004, women comprised a higher proportion of new board appointments in underperforming UK companies, with statistical analysis controlling for factors like company size and sector. Experimental paradigms have replicated this pattern, showing participants selecting female candidates preferentially for hypothetical CEO roles in simulated failing organizations over male counterparts.^[9]^[3] The glass cliff has been documented across contexts including politics and nonprofits, though primarily in Western corporate environments, with the core implication that such appointments heighten the likelihood of blame attribution to female leaders if recovery fails, amplifying gender disparities in leadership outcomes. A decade-long review of subsequent studies affirmed the pattern in both real-world appointments and lab settings, though it emphasized variability by industry and national context.^[3]^[10]

Historical Development of the Term

The term "glass cliff" was coined by psychologists Michelle K. Ryan and S. Alexander Haslam of the University of Exeter in the early 2000s, drawing from observations of women being appointed to leadership roles in underperforming organizations. The concept originated from Ryan's reading of a 2003 article in The Times of London, which highlighted the disproportionate presence of female directors on the boards of FTSE 100 companies experiencing financial declines, prompting empirical investigation into whether such appointments reflected precarious positioning rather than merit-based advancement.^[11]^[12] Ryan and Haslam formalized the term in their 2005 peer-reviewed paper published in the British Journal of Management, titled "The Glass Cliff: Evidence that Women are Over-Represented in Precarious Leadership Positions." In this study, they analyzed archival data from FTSE 100 firms, finding that newly appointed female directors were more likely than male counterparts to join boards during periods of poor stock performance and organizational instability, with women over-represented by a factor of approximately 2:1 in such scenarios. They supplemented this with experimental evidence from mock recruitment scenarios, where participants favored female candidates for leadership in failing companies, attributing the pattern to stereotypes associating women with communal traits suited to crisis contexts.^[9]^[13] Following the 2005 publication, the term gained traction in academic and media discourse, with Ryan and Haslam extending their research to sectors like politics and legal professions, while other scholars began replicating or critiquing the findings. By 2007, they had outlined dynamics in precarious appointments, emphasizing think-leader-think-crisis associations, though subsequent reviews noted mixed empirical support for the effect's universality. The phrase entered broader management literature, often contrasted with the "glass ceiling" metaphor, but its adoption reflected ongoing debates over causal mechanisms rather than unqualified acceptance.^[10]^[3]

Theoretical Explanations

Bias and Stereotype-Based Theories

Bias and stereotype-based theories propose that the glass cliff emerges from entrenched gender stereotypes and associated biases that shape evaluations of leadership fit. Central to these explanations is the "think crisis–think female" hypothesis, which posits a contextual reversal of the prevailing "think manager–think male" association. In stable or successful organizations, leadership is stereotyped as requiring agentic traits like assertiveness and independence, typically ascribed to men, rendering women a poorer perceived fit. However, in crisis scenarios—particularly those involving organizational decline—stereotypes shift, linking leadership with communal traits such as empathy, collaboration, and interpersonal sensitivity, which are more readily associated with women.^[14]^[15] This stereotype variation has been experimentally demonstrated through studies examining trait ascriptions to managers. For instance, participants described hypothetical unsuccessful company leaders using significantly more feminine traits (e.g., helpfulness, gentleness) than masculine ones, with interclass correlations showing a negative association between men and failing managers (ICC = -.63), but a prescriptive ideal for crisis leaders favoring feminine attributes (11 feminine vs. 6 masculine traits).^[14] Such perceptions lead selectors to favor women for precarious roles, as their stereotyped qualities align with demands for managing internal discord or stakeholder relations during downturns, rather than driving performance recovery per se.^[15] Role congruity theory further elucidates this dynamic, arguing that prejudice against female leaders stems from perceived incongruence between women's communal gender roles and the agentic demands of leadership. In glass cliff situations, crises temporarily mitigate this incongruity by emphasizing relational repair over aggressive expansion, making women appear more congruent and thus viable candidates—though still exposed to heightened failure risk if stereotypes undervalue their agentic capabilities.^[14] Empirical support includes selection experiments where women received higher appointment rates in relational crises (51.8%) compared to non-crisis contexts (37.4%), mediated by the elevated relevance of communal behaviors (M = 5.60 for relational vs. M = 4.81 for financial crises).^[15] These theories also incorporate bias elements, such as the scapegoat hypothesis, where women, as underrepresented "outsiders," are appointed to absorb blame for inevitable failures without threatening ingroup male networks. However, stereotype-driven explanations dominate, with evidence indicating that crisis type modulates effects: relational crises amplify communal preferences (50% selection for stereotypically female leaders), while financial crises weaken them (27.2%), yet still yield glass cliff patterns due to residual bias toward change-signaling via gender divergence.^[15] Overall, these frameworks highlight how stereotypes, rather than meritocratic assessment, cue biased selections, though they assume selector perceptions align with broader cultural biases often critiqued for lacking universality across diverse decision-making contexts.^[14]

Signaling and Organizational Dynamics

In organizational crises, signaling theory posits that appointments to leadership roles serve as observable signals to external stakeholders, such as investors and markets, indicating that the firm is undertaking substantive changes to address poor performance. Under this framework, the glass cliff arises when women are selected for such roles because their gender acts as a credible, low-cost signal of deviation from prior male-dominated strategies that contributed to the downturn; unlike internal male candidates who might be seen as continuous with failing leadership, female appointees symbolize novelty and reform without requiring structural overhauls like divestitures or layoffs.^[16] This signaling is particularly effective in high-visibility crises, where media scrutiny amplifies the need for perceivable shifts, as empirical models integrating Spence's (1973) economic signaling theory demonstrate that firms in spotlighted distress prefer female over male or ethnic minority leaders to convey proactive recovery efforts.^[17] However, the theory's boundary conditions highlight that this effect depends on the signaler's attributes, such as the absence of prior entrenchment in the firm's errors, making women's outsider status in executive networks a key enabler.^[18] Organizational dynamics further elucidate the glass cliff through internal mechanisms where boards, facing performance pressures, leverage gender diversity as a tool to manage stakeholder expectations and internal accountability. In precarious positions, the appointment of women can diffuse blame from incumbent leadership, aligning with causal dynamics where crises prompt risk-transfer to atypical candidates who bear higher scrutiny and failure attribution due to stereotype incongruence with traditional authority roles.^[10] This is reinforced by empirical analyses showing that such dynamics are not merely prejudicial but strategically rational within firms, as diversity signals mitigate stock price volatility post-appointment by appeasing demands for inclusivity amid turmoil, though without addressing underlying operational flaws.^[19] Critically, these patterns persist across sectors, with data from FTSE 100 firms indicating that crisis timing correlates with elevated female board placements to stabilize governance perceptions, yet often at the cost of appointee tenure stability.^[1] From a causal realist perspective, these signaling and dynamic explanations challenge bias-centric views by emphasizing verifiable market reactions—such as positive abnormal returns following female CEO announcements in distressed firms—as evidence of perceived efficacy, rather than inherent discrimination.^[16] Nonetheless, replications underscore contingencies: the signal loses potency in low-scrutiny crises or when ethnic minorities are considered, suggesting gender's unique signaling value stems from entrenched demographic imbalances in leadership pipelines, not universal prejudice.^[17] This framework thus integrates first-principles of information asymmetry in organizations, where observable traits like gender reduce uncertainty for uninformed observers more efficiently than unobservable competencies during acute instability.

Empirical Evidence

Studies Indicating a Glass Cliff Effect

The seminal empirical investigation into the glass cliff was conducted by Michelle K. Ryan and Alexander Haslam, who analyzed board appointments among FTSE 100 companies in the United Kingdom during 2003. Their archival data revealed that firms appointing female directors had experienced an average share price decline of 40% over the six months prior to the appointment, compared to just 12% for firms appointing male directors, indicating women were disproportionately selected for leadership roles amid organizational decline.^[9] Complementing this, Ryan and Haslam's experimental studies presented participants with scenarios of underperforming versus thriving companies and found a preference for female candidates to lead the former, suggesting implicit biases associating women with crisis management.^[13] Subsequent research extended these findings to experimental paradigms across contexts. For instance, participants in controlled studies consistently rated women as more suitable for precarious leadership positions, such as turning around failing ventures, attributing this to stereotypes of women as communal and adept at nurturing recovery, whereas men were favored for stable or growth-oriented roles.^[10] In the legal sector, archival analysis of high-profile cases showed women lawyers were overrepresented in high-risk litigation with low success probabilities, mirroring corporate patterns where female appointees inherited disproportionate volatility.^[5] A 2021 meta-analysis of 22 archival studies synthesized evidence from corporate, political, and public sectors, confirming a small but statistically significant glass cliff effect, with effect sizes varying by domain—stronger in business (Cohen's d ≈ 0.20) than in education or nonprofits.^[20] This aggregation highlighted consistent patterns where underrepresented groups, particularly women, faced elevated appointment risks during performance downturns, though the magnitude diminished in analyses controlling for firm size and industry. Experimental replications within the meta-analysis further supported causality, as manipulated crisis conditions increased female selection rates by 15-25% relative to non-crisis baselines.^[1] Domain-specific studies reinforced these trends; for example, analysis of IMF bailout programs in 85 countries from 1980 to 2019 found female finance ministers were 2.5 times more likely to be appointed during economic crises, with such appointments correlating to prior GDP contractions exceeding 5%.^[21] Similarly, in U.S. municipal government simulations, female candidates were preferred for mayoral roles in fiscally distressed cities, with selection probabilities rising 30% under simulated budget shortfalls.^[22] These findings, drawn from diverse methodologies, collectively indicate the glass cliff as a recurrent pattern in leadership selection under adversity.

Counter-Evidence and Failed Replications

A study examining board appointments in 233 large listed firms across Germany and the United Kingdom from 2005 to 2015 found no evidence supporting the glass cliff hypothesis. Performance trends in accounting metrics and stock market returns were not more negative prior to the appointment of female executives compared to male executives. Researchers utilized matching procedures to pair appointments, panel data regressions for trend analysis, and instrumental variable methods to mitigate endogeneity from unobserved firm characteristics.^[23] In the higher education sector, an analysis of 166 female CEOs and 166 matched male counterparts at private U.S. colleges and universities hired during the 2014-2015 academic year revealed no statistically significant glass cliff effect. Pre-appointment financial risk, measured via the Department of Education's Financial Responsibility Composite Score averaged over three years before hire, showed no greater instability for institutions led by women. The ex post facto design drew from Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System records, controlling for institutional type via Carnegie classification.^[24] More recent research on U.S. corporate CEO selections similarly detected no clear pattern of women being appointed during periods of organizational precarity, contradicting the core claim of the phenomenon. A meta-analysis aggregating field studies across domains reported mixed results, with effect sizes varying by context and some investigations yielding null findings, underscoring challenges in replication. These outcomes suggest that observed gender differences in crisis appointments may stem from selection biases or data artifacts rather than systematic discrimination.^[7]^[25]

Alternative Perspectives

Selection During Crises as Rational Choice

One alternative explanation posits that the appointment of women to leadership roles during organizational crises represents a deliberate, rational strategy by decision-makers to convey signals of substantive change to external stakeholders, such as investors. Under signaling theory, gender serves as a salient, observable cue that differentiates the appointee from entrenched male-dominated leadership patterns, thereby credibly indicating a departure from the status quo and commitment to reforms. A large-scale analysis of 26,156 U.S. executive appointments from 2000 to 2016 demonstrated that firms in crisis elevated the probability of female appointments by 2.6 percentage points, with such moves often framed in press releases as emblematic of transformation efforts.^[16] This approach is rational insofar as it leverages low-cost visibility to potentially enhance investor confidence, mitigate stock price declines, and facilitate access to resources, particularly when prior female representation is absent or investor scrutiny is intense.^[16] Such selections may also stem from pragmatic assessments of required competencies in turnaround scenarios, where collaborative, stakeholder-oriented styles—sometimes stereotypically associated with women—are deemed advantageous for navigating downturns involving internal consensus-building or external relations. Proponents argue this reflects causal realism in organizational dynamics: crises demand disruptors or outsiders untainted by prior failures, and underrepresented groups like women may offer novel perspectives or face fewer internal rivals due to pipeline constraints, making their elevation a calculated risk rather than sabotage. Empirical support for this view emerges from contexts where gender diversity correlates with resilience; for instance, boards facing performance pressures may rationally prioritize candidates perceived as adept at empathetic restructuring over continuity. However, these attributions require scrutiny, as they can intersect with unverified stereotypes, though data indicate no inherent performance detriment in such roles compared to male counterparts in similar straits. Countervailing evidence further undermines discriminatory interpretations by revealing the glass cliff pattern as potentially overstated or context-specific. A study examining 233 large listed firms in Germany and the UK from 2005 to 2015 found no statistically significant difference in negative pre-appointment performance trajectories between female and male executives, employing matching procedures, panel analyses, and instrumental variables to control for selection biases.^[23] Similarly, recent analyses of CEO appointments indicate women are not disproportionately assigned to struggling firms relative to men, challenging the universality of crisis-linked promotions and suggesting appointments align more with meritocratic or availability-based rationales than gendered peril.^[26] In essence, rational choice frameworks emphasize that boards optimize for survival by selecting agents suited—or symbolically positioned—to catalyze recovery, with gender as one facet among competence, networks, and timing, rather than a vector of bias. This perspective highlights how overlooking such incentives risks conflating correlation with causation in appointment data.

Confounding Factors in Appointment Data

Studies examining appointment data for the glass cliff often rely on archival records of firm performance metrics, such as stock returns or profitability, preceding leadership changes, but these analyses are susceptible to confounding variables that may explain observed patterns without invoking discriminatory selection. One key confound is self-selection, where women exhibit greater willingness to accept precarious roles compared to men, potentially driven by perceptions of undervaluation in stable positions or overconfidence in turnaround potential. Experimental and survey evidence indicates that female candidates rate risky leadership scenarios more favorably, suggesting that appointment data reflecting women's choices could mimic biased promotion without external imposition.^[27] Another confounding factor arises from sample selection and measurement artifacts in performance indicators. Declines in firm performance, often proxied by recent stock price drops, can lag actual operational issues or coincide with broader market volatility, creating spurious correlations with gender if datasets underrepresent certain firm types or fail to control for industry-specific cycles. For instance, analyses of U.S. corporate CEOs from 1996 to 2020 found no significant association between prior firm risk and female appointments after adjusting for firm size, governance structures, and temporal trends, implying that raw data patterns may stem from unmodeled heterogeneity rather than systematic bias. Similarly, educational and nonprofit sector studies report null effects for female leaders in high-risk contexts, highlighting how contextual variability confounds cross-sector generalizations.^[7]^[24] Endogeneity in organizational dynamics further complicates causal inference, as crises may prompt diversity initiatives or symbolic signaling—such as appointing women to demonstrate commitment to change—independent of stereotypes, yet these are often conflated in observational data. Boards facing shareholder pressure might prioritize visible reforms during downturns, elevating available female candidates without regard to gender-specific risk aversion, a process evidenced in UK FTSE 100 appointments where gender quotas amplified precarious selections but not uniquely for women. Failure to instrument for such endogenous policies or board composition can inflate apparent glass cliff effects, as longitudinal controls reveal appointments align more with competency pipelines than gendered prejudice.^[28]^[29] These confounds underscore the need for rigorous econometric approaches, such as propensity score matching or fixed-effects models, to isolate gender effects from correlated predictors like executive availability or economic shocks, with recent meta-analyses showing attenuated or absent glass cliff patterns after such adjustments.^[16]

Notable Examples

Corporate Appointments

Marissa Mayer was appointed CEO of Yahoo! on July 16, 2012, amid the company's prolonged decline, including falling market share, multiple leadership changes in prior years, and a failure to compete effectively with rivals like Google.^[30] Under her tenure, Yahoo pursued acquisitions and restructuring efforts, but the core business continued to erode, culminating in its sale to Verizon in 2017 for $4.8 billion and Mayer's departure with a $23 million severance package.^[30] Mary Barra became CEO of General Motors on January 15, 2014, shortly before a major safety scandal involving faulty ignition switches—linked to at least 13 deaths—emerged publicly, exacerbating the company's post-bankruptcy recovery challenges from 2009.^[31]^[32] Barra oversaw massive recalls affecting over 30 million vehicles, fired 15 involved employees, and implemented cultural and operational reforms; GM's stock rose significantly during her leadership, and she received acclaim for steering the company through the crisis.^[33]^[34] Sue Gove was named CEO of Bed Bath & Beyond in October 2022 as the retailer teetered on the brink of bankruptcy, with declining sales, heavy debt, and store closures amid e-commerce shifts.^[35] The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 2023, leading to liquidation and the end of Gove's tenure.^[36] Stephanie Linnartz assumed the CEO role at Under Armour in late 2022 to address stagnating revenue, inventory issues, and competitive pressures in the apparel sector.^[37] She departed after one year in April 2024, with the company reporting ongoing challenges despite some strategic pivots.^[36] These cases illustrate appointments to roles with elevated risks, though outcomes differ: some leaders navigated crises successfully, while others faced organizational collapse, highlighting the precarious nature of such positions without implying causation from gender alone.^[38]

Political Leadership Cases

Theresa May was selected as leader of the Conservative Party and appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on July 13, 2016, immediately following David Cameron's resignation after the Brexit referendum on June 23, 2016, in which 51.9% of voters opted to leave the European Union, plunging the nation into political uncertainty and economic volatility.^[39]^[40] The appointment occurred amid party infighting, a devalued pound, and warnings of recession, positioning May to negotiate the UK's exit despite lacking a clear mandate from the referendum campaign she had opposed.^[41] Her tenure ended in resignation on May 24, 2019, after three failed attempts to pass a withdrawal agreement in Parliament, highlighting the high-risk context of her elevation.^[40] Margaret Thatcher assumed the role of Prime Minister on May 4, 1979, after winning the general election amid Britain's "Winter of Discontent," marked by widespread strikes, 1.5 million unemployed, and inflation exceeding 13%, conditions that had eroded public confidence in the prior Labour government.^[42] Although elected rather than appointed mid-crisis, her rise is cited in analyses of the glass cliff as occurring during acute national decline, with Thatcher implementing austerity measures that initially deepened recession—GDP fell 2.5% in 1980—before eventual recovery.^[42] This case illustrates how female leaders may inherit entrenched crises, facing amplified scrutiny for reforms like privatization and union curbs that contributed to her 11-year tenure but also polarized outcomes.^[43] In Germany, Andrea Nahles was elected leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) on April 22, 2018, after the party secured its lowest federal election result in history at 20.5% in September 2017, prompting the resignation of previous co-leaders amid coalition instability with Angela Merkel's CDU.^[44] Nahles's selection during this nadir aimed to stabilize the party, but she resigned in September 2019 following poor European Parliament election performance (15.8%) and internal dissent, underscoring the precarious timing of her appointment in a context of declining membership and voter support.^[44] Dilma Rousseff's presidency in Brazil, beginning January 1, 2011, followed her election amid lingering global financial crisis effects, with GDP growth slowing from 7.5% in 2010; however, her impeachment on August 31, 2016, for fiscal maneuvers amid recession (GDP contracted 3.8% in 2015) and corruption scandals, is sometimes framed in glass cliff discussions as exemplifying post-appointment failure under inherited or exacerbated turmoil.^[40] Yet, her initial ascent via election rather than crisis appointment differentiates it from purer glass cliff instances, with critics attributing downturns to policy choices like expansionary spending rather than solely structural risks.^[45] These cases, drawn from European and Latin American contexts, reflect patterns where female politicians ascend during institutional or electoral lows, often with limited support structures, though outcomes vary and causal links to gender-specific selection remain debated in empirical studies favoring contextual over stereotypical explanations.^[46]^[47]

Evidence from Other Sectors

In educational leadership, particularly at the K-12 level, analyses of gender disparities indicate a potential glass cliff effect, with women ascending to principal or headteacher roles in schools facing higher risks of failure, such as poor performance metrics or resource shortages, more frequently than men. A 2023 study examining leadership trajectories in education found that female leaders in top positions often inherit more volatile institutional conditions, suggesting appointments timed with organizational downturns rather than stability.^[22] However, targeted empirical investigations, such as a review of U.S. charter school CEO appointments using the Department of Education's FRCS database across multiple datasets, detected no statistically significant patterns of elevated financial distress preceding female hires compared to male ones, challenging the universality of the phenomenon in this subdomain.^[24] In higher education, the glass cliff manifests in university presidencies, where women are disproportionately selected amid crises like declining enrollments, funding cuts, or governance scandals, amplifying scrutiny and failure risks. Research on European higher education institutions from 2010 onward observed an uptick in female appointments to rector or president roles during periods of redefined leadership demands and institutional instability, potentially reflecting biased perceptions of women as suitable for "rescue" missions.^[48] U.S.-focused analyses similarly highlight how boards appoint women to turnaround presidencies with inadequate transition support, exacerbating outcomes due to entrenched biases against female authority in academic settings.^[49] Evidence in healthcare leadership remains limited and primarily tied to broader glass ceiling barriers rather than cliffs, with one Indonesian study of hospital executives noting persistent underrepresentation of women in top roles but without isolating crisis-timing effects.^[50] In sports leagues, anecdotal and observational reports describe women coaches or executives assuming roles in underperforming teams or organizations during slumps, though rigorous quantitative studies confirming disproportionate crisis appointments are scarce.^[36] Overall, while suggestive patterns emerge in education and academia, replications across these sectors yield mixed results, underscoring the need for context-specific controls beyond gender.

Criticisms and Debates

Methodological Limitations

Studies supporting the glass cliff phenomenon often rely on archival data analyses that fail to adequately control for confounding variables, such as candidates' prior qualifications, experience, or firm-specific factors like culture and governance structures, leading to potential endogeneity bias where unobserved heterogeneity drives appointment patterns rather than gender-specific discrimination.^[16] ^[24] This ex post facto approach limits causal inference, as retrospective designs cannot rule out reverse causality—such as gender diversity initiatives influencing perceived firm risk—or omitted variables that correlate with both gender and precariousness.^[24] Experimental designs exhibit inconsistencies based on methodology; meta-analyses reveal a small glass cliff effect in between-participants studies (Hedges' g = 0.32), where participants evaluate separate male and female candidates, but no significant effect in within-participants designs (g = 0.07), where the same participants assess both genders, suggesting demand characteristics or implicit comparisons may inflate effects in looser designs.^[1] Archival studies show high heterogeneity (I² = 87%), with effects varying by domain—absent in management and sports but present in politics and nonprofits—and overall small magnitudes (g = 0.07), indicating the phenomenon is not robust across contexts and potentially overstated due to selective domain focus or small sample sizes that reduce statistical power.^[1] Measurement of "precarious" positions poses further challenges, as proxies like stock declines or financial composites capture economic risk but overlook qualitative factors such as institutional crises or reputational hazards, potentially misclassifying appointments and undermining cross-study comparability.^[24] Limited cross-cultural and longitudinal data exacerbate generalizability issues, with effects moderated by national gender inequality levels and appearing weaker in quota-heavy environments, while the scarcity of mixed-methods research hinders deeper causal exploration beyond correlations.^[1] These limitations contribute to replication failures in large-scale datasets from regions like Germany and the UK, where no glass cliff pattern emerges, highlighting risks of overreliance on context-specific or underpowered evidence.^[6]

Overemphasis on Gender Over Competence

Critics of the glass cliff theory argue that it sometimes masks instances where diversity imperatives lead organizations to prioritize gender representation over demonstrated competence, particularly in high-stakes crisis situations where appointing a female leader serves as a visible signal of commitment to inclusion or change. This perspective holds that DEI policies and quotas can pressure boards to select women to fulfill numerical targets or public relations goals, even when more qualified candidates—regardless of gender—are available, thereby increasing the risk of failure and reinforcing perceptions of underqualification. For instance, external hires for turnaround roles may favor gender diversity to deflect criticism of prior male leadership failures, sidelining rigorous competence evaluations in favor of symbolic gestures.^[51] Empirical examples illustrate this dynamic. Norway's 2003 mandate for 40% female board representation in public limited companies accelerated women's appointments but initially filled seats with directors averaging fewer years of prior board experience than incumbents, correlating with a 2-3% drop in Tobin's Q ratios for affected firms in the quota's early years, suggesting short-term value erosion from competence mismatches. Similarly, analyses of board quota implementations in Europe have noted that rushed gender balancing often elevates less seasoned professionals to meet compliance deadlines, potentially exacerbating organizational vulnerabilities during downturns rather than resolving them. These cases imply that when gender targets override meritocratic selection, appointed leaders face amplified scrutiny, with failures attributed to individual shortcomings rather than systemic hiring flaws. Challenging the victimhood narrative of the glass cliff, studies in non-quota environments find limited or no evidence of systematic female overrepresentation in precarious roles, indicating that where such patterns emerge, they may stem from affirmative efforts rather than innate bias. A 2019 analysis of 233 large listed firms in Germany and the UK from 2005-2013 revealed no significant performance differences preceding female versus male CEO appointments, undermining claims of a universal cliff and highlighting competence as the primary driver in merit-based systems.^[23] Commentators further contend that overreliance on gender as a proxy for fresh perspectives ignores causal factors like pipeline limitations or policy-induced mismatches, perpetuating cycles where diverse hires are set up for disproportionate blame. This view emphasizes that true leadership efficacy demands prioritizing verifiable skills—such as financial acumen or crisis management track records—over demographic checkboxes to avoid self-fulfilling prophecies of underperformance.^[52]

Broader Implications

Outcomes for Appointed Leaders

Empirical research on the performance and tenure of leaders appointed to glass cliff positions reveals mixed results, with no consistent evidence that women systematically underperform or fail at higher rates than men in comparable roles. A 2020 meta-analysis of 28 archival studies found a small overall glass cliff effect (Hedges' g = 0.07), but this was absent in management domains (g = -0.02), indicating that corporate appointments do not reliably follow the pattern and outcomes may similarly vary by sector. In domains like education and politics, where the effect is stronger (g = 0.24 and 0.08, respectively), leaders inherit declining performance metrics, elevating baseline risks of stagnation or further deterioration independent of gender. However, post-appointment data do not substantiate claims of gendered incompetence; instead, causal factors such as inherited crises and external market conditions dominate failure attributions. Corporate studies further undermine narratives of inevitable downfall for female appointees. An analysis of 10,348 CEOs (526 women) in U.S. public companies from 1998 to 2022 concluded that women are not disproportionately appointed to struggling firms and show no elevated likelihood of leading failures compared to men, with appointments correlating more with improving financial stability. Survival analyses of CEO tenure similarly yield conflicting findings: one examination of U.K. firms found female CEOs 40% less likely to experience turnover post-appointment than males, contradicting expectations of heightened vulnerability. Yet, other research highlights greater performance sensitivity in evaluations, where poor results prompt faster exits for women (e.g., higher turnover-performance correlation coefficients), potentially amplifying perceived risks in precarious starts. Broader outcomes include elevated scrutiny and reputational costs, particularly if turnarounds falter, as failures in high-visibility glass cliff roles can reinforce stereotypes without equivalent scrutiny of prior male leadership. In non-corporate sectors, such as nonprofits (g = 0.49 effect), appointed leaders face structural deficits that hinder recovery, leading to shorter average tenures—though aggregate data on success rates (e.g., recovery metrics) remain sparse and domain-contingent. These patterns suggest that while glass cliff appointments entail objective hazards from crisis inheritance, differential gender outcomes stem more from evaluative biases than inherent leadership deficits, with empirical support for the latter lacking robustness.

Relevance to Diversity Policies

Diversity policies, including gender quotas and targets for female representation in leadership, intersect with the glass cliff by potentially accelerating appointments of women to roles in underperforming organizations seeking to meet diversity mandates swiftly. Empirical analysis of 258 board appointments in German listed companies from 2003 to 2020 revealed that women were more likely to be appointed following performance declines before the 2015 gender quota announcement (Stage 1: 2003–2010) and after its enforcement (Stage 3: 2016–2020), but less so during the interim announcement period (Stage 2: 2011–2015), indicating quotas may temporarily disrupt but not eradicate the pattern.^[53] This dynamic implies that diversity initiatives can inadvertently reinforce precarious placements if not paired with transparency about organizational conditions or merit-based safeguards, as quota pressures may prioritize numerical compliance over contextual stability. Experimental evidence from the same study, involving 476 participants, supported reduced "signal clarity" of crisis appointments during the quota announcement phase, yet the glass cliff persisted long-term, underscoring the need for ongoing policy measures beyond quotas alone.^[53] Debates persist on whether the glass cliff undermines diversity goals, with some critiques highlighting limited empirical foundations, such as a 2005 UK study of 19 female FTSE 100 board appointments where firm performance improved post-appointment, challenging narratives of inevitable failure. Additional research suggests women may excel in crisis leadership, potentially aligning glass cliff opportunities with effective diversity outcomes rather than viewing them as discriminatory traps.^[8]^[9]^[54]

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[14]
[PDF] Think Crisis–Think Female: The Glass Cliff and Contextual Variation ...
nature of the managerial stereotype (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hei- lman, 2001) ... Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. In. B. Staw & L ...
[15]
Contextualizing the think crisis-think female stereotype in explaining ...
Mar 2, 2021 · The glass cliff suggests that women are more likely to access leadership positions when organizations are facing a crisis.
[16]
When Signaling Creates Glass Cliffs for Female Executives
Mar 17, 2022 · There is mixed support for the glass cliff hypothesis that firms will more likely appoint female candidates into top management positions ...<|separator|>
[17]
The Role of Signaling Theory for Glass Cliff Appointments
Nov 9, 2024 · Taken together, signaling theory offers a framework to study the signaling hypothesis of the glass cliff by pointing out potential boundary ...
[18]
Shine bright like a diamond: When signaling creates glass cliffs for ...
... signaling theory, we suggest that crisis firms appoint female top managers ... glass cliff effect hinges on attributes of the signaler (absence of ...
[19]
[PDF] When Signaling Creates Glass Cliffs for Female Executives
The basic tenet of the glass cliff hypothesis is that firms will more likely appoint women to executive positions when in crisis (Ryan & Haslam, 2007: 553), ...
[20]
The who, when, and why of the glass cliff phenomenon - PubMed
Specifically, the meta-analysis of archival studies revealed a small glass cliff effect that was dependent on organizational domain. The leadership suitability ...
[21]
International Monetary Fund programmes and the glass cliff effect
Jan 31, 2024 · While ample evidence supports the presence of a 'glass cliff' effect in various bureaucratic (Groeneveld et al., 2020; Smith, 2023), business ( ...Results · The 'glass Cliff' Effect In... · 'glass Cliff' Ministries
[22]
Precarious positions: glass ceilings, glass escalators, and glass cliffs ...
The notion of glass cliffs has been underexplored in public organizations, and only two peer-reviewed studies we know of have explored the concept of glass ...
[23]
The glass cliff myth? – Evidence from Germany and the U.K.
This study analyzes the “glass cliff” phenomenon using performance data from 233 large listed firms in Germany and the United Kingdom collected from 2005 to ...
[24]
[PDF] Evaluating the Likelihood of the Glass Cliff Phenomenon for Female ...
This paper, therefore, will review the evidence for and against the GCP and quantitatively test a variable of risk to see if a GCP tool could exist for female ...<|separator|>
[25]
A Meta-Analysis of Appointments to Precarious Leadership Positions
Oct 9, 2025 · The glass cliff has been investigated in a range of domains using various methodologies, but evidence is mixed. In 3 meta-analyses, we examined ...
[26]
Glass Cliff for Female CEOs? Study Reveals Mixed Evidence - Forbes
Jan 13, 2025 · Female CEOs of struggling companies are often said to be on a "glass cliff," but a new study shows women are no more likely to lead ...
[27]
(PDF) The paradox of being on the glass cliff: Why do women accept ...
Recent evidence from glass cliff research suggests that women are more willing than men to accept risky leadership positions.
[28]
Symbolic Management and the Glass Cliff: Evidence from the ...
Jan 13, 2017 · The glass-cliff argument is that women are being appointed to precarious boardroom positions, possibly as a way of signalling to shareholders ...
[29]
Gender quotas influence the appointment of women to precarious ...
Nov 4, 2024 · Evidence of the existence of the glass cliff is mixed. While several field studies examining the phenomenon have found supportive evidence ...
[30]
Marissa Mayer's $23-million severance from Yahoo may look ...
Mar 17, 2017 · Mayer faced a difficult task when she joined Yahoo. The company was rudderless, having gone through four CEOs in the previous five years. It had ...
[31]
Exclusive: Inside New CEO Mary Barra's Urgent Mission To Fix GM
May 28, 2014 · The crisis is an early, unexpected test of Barra's leadership and has raised questions about whether the 33-year company veteran–or anyone ...
[32]
Is Mary Barra Standing on a “Glass Cliff”? | The New Yorker
Apr 29, 2014 · Barra might help General Motors rebound from a multi-million-vehicle recall. Or she might become the business world's latest female victim.
[33]
Mary Barra's Bumpy Ride at the Wheel of GM - Time Magazine
Sep 25, 2014 · GM fired 15 employees who were determined to have been involved in the switch crisis, but Barra and her top team were exonerated on the ...
[34]
Mary Barra - Automotive Hall of Fame
Soon after her appointment, Barra navigated GM through a crisis when the company came under fire for a faulty ignition switch that led to over 100 deaths. To ...
[35]
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/26/business/bed-bath-beyond-ceo.html
[36]
When That Job Promotion Is Really a 'Glass Cliff'
Jul 14, 2024 · A phenomenon in which a company in crisis appoints a woman to turn things around, often setting them up for failure.Missing: no | Show results with:no
[37]
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/business/under-armour-stephanie-linnartz.html
[38]
How Women End Up on the “Glass Cliff”
Researchers have found that women have a better chance of breaking through that ceiling when an organization is facing a crisis.
[39]
Theresa May is the latest woman leader appointed in a crisis and set ...
Theresa May, the UK's new prime minister, is coming into the job when the potential cliff looks particularly sheer. The “glass cliff” was coined in 2005 by ...
[40]
How Brexit became a 'glass cliff' for Theresa May | PBS News
Apr 1, 2019 · How Brexit became a 'glass cliff' for Theresa May ... After two years of negotiations and a failure to deliver on a Brexit deal for Britain, Prime ...
[41]
Why Theresa May is a classic example of the glass cliff - Global News
Dec 15, 2018 · 'Think crisis, think female': Why Theresa May is a classic example of the glass cliff. By Jane Gerster Global News. Posted December 15, 2018 8 ...
[42]
Risky (Female Leadership) Business | IE Insights
Sep 2, 2021 · In regards to the political arena, there are plenty of examples of glass cliffs. Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister at a very difficult ...
[43]
What Is the Glass Cliff — and How Can We Avoid It? - USC Online
Aug 20, 2024 · The glass cliff is when women are elevated to leadership during crises, setting them up for failure, and applies to marginalized groups.
[44]
[PDF] Women to the Rescue: Is There a Glass Cliff in Politics?
The German Social Democratic Party (SPD), for instance, elected their first female party leader, Andrea Nahles, after the party had reached its lowest vote.
[45]
The 'glass cliff' puts women in power during crisis — often without ...
Mar 28, 2019 · Theresa May is a example of the “glass cliff” phenomenon: Women often come to power during crisis, when the chance of failure is high.
[46]
The Political Glass Cliff: When Ethnic, Racial and Immigration ... - NIH
Nov 20, 2024 · “The Who, When, and Why of the Glass Cliff Phenomenon: A Meta‐Analysis of Appointments to Precarious Leadership Positions.” Psychological ...
[47]
[PDF] The Glass-Cliff and USA Politics: Are Women Set Up for Failure?
This theory shows that women and other minorities are not treated the same within the workforce simply because of their identities and not because they are any ...
[48]
[PDF] An Academic 'Glass Cliff'? Exploring the Increase of Women ... - ERIC
Another problem is that glass cliff appointments are particularly stressful for women and involve more interpersonal conflict (Haslam and Ryan 2005).
[49]
The Glass Cliff in Higher Education—Challenges Faced by Women ...
Feb 4, 2025 · The glass cliff describes a phenomenon where women are specifically recruited for leadership roles during times of institutional crisis or vulnerability.Missing: effect | Show results with:effect
[50]
GLASS CEILING EFFECT AMONG WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP ...
The aim of the study was to explore the glass ceiling effect faced by women leaders in hospital. The study was conducted on a population from the state of ...
[51]
The Glass Cliff for Women in Leadership Positions - Tero International
There are times when some incompetent and unqualified women may be assigned leadership positions to enhance a company's public image, political correctness, and ...
[52]
Shattering the Glass Cliff Myth - Steve Tobak
Jun 6, 2019 · The main flaw in the glass cliff hypothesis is the notion that it's somehow wrong or unfair. Maybe women are better suited for turnarounds.
[53]
<em>Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology</em> | Wiley Online Library
### Summary of Key Findings on Gender Quotas and the Glass Cliff Phenomenon
[54]
Research: Women Are Better Leaders During a Crisis
Dec 30, 2020 · The “glass cliff” describes the idea that when a company is in trouble, a female leader is put in charge to save it.Missing: success | Show results with:success