Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Grammaticality

Grammaticality refers to the property of a linguistic expression, such as a sentence, conforming to the underlying rules of a language's grammar, particularly its syntactic structure, as determined by native speakers' intuitions.^[1] In linguistics, it distinguishes well-formed constructions generated by the language's competence grammar from those that violate its principles, independent of semantic meaning or ease of processing.^[2] This concept, central to syntactic theory, evaluates pairings of form and meaning, where a string may be grammatical under one interpretation but not another.^[1] Introduced prominently by Noam Chomsky in the mid-20th century, grammaticality forms the foundation of generative grammar, which posits that humans possess an innate linguistic competence enabling the production and recognition of infinite grammatical sentences.^[3] Chomsky's framework separates grammaticality from performance factors like memory limitations or contextual pragmatics, exemplified by sentences like "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which is syntactically grammatical despite lacking coherent meaning.^[1] Over time, scholars have debated whether grammaticality is binary (grammatical versus ungrammatical) or gradient, with judgments often marked by degrees of acceptability using notations like "?" for marginal cases.^[3] Grammaticality is primarily assessed through grammaticality judgment tasks (GJTs), where native speakers intuitively rate sentences for well-formedness, serving as the empirical backbone of linguistic research.^[4] These judgments, however, are influenced by extralinguistic factors such as cognitive processing, social context, and individual variation, leading to calls for methodological rigor to isolate core grammatical knowledge.^[4] A key distinction exists between grammaticality and acceptability: while all grammatical sentences are potentially acceptable, some may be unacceptable due to parsing difficulties, as in deeply center-embedded structures like "The mouse that the cat that the dog scared chased escaped."^[1] Recent probabilistic models further integrate grammaticality with acceptability, viewing linguistic knowledge as graded probabilities rather than strict rules.^[2] In contemporary linguistics, grammaticality extends beyond isolated sentences to interactional contexts, where grammar dynamically adapts to conversational situations, including non-sentential utterances and repairs.^[2] This evolution challenges traditional Chomskyan views, emphasizing grammar's role in real-time communication rather than idealized competence alone.^[2] More recently, research has explored how large language models align with human grammaticality judgments, providing new tools for testing linguistic theories.^[5]^[6] Despite methodological critiques, GJTs remain indispensable for testing theoretical hypotheses, particularly for rare or ungrammatical structures unattainable through corpus data.^[3]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Concept

Grammaticality denotes the conformity of a linguistic expression to the rules governing a language's syntax, morphology, and semantics, as determined by native speakers' intuitions about well-formedness, independent of the frequency of its occurrence in usage. This property defines whether an expression is well-formed according to the underlying grammatical system of the language.^[1] Within the generative grammar framework, grammaticality is conceptualized as a binary distinction: a sentence is either grammatical or ungrammatical, with the latter typically indicated by an asterisk (*). This approach posits that a grammar generates precisely the set of grammatical sentences, excluding all others as ill-formed. The concept traces its origins to structural linguistics in the early 20th century but received pivotal development through Noam Chomsky's work in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in Syntactic Structures (1957), where he formalized generative procedures for identifying grammatical sentences. This binary notion aligns with Chomsky's competence-performance distinction, wherein competence represents the idealized knowledge of grammatical rules that determines well-formedness, separate from actual language use affected by external factors.^[7] Illustrative examples in English include the grammatical sentence "The cat sleeps," which adheres to standard subject-verb agreement and word order, contrasted with the ungrammatical "*Sleeps the cat," which inverts the required structure.^[1]

Theoretical Foundations

In generative grammar, as pioneered by Noam Chomsky, grammaticality is conceptualized as the property of sentences that can be generated by a finite set of recursive rules from a speaker's internalized knowledge of language, enabling the production of an infinite array of well-formed utterances.^[8] This framework, introduced in Chomsky's seminal work Syntactic Structures, posits that a grammar is a system of rules specifying the class of grammatical sentences precisely, distinguishing them from ungrammatical ones without reliance on probabilistic or usage-based criteria.^[8] The recursive nature of these rules allows for the infinite productivity of language while maintaining a finite descriptive apparatus, a core tenet that underscores grammaticality as a formal, abstract ideal rather than a reflection of observed speech.^[8] Central to this approach is the distinction between linguistic competence and performance, where grammaticality pertains exclusively to competence—the idealized, subconscious knowledge that a native speaker possesses about their language's structure.^[7] In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Chomsky argues that competence represents the underlying system generating grammatical sentences, independent of performance factors such as memory limitations, slips of the tongue, or contextual influences that may lead to errors in actual use.^[7] Thus, judgments of grammaticality are tied to this mental grammar, providing a binary evaluation (grammatical or not) that abstracts away from the variability inherent in real-world language production.^[7] The theory evolved significantly in the 1980s with the shift to the principles-and-parameters model, exemplified in Chomsky's Government and Binding framework, which reframes grammaticality as the conformity of sentences to a set of universal principles modulated by language-specific parameters.^[9] This development, detailed in Lectures on Government and Binding, incorporates modular subsystems like binding theory and case theory, where grammaticality emerges from the interaction of innate universal grammar constraints with parameter settings acquired during language development.^[9] Such a model maintains the generative emphasis on formal rules while explaining cross-linguistic variation in grammaticality without proliferating language-specific rules.^[9] In contrast, functionalist and usage-based theories, such as Construction Grammar, de-emphasize grammaticality as a product of abstract, innate rules, instead viewing it as an emergent property shaped by patterns in linguistic experience and frequency of use. Proponents like Adele Goldberg argue that grammatical knowledge consists of learned constructions—conventionalized form-meaning pairings—where notions of well-formedness are probabilistic and context-dependent rather than categorically determined by universal principles. This perspective prioritizes the role of input-driven generalizations over idealized competence, leading to a more gradient understanding of grammaticality in everyday language processing.^[10]

Criteria for Grammaticality

Determining Factors

Grammaticality in a language is determined by whether a sentence conforms to the rules specified by its generative grammar, which includes syntactic, morphological, and structural components that collectively define well-formedness.^[11] This binary status—grammatical or ungrammatical—arises from the grammar's ability to generate or exclude strings based on these criteria, independent of speaker performance factors.^[12] Syntactic conformity requires adherence to phrase structure rules, which specify how words combine into larger units like noun phrases and verb phrases to form valid sentences. For instance, subject-verb agreement ensures that a singular subject pairs with a singular verb form, as in "She runs" (grammatical) versus "She run" (ungrammatical), reflecting the grammar's constraints on predicate-argument structure.^[12] These rules, foundational to generative syntax, enforce linear and relational dependencies among constituents to produce interpretable syntactic structures.^[11] Morphological rules contribute to grammaticality by governing correct inflection and word formation, ensuring that affixes align with a word's grammatical category and function. Examples include the addition of plural markers to nouns, such as "cats" rather than "cat" in plural contexts, which maintains agreement with quantifiers or verbs.^[13] Violations of these rules, like incorrect tense inflections on verbs, render sentences ungrammatical by disrupting the lexicon's subcategorization requirements.^[14] While grammaticality is primarily a matter of syntactic and morphological form, basic semantic compatibility through adherence to selectional restrictions—constraints on the semantic features of arguments compatible with predicates—ensures interpretable meaning without affecting core grammatical status. For example, "The rock sleeps" is semantically anomalous (though grammatically well-formed) because the inanimate noun "rock" violates the animacy restriction typically required by the verb "sleeps," preventing coherent theta-role assignment.^[15] These restrictions, encoded in the lexicon, support semantic relations but are distinct from syntactic well-formedness, as per generative grammar principles.^[16] Hierarchical structure underpins grammaticality by organizing words into nested constituencies, where linear order alone is insufficient; instead, dependencies like head-argument relations and embedding define well-formedness. In English, for instance, the phrase "the old man's hat" requires a hierarchical parse with "old man" as a noun phrase modifying "man," followed by the possessive linking to "hat," rather than a flat linear sequence.^[12] This constituency-based approach, central to phrase structure grammars, captures recursion and embedding, distinguishing grammatical sentences from mere word sequences.^[11]

Excluding Factors

In linguistics, grammaticality pertains to whether a sentence conforms to the syntactic rules of a language, independent of its stylistic qualities such as formality, eloquence, or archaic phrasing. For instance, the sentence "Thou art wise" is grammatical within Early Modern English, despite its outdated style, as it adheres to the morphological and syntactic structures of that dialect. Stylistic variations, including poetic or rhetorical flourishes, do not alter this status, as grammaticality focuses solely on structural well-formedness rather than aesthetic or expressive appeal.^[17] Grammaticality is evaluated for sentences in isolation, without reliance on surrounding discourse or situational context. This approach, rooted in generative grammar, treats a sentence's well-formedness as an intrinsic property, unaffected by its embedding in a broader narrative or conversation. Thus, a sentence like "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" remains grammatical despite lacking coherent contextual meaning, as its structure complies with syntactic rules irrespective of pragmatic or discourse integration.^[1] Pragmatic considerations, such as adherence to Grice's conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner, do not influence grammaticality. Violations of these implicatures—for example, providing overly verbose information that flouts the maxim of quantity—may render a sentence infelicitous in use but do not make it ungrammatical, as pragmatics operates outside core syntactic competence.^[18] This separation underscores that grammaticality concerns rule-based conformity to linguistic structure, excluding pragmatic felicity as a criterion. Dialectal variations introduce distinct grammatical rules without invalidating non-standard forms relative to their own systems, though assessments often reference a standard variety for comparison. In variationist sociolinguistics, non-standard dialects like African American Vernacular English exhibit systematic rules, such as invariant "be" for habitual aspect (e.g., "She be working"), which are grammatical within that dialect despite diverging from standard English norms.^[19] These variations highlight that grammaticality is dialect-specific, governed by internal rule consistency rather than prescriptive standards alone.^[20]

Grammaticality vs. Acceptability

Fundamental Differences

Grammaticality is conceptualized as a binary property in generative linguistics, determined by adherence to the abstract rules of a language's underlying grammar, whereas acceptability represents a gradient measure reflecting speakers' subjective perceptions of naturalness and ease of comprehension.^[7] This distinction arises from the theoretical separation between linguistic competence—the idealized knowledge enabling the production of infinite grammatical sentences—and performance, which encompasses actual language use influenced by cognitive factors such as processing limitations and memory constraints.^[7] In this framework, grammaticality stems from competence and is evaluated as well-formed or ill-formed without intermediate degrees, while acceptability is probabilistic, varying continuously based on contextual and perceptual variables.^[21] Empirically, the divide is evident in cases where fully grammatical sentences receive low acceptability ratings due to parsing difficulties, as seen in garden-path sentences like "The horse raced past the barn fell," which conform to syntactic rules but initially mislead readers, requiring reanalysis and reducing perceived naturalness.^[22] Conversely, rare instances occur where marginally ungrammatical forms achieve higher acceptability through repeated exposure or stylistic tolerance, though such cases underscore the non-equivalence of the two concepts rather than blurring their boundaries.^[21] Historically, Noam Chomsky's work in the 1960s prioritized grammaticality judgments derived from native speaker intuitions as the primary data for theorizing language structure, critiquing corpus-based approaches for capturing only performance artifacts like frequency distributions rather than underlying competence.^[8] This emphasis, exemplified by contrasts between grammatical yet semantically anomalous sentences (e.g., "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously") and ungrammatical but meaningful ones, positioned grammaticality as an objective criterion superior to intuitive acceptability measures prevalent in earlier descriptive linguistics.^[8] The debate highlighted tensions between rule-governed models and probabilistic corpus analyses, influencing ongoing discussions in syntactic theory.^[7]

Influences on Acceptability

Acceptability judgments in linguistics often exhibit gradience, where sentences are perceived on a continuum rather than in binary terms of grammatical or ungrammatical. Mildly deviant structures, such as those involving minor syntactic ambiguities, tend to receive higher acceptability ratings than severely ungrammatical ones, like those violating core constraints on agreement or embedding. This gradience arises because human language processing integrates multiple probabilistic cues, leading to nuanced evaluations influenced by subtle structural variations. For instance, sentences with partial violations, such as garden-path constructions, may be rated as marginally acceptable due to recoverable interpretations, whereas blatant category errors elicit strong rejection.^[23]^[24]^[25] Frequency of exposure plays a significant role in modulating acceptability, as commonly encountered structures, even if non-standard, become more tolerable through repeated use. In usage-based approaches, higher token frequency in corpora correlates positively with acceptability ratings, explaining why dialectal forms like "ain't" in certain English varieties gain partial acceptance among speakers familiar with them. Quantitative analyses show that construction frequency accounts for approximately 69% of variance in acceptability scores, with lexical frequency exerting a smaller but positive effect, particularly for verbs in embedding contexts where a substantial increase in usage (over 12 million tokens) can shift ratings by one point on a scale. This effect underscores how probabilistic learning from input shapes perceptions, allowing infrequent but rule-compliant structures to lag in acceptability compared to frequent, albeit deviant, ones.^[26]^[27]^[28] Beyond gradience and frequency, other variables such as processing load, contextual embedding, and socio-cultural norms further influence acceptability. Processing difficulty, often stemming from syntactic complexity or working memory demands, can degrade judgments even for grammatical sentences, with studies showing that higher cognitive load reduces ratings for structures involving long-distance dependencies. Contextual factors modulate this by improving acceptability for ill-formed sentences when pragmatic cues provide supportive discourse, though they may slightly lower ratings for well-formed ones by introducing competing interpretations. Socio-cultural norms, including prescriptive attitudes, impose additional layers; for example, resistance to singular "they" for specific referents correlates with prescriptivist ideologies and gender biases, where higher prescriptivism predicts lower ratings (β = -1.73, p = 0.02).^[29]^[30]^[31] Norm-based evaluation reinforces these influences through standardized grammars that prioritize prescriptive rules over descriptive usage, particularly in formal education and publishing. Style guides like the Chicago Manual of Style exemplify this by advocating specific conventions for agreement and punctuation, shaping acceptability in professional contexts despite corpus evidence of variation. In languages like French, prescriptive norms lead speakers to favor less frequent but "correct" variants in judgments, with formality reducing gaps between normative and informal forms. Such norms reflect broader socio-cultural ideologies of correctness, often internalized to override frequency-driven intuitions.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Applications in Research

Sentence Processing Studies

Sentence processing studies utilize grammaticality judgments to investigate how the human brain comprehends language in real time, particularly through experimental paradigms that detect deviations from syntactic norms. One prominent method involves violation detection tasks, where participants monitor sentences for grammatical errors while their neural activity is recorded via event-related potentials (ERPs). In these tasks, syntactic violations, such as subject-verb agreement mismatches, elicit a late positive ERP component known as the P600, typically peaking around 600 milliseconds post-stimulus onset, which reflects efforts to detect and repair grammatical anomalies during incremental parsing. This component distinguishes syntactic processing from semantic integration, as it appears robustly for ungrammatical structures regardless of semantic plausibility.^[35] Grammaticality insights from these studies reveal underlying parsing strategies that guide real-time comprehension. For instance, the garden-path theory posits that the parser builds an initial syntactic structure incrementally, favoring simplicity, but must reanalyze upon encountering grammatical cues that conflict with expectations. A key principle in this model is minimal attachment, which directs the parser to attach incoming phrases to the lowest possible node in the existing structure to minimize complexity. This strategy explains delays in processing ambiguous sentences where an initially preferred low-attachment parse leads to a grammatical dead-end, requiring backtracking.90002-3) Seminal experiments in the 1970s and 1980s by Frazier and Fodor demonstrated these dynamics through controlled presentations of structurally ambiguous sentences, such as "The doctor saw the patient with a scanner," where minimal attachment initially links "with a scanner" to "patient" rather than "saw." Reading times and comprehension accuracy showed increased processing costs for garden-path resolutions, supporting the theory's emphasis on serial, structure-driven parsing over parallel alternatives. Later extensions incorporated eye-tracking to measure fixation durations, confirming that grammatical constraints override lexical biases in ambiguity resolution.90002-3)^[36] These findings apply to predictive processing models, where grammatical knowledge generates expectations that facilitate comprehension. In high-constraint contexts, anticipated grammatical continuations reduce ERP amplitudes for expected words, indicating pre-activation of syntactic features speeds integration. For example, studies using cloze tasks show that grammatical predictability modulates N400 effects, with violations disrupting predictions more severely than semantic mismatches alone. This highlights how grammaticality not only flags errors but also proactively shapes efficient language processing.^[37]

Language Competence Assessment

Grammaticality judgments serve as a key method for assessing first language (L1) competence, particularly in child language studies aimed at tracking the acquisition of innate grammatical rules. In seminal work, Jean Berko's 1958 "wug test" presented children aged 4 to 7 with novel words embedded in incomplete sentences, prompting them to supply plurals or past tenses, thereby revealing their productive application of morphological rules without reliance on memorized vocabulary.^[38] This approach demonstrated that young children internalize abstract grammatical patterns early, as evidenced by consistent overregularization errors (e.g., "wugs" for plural), supporting theories of innate language competence.^[38] In second language (L2) contexts, grammaticality judgment tests (GJTs) play a central role in evaluating learner proficiency, often integrated into standardized assessments like TOEFL-style tasks that require identifying ungrammatical sentences to gauge syntactic sensitivity.^[39] These tests distinguish levels of explicit and implicit knowledge, though research indicates they primarily tap explicit metalinguistic awareness rather than fully automatized implicit competence.^[40] Additionally, computer-assisted language instruction employs GJTs within interactive systems, such as intelligent CALL platforms, to provide immediate corrective feedback on spoken or written output, facilitating the internalization of rules through repeated practice and error detection.^[41] Age significantly influences the reliability of grammaticality judgments as competence measures, with adults generally exhibiting higher consistency than children due to greater metalinguistic awareness, while children's judgments remain robust indicators of emerging innate grammar.^[42] For instance, children aged 5-6 detect grammatical errors at rates of 68-75% but show leniency toward non-native accents, potentially underestimating their L1 competence in diverse settings.^[42] In L2 learners, native language (L1) transfer introduces interference, where typological differences (e.g., between Spanish and English word order) lead to persistent judgment errors, particularly for late acquirers whose performance approximates child-like patterns across structures.^[43] Reliability of L2 grammaticality judgments is often lower due to incomplete acquisition, manifesting as inconsistent sensitivity to subtle violations in immersion programs where exposure accelerates proficiency but does not fully eliminate gaps. In intensive French immersion for English-speaking children, grammatical error detection in the L2 reached 75% accuracy by grade 5, yet lagged behind L1 levels (87%), highlighting persistent variability from partial rule internalization.^[44] Such inconsistencies underscore the need for contextualized assessments that account for L1 interference and developmental stages in evaluating L2 competence.

Challenges in Judgments

Subject Variability

Subject variability in grammaticality judgments refers to differences in how individuals perceive and rate the grammatical well-formedness of sentences, arising from inherent personal traits rather than experimental flaws or linguistic illusions. These variations can introduce noise into research on language competence, as judgments may reflect not only core grammatical knowledge but also idiosyncratic processing patterns.^[45] Handedness significantly influences grammaticality judgments through its impact on hemispheric lateralization of language processing. Left-handers often exhibit reduced left-hemisphere dominance for language, leading to greater bilateral activation and increased reliance on semantic cues over purely syntactic ones during morphosyntactic tasks, which can alter judgment accuracy compared to right-handers. For instance, event-related potential studies have shown that left-handed participants display attenuated P600 responses—a marker of syntactic processing—to grammatical violations, suggesting a shift toward lexical-semantic strategies that may blur strict grammatical assessments.^[46]^[47] Beyond handedness, factors such as age, bilingualism, and cognitive load further modulate subjective ratings of grammaticality. Older adults tend to show declining sensitivity to subtle syntactic anomalies, with grammaticality judgment accuracy dropping due to age-related changes in working memory and phonological processing, which impair the detection of tense or agreement errors.^[48] Bilingual individuals, particularly heritage speakers, often exhibit smaller neural responses to grammatical violations in their dominant language, reflecting cross-linguistic interference that affects judgment consistency across languages.^[49] Additionally, higher cognitive load—such as during dual-task conditions—exacerbates errors in processing grammatical elements like articles, leading to more lenient or inconsistent ratings as attentional resources are divided.^[50] Empirical evidence from 1990s neuroimaging studies highlights how these variabilities link to differential prefrontal cortex activation during grammaticality tasks. Positron emission tomography (PET) research demonstrated that syntactic processing, including judgments of sentence grammaticality, activates the left inferior prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 44/45), but individual differences in activation patterns—potentially tied to traits like age or handedness—correlate with varying judgment reliability, as greater bilateral or ventral prefrontal involvement signals compensatory strategies in non-standard processors.^[51] To mitigate subject variability, researchers control for demographic factors in experimental design, such as stratifying participant samples by age, handedness, and language background, and incorporating baseline measures of cognitive load to ensure judgments primarily reflect linguistic competence rather than extraneous traits.^[45]

Methodological Biases

Methodological biases in grammaticality judgment experiments arise from procedural elements that can systematically distort participants' assessments of sentence acceptability, often leading to unreliable or skewed data. One prominent bias is repetition priming, also known as syntactic satiation, where repeated exposure to ungrammatical or marginal sentences increases their perceived acceptability. This effect has been observed across various constructions, such as island violations, with meta-analytic evidence showing small but significant improvements in ratings per repetition—for instance, a 0.0168 increase on a 0–1 scale for subject islands and 0.0303 for whether-islands. Seminal experimental work first documented this phenomenon in the early 2000s, attributing it to reduced processing demands or habituation rather than shifts in underlying grammatical knowledge.^[52] Binary yes/no response formats introduce another key bias by forcing gradient acceptability judgments into discrete categories, which reduces the nuance of participants' intuitions and amplifies response tendencies. Under signal detection theory, these formats reveal biases such as a "yes" preference, where participants hesitate to reject sentences (e.g., criterion c = -0.514 in verb alternation studies), or conversely a "no" bias toward stricter judgments, thereby compressing differences between acceptable and unacceptable stimuli. This categorical approach obscures the continuous nature of grammaticality perceptions, as evidenced in analyses showing that binary tasks yield lower sensitivity (d’) compared to scaled alternatives for subtle contrasts like unaccusative-unergative verbs.^[53] Additional biases stem from experimental design flaws, including order effects in stimulus presentation and fatigue during extended sessions. Order effects occur when non-randomized lists cause carryover influences, such as practice from timed to untimed judgments, with only 16% of studies employing randomization to mitigate this. Fatigue similarly impairs judgments in tasks with high item loads (median of 50 sentences), where just 6% of experiments include breaks, potentially leading to decreased discrimination as sessions prolong. These issues compound in long protocols, distorting overall acceptability patterns.^[54] To address these biases, researchers recommend Likert-scale formats over binary responses, which better capture gradience and yield higher reliability in meta-analyses of post-2000 studies, alongside randomized and counterbalanced designs to neutralize order effects. Evidence from comprehensive syntheses of 385 judgment tasks confirms that untimed Likert implementations produce stronger effect sizes (d = 1.35) than timed binary ones, while randomization enhances representativeness without introducing confounds. Implementing breaks and limiting session length further combats fatigue, improving data validity in grammaticality assessments.^[54]

Grammaticality Illusions

Core Phenomena

Grammaticality illusions occur when comprehenders subjectively accept ungrammatical sentences as acceptable, often due to interference from processing heuristics that override structural violations during real-time language comprehension. These illusions highlight selective fallibility in the parser, where local cues lead to misjudgments despite the sentence's objective ungrammaticality.^[55] A representative example is agreement attraction, as in the ungrammatical sentence "The key to the cabinets are on the table," where the plural attractor "cabinets" creates a smooth initial parse, masking the singular subject-verb mismatch and leading to perceived acceptability. This effect arises because the parser temporarily forms an illicit dependency with the intervening noun, facilitating processing despite the violation.^[56] Cross-linguistic differences in grammaticality illusions are evident, with certain types, such as those involving double center-embedding, appearing more robust in head-initial languages like English than in head-final languages like Japanese, where omitted noun phrases can render similar structures grammatical or reduce illusory effects. In Japanese, backwards anaphora illusions have been observed, but overall prevalence varies due to language-specific parsing routines.^[57]^[55] Experimental elicitation often employs magnitude estimation tasks, in which participants rate sentence acceptability on a continuous scale relative to a standard; these reveal illusions in 15-30% higher acceptance rates for ungrammatical items compared to controls, demonstrating the illusions' measurable impact on judgments.^[55] The phenomena were first systematically noted in the psycholinguistics literature of the 1990s, with early work on related effects like comparative illusions paving the way for broader investigations into parsing vulnerabilities.^[55]

Explanatory Mechanisms

Grammaticality illusions often arise from processing mechanisms that prioritize efficiency over exhaustive syntactic analysis, such as shallow parsing and heuristic shortcuts. In shallow parsing, the language processor constructs a superficial interpretation that suffices for comprehension without fully verifying structural integrity, leading to the acceptance of ungrammatical forms that align locally with expectations.^[58] This approach overrides deeper syntactic checks, as seen in cases where local coherence misleads the parser into a globally invalid analysis.^[59] Heuristic shortcuts, drawing from cue-based retrieval models, further contribute by relying on partial feature matches in memory, which can activate irrelevant but compatible elements and facilitate illusory licensing.^[55] For instance, surprisal models, which quantify processing difficulty based on prediction error, illustrate how blended familiar structures reduce perceived ungrammaticality by lowering expected deviation costs.^[60] Frequency of exposure and probabilistic learning exacerbate these illusions, particularly for ungrammatical patterns that mimic high-frequency grammatical ones. Repeated encounters with similar structures strengthen associative links, making atypical errors feel more acceptable through statistical regularization in the language system.^[61] Probabilistic models of learning suggest that comprehenders infer grammaticality from distributional cues, leading to heightened illusion susceptibility when ungrammatical sequences resemble prevalent patterns in input data.^[62] Empirical evidence shows that neural sensitivity to syntactic violations diminishes with error typicality, as frequent deviations elicit weaker repair signals, reinforcing the role of exposure in tuning probabilistic expectations.^[63] Neurolinguistically, grammaticality illusions are marked by attenuated event-related potential (ERP) responses, such as reduced N400 and P600 components, signaling bypassed error detection. The N400, typically linked to semantic integration difficulties, shows diminished amplitude when illusions mask violations, indicating seamless incorporation of mismatched elements into ongoing representations.^[64] Similarly, the P600, associated with syntactic reanalysis, is often absent or reduced in illusion contexts, reflecting failure to trigger structural repair due to heuristic acceptance.^[65] These patterns suggest that illusion processing engages shallower neural pathways, evading the full cascade of anomaly detection.^[66] Theoretically, these mechanisms challenge traditional competence-based models of grammar, which posit an idealized, error-free knowledge system decoupled from performance, by demonstrating how processing limitations systematically distort acceptability judgments.^[55] Post-2010 developments have bolstered hybrid usage-based approaches, integrating abstract grammatical rules with frequency-driven learning and incremental processing to account for illusion variability across individuals and languages.^[67] This synthesis highlights the interplay of innate constraints and experiential factors, offering a more nuanced view of linguistic competence as dynamically shaped by usage.^[68]

References

[1]
4.4. What is grammaticality? – The Linguistic Analysis of Word and ...
Grammaticality is always determined with respect to a pairing of form and meaning. This means that a particular string can be grammatical under one ...
[2]
Grammar Is a System That Characterizes Talk in Interaction - PMC
Grammaticality, acceptability, and probability: a probabilistic view of linguistic knowledge. ... Defining the relation between linguistics and neuroscience, in ...
[3]
(PDF) Theoretical and methodological perspectives on the use of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · First, the paper discusses the concept of grammaticality and addresses validity issues pertaining to the use of grammaticality judgment tasks in ...
[4]
The empirical base of linguistics: Grammaticality judgments and ...
Dec 12, 2016 · Carson T. Schütze presents here a detailed critical overview of the vast literature on the nature and utility of grammaticality judgments and other linguistic ...Missing: definition scholarly
[5]
[PDF] ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF SYNTAX
To clarify further the distinction between competence and performance, it may be useful to summarize briefly some of the suggestions and results that have ...
[6]
[PDF] Noam Chomsky Syntactic Structures - Tal Linzen
The work assumes a use-theory of meaning, that grammars are embedded in a broader semiotic theory which USES the grammar to determine the meaning and reference ...
[7]
Lectures on Government and Binding - De Gruyter Brill
Content is available PDF PDF, 34. Chapter 2. Subsystems of core grammar. 2.3 ... Book Lectures on Government and Binding. Noam Chomsky 2010. MLA; APA; Harvard ...
[8]
The Scope of Usage-Based Theory - Frontiers
The usage-based position is closely allied with that of Cognitive Linguistics and Construction Grammar where the fundamental linguistic unit is the ...
[9]
[PDF] ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF SYNTAX - Colin Phillips |
It will be concerned with the syntactic component of a generative grammar, that is, with the rules that specify the well-formed strings of minimal syn- ...Missing: grammaticality | Show results with:grammaticality
[10]
[PDF] SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES
SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES morphophonemic rules of the same basic form. Linking ... Chomsky, M. Halle,. F. Lukoff, "On accent and juncture in English," For ...
[11]
[PDF] 1. Morphology
Morphology rules are sentences that tell you these three (or four) things: (1) What kind of morphological category you're expressing (noun, verb…) (2) What ...
[12]
[PDF] 5 Morphology and Word Formation
Words are potentially complex units, composed of even more basic units, called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical ...
[13]
[PDF] The Role Of Selectional Restrictions In The Theory Of ...
Dec 17, 2024 · transformational grammar. The semantic questions in grammar received little ... compatible with the form of grammar specified in Aspects.
[14]
[PDF] aspects of the - theory of syntax
Thus strict subcategorial and selectional restrictions of lexical items are defined by transformational rules associated with these items. We have now ...
[15]
Acceptable Ungrammatical Sentences, Unacceptable Grammatical ...
Mar 9, 2020 · There are sentences that are acceptable, even though they are ungrammatical, and sentences that are unacceptable, despite being grammatical.Missing: excluding | Show results with:excluding
[16]
[PDF] Chomsky and pragmatics1
Pragmatics is traditionally defined as the study of language use as opposed to language structure, but it is often more narrowly construed as the study of ...
[17]
[PDF] Linguistic Society of America - Stanford University
The notion 'rule of grammar' is enlarged to include the formal treatment of inherent variation as a part of linguistic structure. Furthermore, a model is ...
[18]
[PDF] Labov-1973-Logic-of-non-standard-english.pdf - The Story of LCHC
Thus all dialects of English share a categorical rule which attracts the negative to an indefinite subject, and they merely differ in the extent to which ...
[19]
[PDF] Grammaticality, Acceptability, and Probability: A Probabilistic View of ...
A binary account of grammaticality must find a way of mapping the grammatical-ungrammatical distinction into acceptability judgements that explains this pattern ...
[20]
The sausage machine: A new two-stage parsing model
It is proposed that the human sentence parsing device assigns phrase structure to word strings in two steps.
[21]
Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives - Oxford Academic
The acceptability of words and sentences may be linked to the frequency of their use and measured on a scale. Among the questions considered in the book are ...
[22]
[PDF] Gradience in Grammar - Rutgers Optimality Archive
certain linguistic constraints are binary, while others induce gradient acceptability judgments. ... of grammaticality/acceptability mismatches. However, the bulk ...
[23]
(PDF) Gradient Acceptability and Linguistic Theory - ResearchGate
Jan 8, 2022 · This book examines a challenging problem at the intersection of theoretical linguistics and the psychology of language: the interpretation of gradient ...
[24]
Complexity, frequency, and acceptability | Glossa
Mar 29, 2024 · The results show that construction frequency and acceptability are correlated, but that zero and near-zero frequencies do not predict acceptability.
[25]
Frequency Effects in Grammar
### Summary of Frequency Effects in Grammar
[26]
[PDF] On the Relation between Acceptability and Frequency
The aim of this work is to lay out the relation between the two main sources of lin- guistic evidence, acceptability judgments and frequency of occurrence ...
[27]
The source ambiguity problem: Distinguishing the effects of ... - NIH
Abstract. Judgments of linguistic unacceptability may theoretically arise from either grammatical deviance or significant processing difficulty.
[28]
Processing effects in linguistic judgment data: (super-)additivity and ...
Feb 17, 2014 · Linguistic acceptability judgments are widely agreed to reflect constraints on real-time language processing. Nonetheless, very little is ...
[29]
The Influence of Context on Sentence Acceptability Judgements
It is indicated that context improves acceptability ratings for ill-formed sentences, but also reduces them for well- formed sentences; and context helps ...
[30]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-and-cognition/article/processing-effects-in-linguistic-judgment-data-superadditivity-and-reading-span-scores/C07AC19DE8FDF5455C162A0776A2E645
[31]
Good French isn't always best. Acceptability and linguistic ...
In line with previous work, we argue that acceptability judgments are a useful task, but that they need to be refined to account for sociolinguistic factors ...Published Web Location · 3 Experiment 1: Written... · 4 ``good'' French And...Missing: socio- cultural<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
The influence of linguistic and social attitudes on grammaticality ...
The present study directly compared the contributions of linguistic prescriptivism and sexism to speakers' judgments in order to determine whether resistance ...Missing: socio- cultural
[33]
ERP effects of combining syntactic and semantic violations - PubMed
This study investigated the effects of combined semantic and syntactic violations in relation to the effects of single semantic and single syntactic violations.Missing: grammaticality | Show results with:grammaticality
[34]
Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences
In accord with the garden-path theory of sentence comprehension, shorter reading times were found for sentences conforming to certain independently ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[35]
Thinking ahead: The role and roots of prediction in language ...
Evidence for a LH role in predictive processing was also seen in a study that manipulated contextual constraint in a VF paradigm (Federmeier, Mai, & Kutas, 2005) ...
[36]
The Child's Learning of English morphology
In this study1 we set out to discover what is learned by children exposed to English morphology. To test for knowledge of morpho-.
[37]
[PDF] Application of Grammatical Judgment Tests to the Measurement of ...
Timed and Untimed Grammatical Judgment Test, and their general L2 proficiency was measured by the Barron's TOEFL test and then the relationship among them ...<|separator|>
[38]
VALIDATING GRAMMATICALITY JUDGMENT TESTS | Studies in ...
The current methodological study reexamined the second language (L2) knowledge type that nonnative English speakers draw on to perform grammaticality judgment ...
[39]
[PDF] COMPUTER-ASSISTED GRAMMAR PRACTICE FOR ORAL ...
Abstract: Gaining the ability to speak proficiently is an important goal in second language learning, and grammatical correctness is an important dimension ...
[40]
Children Treat Grammatical Errors Differently for Native and Non ...
Apr 22, 2022 · Both children and adults demonstrate biases against non-native speakers. However, in some situations, adults act more generously towards non- ...
[41]
Grammaticality Judgments in a Second Language: Influences of Age ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This suggests that their delay in 3SG acquisition is not part of a broader delay in L2 English but is likely influenced by L1 transfer. This ...
[42]
Linguistic and metalinguistic outcomes of intense immersion education
For grammaticality judgment, Grade 2 children in both studies obtained 74% accuracy in detecting grammatical errors in the English sentences, but by Grade 5, ...Missing: reliability | Show results with:reliability
[43]
Rule and similarity in grammar: Their interplay and individual ...
May 1, 2012 · The present study is the first to combine the use of ROC analyses, fMRI and a grammaticality dichotomy. Based on previous neuroimaging studies, ...
[44]
How right is left? Handedness modulates neural responses during ...
We examine the effect of handedness on grammatical processing using ERPs. · Left-handers (self and familial) showed increased reliance on lexical/semantics.
[45]
[PDF] Brain Research - Sites at Penn State
May 26, 2017 · The findings from our study support theoretical claims for the effects of handed- ness on grammatical processing and extend this literature by.
[46]
the role of age, working memory and phonological ability - PubMed
This paper examines the role of age, working memory span and phonological ability in the mastery of ten different grammatical constructions.
[47]
Grammatical processing in two languages: How individual ...
We assessed individual differences in ERP responses to grammatical violations. Heritage bilinguals had smaller ERP effects in their less-dominant L1.
[48]
Cognitive load and the processing of grammatical items
Results indicate that errors with grammatical items (articles) significantly increase, when cognitive load increases, i.e. articles are omitted or substituted ...Missing: influence grammaticality ratings
[49]
Form and Content: Dissociating Syntax and Semantics in Sentence ...
Form and Content: Dissociating Syntax and Semantics in Sentence Comprehension. Author links open overlay panelMirella Dapretto *, Susan Y Bookheimer. Show ...Missing: grammaticality | Show results with:grammaticality
[50]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0911604494900051
[51]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627300808557
[52]
https://doi.org/10.5070/G60111425
[53]
[PDF] Grammatical illusions and selective fallibility in real-time language ...
Grammatical illusions are when parsers are vulnerable to interference, like subject-verb agreement, case licensing, and negative polarity item licensing.
[54]
[PDF] 1 Agreement attraction in comprehension: representations and ...
In agreement attraction errors, an agreement-bearing element, such as a verb, fails to match the agreement features of its grammatical controller and instead ...
[55]
When missing NPs make double center-embedding sentences ...
Apr 6, 2021 · A number of languages, such as English, exhibit a grammaticality illusion in ungrammatical double center-embedding sentences where a VP is ...
[56]
https://people.ucsc.edu/~mwagers/papers/WagersLauPhillips.AgreementAttraction_JML.pdf
[57]
Language Processing at Its Trickiest: Grammatical Illusions ... - MDPI
Jul 21, 2020 · ... example is the so-called comparative illusion ('More people have been to Tromsø than I have'). To this day, comparative illusions have been ...Missing: grammaticality | Show results with:grammaticality
[58]
Neurobehavioral Correlates of Surprisal in Language Comprehension
Feb 10, 2021 · We have presented a neurocomputational model of incremental, word-by-word language comprehension that produces N400, P600, and “comprehension- ...<|separator|>
[59]
the causes and effects of grammatical illusions - Digital Repository
A grammatical illusion can be defined as a sentence that seems acceptable, but structurally, the sentence is ungrammatical. Grammatical illusions provide a ...
[60]
[PDF] Language exposure and lossy memory drive cross-linguistic ...
Oct 28, 2025 · We find that both factors influence LMs' susceptibility to grammaticality illusions, and neither fully account for human-like processing ...
[61]
https://d.lib.msu.edu/etd/16465
[62]
Rethinking the functional role of the P600 in language comprehension
Aug 10, 2025 · On this view, the absence of an N400-effect in semantic illusion sentences can be explained in terms of priming. Furthermore, we suggest that ...
[63]
(PDF) Can Tense Be Subject to Grammatical Illusion? Part 1
Aug 9, 2025 · ... grammatical illusions, which could be under-. stood as “sucessful interference”, can manifest in a reduced (or absent) P600. To the best of ...
[64]
[PDF] What could go wrong? Linguistic illusions and incremental ...
The dissertation explores negative polarity illusions, where an unlicensed negative polarity item is perceived as acceptable, and substitution ...
[65]
Grammatical illusions and selective fallibility in real-time language ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Psycholinguistic research has shown that comprehenders can often derive an interpretation for ill-formed sentences through covert repairs into ...Missing: noted | Show results with:noted
[66]
http://www.colinphillips.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/muller2022.pdf