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Heberden's node

Heberden's nodes are small, bony growths or enlargements that form on the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints of the fingers, closest to the fingertips, and are a hallmark clinical feature of hand osteoarthritis (OA).^[1]^[2] These nodes result from the degeneration of articular cartilage in OA, leading to bone remodeling and the formation of osteophytes (bony spurs) as the body attempts to stabilize the affected joint.^[1] First described in the 18th century by British physician William Heberden in his work on diseases, they are often accompanied by similar swellings known as Bouchard's nodes on the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints.^[3] Hand OA with Heberden's nodes primarily affects older adults, with a higher prevalence in women; studies indicate that approximately 50% of women and 25% of men over age 85 develop these nodes.^[1] Risk factors include advanced age, female sex, genetic predisposition (such as family history of nodal OA), and repetitive hand use or microtrauma to the joints over time.^[4]^[5] In clinical cohorts, Heberden's nodes are present in about 86% of hand OA patients, most commonly on the third finger of the dominant hand, though they do not always correlate strongly with pain severity or functional impairment.^[6] Symptoms typically include joint pain, tenderness, stiffness (especially in the morning), swelling, and reduced range of motion in the affected fingers, which can make tasks like gripping objects or buttoning clothes challenging.^[1]^[7] The nodes themselves are usually painless once fully formed but may cause cosmetic concerns due to the knobby appearance of the fingers.^[1] Diagnosis is primarily clinical, based on physical examination revealing the characteristic swellings, often confirmed with X-rays showing joint space narrowing, osteophytes, and subchondral sclerosis.^[2]^[1] There is no cure for Heberden's nodes or the underlying OA, but management focuses on symptom relief and preserving function through conservative measures such as rest, splinting, heat or cold therapy, occupational therapy, and over-the-counter pain relievers like acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).^[1] In severe cases with significant pain or deformity, surgical options like joint fusion may be considered.^[1] Prevention strategies emphasize maintaining a healthy weight, engaging in low-impact hand exercises, and following an anti-inflammatory diet to potentially slow OA progression.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Heberden's nodes are bony swellings or growths, specifically osteophytes, that develop on the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints of the fingers, which are the joints closest to the fingertips.^[1]^[8]^[9] These nodes are typically small, measuring about 2–5 mm or roughly pea-sized, and present as hard, palpable enlargements that are permanent once formed.^[1]^[8] They often affect multiple fingers and tend to occur symmetrically between hands.^[8]^[10] Heberden's nodes represent a primary clinical manifestation of hand osteoarthritis, a degenerative joint disease characterized by cartilage breakdown and subsequent bone remodeling.^[1]^[8] They are distinct from Bouchard's nodes, which form at the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints of the fingers.^[1]^[8]^[9]

Epidemiology

Heberden's nodes, bony enlargements at the distal interphalangeal joints indicative of hand osteoarthritis, affect approximately 50% of women and 25% of men by age 85.^[1] The prevalence increases markedly with age, with radiographic evidence of hand osteoarthritis reaching up to 80% in elderly populations overall.^[11] Nodes typically first appear in middle age, around the 40s to 50s, particularly in women near menopause, while they are rare in men under 50 years.^[12] Symptomatic hand osteoarthritis, often featuring Heberden's nodes, shows a prevalence of 15.9% in women and 8.2% in men, rising to 26.2% in women and 13.4% in men over age 70.^[6] The condition is more common in postmenopausal women, with studies reporting Heberden's nodes in up to 85% of such patients with hand osteoarthritis.^[6] Individuals with a family history of hand osteoarthritis face a substantially higher risk, being up to 48 times more likely to develop Heberden's nodes compared to those without such history; heritability for nodal hand OA is estimated at 40-60%.^[13] Nodes also occur more frequently in the dominant hand, with higher involvement in the distal interphalangeal joints of the preferred hand, such as 62.3% prevalence in the third finger's right distal joint among right-handed individuals.^[6] While Heberden's nodes generally align with overall osteoarthritis rates, some studies suggest variations by ethnicity or race, with lower prevalence reported in non-Hispanic Black, Chinese, and South Asian populations compared to White or European groups.^[14]^[15] However, obesity correlates with increased risk, as evidenced by higher body mass index values in affected cohorts, though the association is less pronounced for hand sites compared to weight-bearing joints.^[6]

Pathophysiology

Causes

Heberden's nodes primarily arise from osteoarthritis (OA) of the hand, a degenerative condition characterized by the progressive breakdown of articular cartilage in the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints. This cartilage erosion leads to bone-on-bone contact, joint instability, and subsequent osteophyte formation at the joint margins.^[16] The underlying OA is multifactorial, with aging as a key contributor through natural wear and tear on joint tissues over time, increasing susceptibility in individuals over 50 years. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role, with twin studies estimating heritability of hand OA between 48% and 87%, indicating a strong inherited component influencing cartilage resilience and joint structure. Prior joint trauma, such as fractures or injuries, can initiate degenerative changes, while repetitive stress from occupations involving fine hand movements—like typing, assembly work, or musical instrument use—accelerates cartilage degradation through chronic microtrauma.^[17]^[18]^[19] Hormonal factors, particularly the decline in estrogen levels following menopause, contribute to cartilage breakdown in women by reducing protective effects on joint tissues and promoting inflammatory pathways. This explains the higher prevalence in postmenopausal females. Unlike infectious or autoimmune conditions, Heberden's nodes have no microbial or systemic inflammatory etiology and are primarily degenerative with features of low-grade inflammation, distinguishing OA from the more pronounced synovial inflammation seen in rheumatoid arthritis, which typically affects different joint patterns.^[20]

Mechanism

Heberden's nodes form as a consequence of osteoarthritis (OA) primarily affecting the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints of the fingers. In this process, progressive erosion of the articular cartilage exposes the underlying subchondral bone, which becomes subjected to increased mechanical stress and initiates a cascade of inflammatory responses. This exposure triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), from chondrocytes and synovial cells, promoting further cartilage degradation through the upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and inhibition of extracellular matrix synthesis.^[21]^[22]^[23] The body's reparative response to this damage involves the proliferation of chondrocytes at the joint margins, leading to the formation of osteophytes, or bone spurs, which characterize Heberden's nodes. This process occurs through endochondral ossification, where precursor cells differentiate into chondrocytes that hypertrophy and mineralize, eventually being replaced by bone tissue to stabilize the joint periphery. Osteophytes develop predominantly on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the DIP joints, contributing to the visible bony enlargements.^[21] The progression of node formation typically begins with initial synovial inflammation, marked by synovitis and infiltration of inflammatory cells, which exacerbates cytokine production. This is followed by gradual cartilage thinning and loss, resulting in joint space narrowing as detected on imaging. Concurrent bone remodeling occurs in the subchondral region, with sclerosis and cyst formation, while osteophytes continue to grow at the margins. Over time, the nodes stabilize, with active inflammation subsiding and the bony structures providing mechanical support, though persistent deformity may limit joint function.^[22]^[21]^[24]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Patients with Heberden's nodes often experience initial acute pain and tenderness at the distal interphalangeal joints during the formation of these bony outgrowths, which is typically exacerbated by joint use or activity.^[25] This inflammatory phase involves joint swelling and sensitivity, but the pain generally diminishes as the nodes mature and stabilize, transitioning to milder, activity-related discomfort that resolves with rest.^[2] In contrast to inflammatory arthritides, morning stiffness associated with Heberden's nodes is usually brief, lasting less than 30 minutes.^[2] Functional limitations are prominent, including reduced grip strength that affects the ability to hold objects firmly.^[26] Patients commonly report difficulty with fine motor tasks, such as buttoning clothing, writing, or manipulating small items, due to impaired joint mobility.^[1] Additionally, occasional crepitus—a grinding or crunching sensation—may occur during finger movement, accompanied by a sense of weakness or fatigue in the affected digits from prolonged use.^[2]^[27]

Signs

Heberden's nodes manifest as firm, nontender bony enlargements primarily located on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints of the fingers. These small, knobby protrusions typically first affect the index and middle fingers, with symmetrical involvement across both hands being common.^[8]^[28]^[6] In advanced cases, the nodes can contribute to visible finger deformities, such as mild flexion contractures at the affected DIP joints due to joint instability. They also result in limited range of motion at the affected DIP joints, restricting extension and flexion.^[29]^[2] Unlike inflammatory joint conditions, Heberden's nodes lack systemic signs such as fever or rash, as well as local inflammatory features like erythema, warmth, or soft tissue swelling.^[1]^[8]

Diagnosis

Physical Examination

The physical examination for Heberden's nodes focuses on a systematic assessment of the hands to identify characteristic features of distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint osteoarthritis. Inspection begins by observing the dorsal aspect of the fingers for bony prominences or enlargements at the DIP joints, which appear as firm swellings often causing lateral deviation of the distal phalanx.^[30] These nodes are typically symmetric, affecting multiple fingers bilaterally, and spare the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) and metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints in classic presentations.^[8] Alignment of the fingers should also be evaluated for any subluxation or zigzag deformities resulting from joint instability.^[25] Palpation follows to confirm the bony nature of the swellings, which feel hard and non-mobile due to underlying osteophytes, distinguishing them from softer subcutaneous lesions.^[29] Tenderness may be elicited over the nodes, particularly in early or active disease, but chronic nodes are often painless on direct pressure.^[8] Range-of-motion testing involves passively flexing and extending the DIP joints to assess for stiffness, reduced excursion such as limited flexion and extension, and audible or palpable crepitus from cartilage degradation.^[29] No significant warmth or erythema is expected, as these indicate inflammatory rather than degenerative processes.^[25] Functional evaluation quantifies impairment by measuring grip strength with a hand dynamometer, where reductions correlate with node severity and pain.^[30] Pinch strength tests, such as asking the patient to grasp small objects like a coin between the thumb and index finger, reveal deficits in fine motor dexterity often exacerbated by DIP involvement.^[31] In differential assessment, the absence of inflammatory signs like joint warmth, erythema, or boggy synovitis helps rule out conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, where nodules are softer, more mobile, and typically occur over extensor surfaces rather than specifically at DIP joints.^[8] Heberden's nodes lack the acute tenderness or systemic features seen in gouty tophi or psoriatic arthritis, confirming their degenerative etiology through this non-invasive exam.^[29]

Imaging

Plain radiographs, particularly posteroanterior and lateral views of the hands, serve as the primary imaging modality for confirming Heberden's nodes and evaluating associated osteoarthritis in the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints.^[32] These X-rays typically reveal characteristic features of osteoarthritis, including joint space narrowing due to cartilage loss, subchondral sclerosis from bone remodeling, marginal osteophytes representing bony outgrowths, and subchondral cyst formation indicative of intraosseous pressure changes.^[33] In cases of advanced disease, X-rays may demonstrate the "gull-wing" deformity, characterized by central joint erosions flanked by lateral osteophytes, particularly in erosive variants of hand osteoarthritis.^[34] Advanced imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or ultrasound are not routinely employed for Heberden's nodes unless complications like soft tissue inflammation, synovitis, or tendon involvement are suspected, as these modalities better assess periarticular structures.^[35] Ultrasound can detect osteophytes, synovial effusion, and erosions with high sensitivity, while MRI provides detailed visualization of cartilage degeneration and bone marrow edema in early or atypical presentations.^[8] However, plain radiographs remain sufficient for most diagnostic and monitoring purposes due to their accessibility and ability to quantify structural changes.^[32] Grading systems, such as the Kellgren-Lawrence scale adapted for hand joints, are commonly applied to radiographic findings to quantify osteoarthritis severity and progression linked to Heberden's nodes.^[36] This scale assigns scores from 0 (no radiographic features) to 4 (severe joint space narrowing with multiple osteophytes and sclerosis), enabling standardized assessment of DIP joint involvement and correlation with clinical symptoms.^[37] Imaging is not invariably required for diagnosing Heberden's nodes when clinical features—such as palpable bony swellings at the DIP joints—are classic, as the condition is primarily a clinical diagnosis supported by history and examination.^[35] Radiographs are reserved for confirmation in ambiguous cases, monitoring disease progression, or ruling out differentials like inflammatory arthritis.^[8]

Management

Conservative Treatments

Conservative treatments for Heberden's nodes primarily aim to alleviate pain, reduce inflammation, and maintain joint function without invasive interventions. These approaches are recommended as first-line management for most patients, focusing on symptom relief and improving daily activities.^[38]^[12] Pharmacologic options include oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, which help reduce pain and swelling by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. Acetaminophen is often used as an alternative for pain relief when NSAIDs are contraindicated, particularly in patients with gastrointestinal concerns. For localized symptoms, topical NSAIDs or capsaicin creams provide targeted relief; capsaicin depletes substance P in nerve endings, diminishing pain signals after consistent application over several weeks. These medications are typically initiated at the lowest effective dose to minimize side effects like gastric irritation from oral agents or skin irritation from topicals.^[39]^[40]^[41] Non-drug therapies emphasize joint protection and mobility preservation. Nighttime splinting immobilizes the distal interphalangeal joints, reducing morning stiffness and pain while allowing rest; studies show this improves hand function in women with hand osteoarthritis. Heat packs or warm paraffin baths increase blood flow and relax muscles, whereas cold packs constrict vessels to numb acute pain and decrease swelling—alternating these modalities can be tailored to patient preference. Occupational therapy plays a key role, teaching adaptive techniques like joint protection principles (e.g., using larger grips to avoid pinching) and guided exercises to enhance dexterity without exacerbating inflammation.^[42]^[1]^[43] Lifestyle modifications support long-term symptom control by minimizing joint stress. Low-impact hand exercises, such as squeezing stress balls or performing gentle fist stretches, strengthen supporting muscles and maintain range of motion; regular sessions of 10-15 minutes daily are recommended to prevent stiffness. Weight management reduces systemic inflammation and overall joint load, even for hand involvement, through balanced diet and moderate activity. Ergonomic tools, including padded utensils or jar openers, distribute forces away from affected joints during routine tasks, promoting independence.^[44]^[45]^[46] Emerging conservative options include low-level laser therapy (LLLT), a non-invasive technique using red or near-infrared light to modulate cellular function and reduce inflammation. Clinical studies demonstrate that 5-7 sessions, administered twice weekly, significantly decrease pain (via visual analogue scale) and swelling (measured by joint perimeter) in Heberden's nodes, with benefits persisting up to 8 weeks post-treatment; improvements in joint mobility were also noted without adverse effects.^[47] Joint traction using a finger trap orthosis, applied daily for 15 minutes, has been shown to increase pinch strength in symptomatic distal interphalangeal joints, with benefits sustained up to 12 months post-treatment.^[48]

Surgical Options

Surgical interventions for Heberden's nodes are reserved for severe cases where persistent pain, significant deformity, or functional impairment persists despite conservative management, and are relatively uncommon given the typically stable nature of the nodes.^[49]^[50] One primary procedure involves excision of the osteophytes forming the Heberden's nodes, often combined with joint debridement, particularly when associated with mucous cysts that risk nail deformity or infection. This approach removes the bony prominences and any degenerative tissue to alleviate pressure and improve cosmesis, with studies reporting low recurrence rates of approximately 2% when osteophytes are thoroughly addressed.^[49]^[51] Arthrodesis, or fusion of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint, is the most reliable surgical option for advanced symptomatic osteoarthritis causing Heberden's nodes, using techniques such as headless compression screws to achieve stability. The joint is typically positioned in full extension for the index and middle fingers or 10-20° flexion for the ring and little fingers to optimize function. Outcomes demonstrate high success, with union rates up to 100% and substantial pain reduction (e.g., visual analog scale scores dropping from 6.2 to 1.1 at 26-month follow-up), though nonunion occurs in about 10% of cases.^[49]^[52]^[53] In select cases, DIP joint arthroplasty with silicone implants may be considered to preserve some motion, though it is less favored than fusion due to higher complication rates, including implant failure in up to 30% within 10 years. Postoperative recovery generally involves 4-6 weeks of immobilization in a splint or with internal fixation, followed by hand therapy to restore strength and range of motion, with most patients achieving pain relief in 80-90% of cases but accepting reduced joint flexibility as a trade-off.^[50]^[54] Potential risks include infection, hardware irritation necessitating removal (in about 4% of fusions), stiffness, complex regional pain syndrome, or nerve injury, and these procedures do not halt the underlying osteoarthritis progression.^[49]^[52]^[53]

Prognosis and Complications

Outlook

Heberden's nodes represent permanent bony enlargements at the distal interphalangeal joints, resulting from the degenerative process of osteoarthritis, and they do not regress once formed.^[1] While the underlying osteoarthritis progresses over time, leading to potential worsening of joint deformity, the associated symptoms—particularly pain and inflammation—often stabilize after node formation, with many patients experiencing reduced discomfort within a few years.^[12]^[38] With effective management, most individuals maintain satisfactory hand function, as evidenced by systematic reviews showing that only 23–59% report deterioration in hand function over 10 years, implying stability or preservation in the majority.^[55] Early therapeutic interventions, such as physical and occupational therapy, further improve long-term outcomes by enhancing grip strength and dexterity, allowing patients to perform daily activities with minimal impairment despite gradual declines in fine motor skills over decades.^[38] Hand osteoarthritis involving Heberden's nodes does not impact life expectancy and carries no risk of malignant transformation.^[56] Regular follow-up with healthcare providers is essential to monitor for progression of osteoarthritis to other joints, enabling timely adjustments to treatment plans and preventing broader functional limitations.^[1]

Potential Complications

Heberden's nodes can lead to chronic functional limitations, including reduced range of motion in the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints, grip weakness, and challenges with daily activities such as writing, buttoning clothing, or grasping small objects.^[1]^[2] These impairments arise from joint stiffness and deformity, potentially exacerbating muscle weakness over time.^[2] The condition may contribute to secondary osteoarthritis spreading to adjacent hand joints, such as the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints (forming Bouchard's nodes) or the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint of the thumb, though progression varies by individual factors like age and genetics.^[2]^[57] Rare complications include cyst formation, particularly digital mucous cysts adjacent to the DIP joint, which can cause nail deformity or joint stiffness if untreated.^[58] Treatment-related issues include muscle atrophy from prolonged splint use, which can weaken hand muscles if worn excessively beyond periods of acute pain or nighttime.^[7] Surgical interventions, such as joint fusion for severe cases, carry risks including nonunion rates of approximately 5-10%, along with potential infection or hardware prominence.^[59] Heberden's nodes may also have a psychological impact, with visible deformities causing frustration and reduced quality of life, though cosmetic concerns are generally minimal compared to functional effects.^[60]^[1]

History

Eponym

Heberden's nodes are named after William Heberden Sr. (1710–1801), an English physician renowned for his contributions to clinical medicine.^[61] He first described these bony swellings in his posthumously published 1802 book Commentaries on the History and Cure of Diseases, in a brief chapter entitled "Digitorum Nodi."^[62] In that section, Heberden characterized them as "little hard knobs, about the size of a small pea, which are frequently seen upon the fingers, a little below the top, close to the joint," typically in older patients and linked to chronic arthritic changes.^[63] The eponymous term persists in contemporary medical literature and practice, despite recommendations to favor descriptive nomenclature such as "distal interphalangeal joint osteophytes" to reflect their pathological nature as bony outgrowths in osteoarthritis.^[64]

Historical Description

William Heberden provided the first detailed clinical description of the bony swellings now known as Heberden's nodes in his 1802 book Commentaries on the History and Cure of Diseases, where he termed them "nodi digitorum" and noted their prevalence in elderly women as hard, painless excrescences on the distal interphalangeal joints without significant inflammation.^[62] This account built upon scattered 18th-century observations of arthritic finger deformities in older individuals, though Heberden's work offered the earliest systematic characterization, emphasizing their chronic and non-inflammatory nature.^[63] In the 19th century, understanding advanced with links to osteoarthritis; Alfred B. Garrod, in the third edition of his 1876 treatise A Treatise on Gout and Rheumatic Gout, classified these nodes as part of degenerative joint disease, distinguishing them from inflammatory conditions like gouty tophi through clinical and chemical analyses that highlighted the absence of urate crystals.^[65] This differentiation marked a key step in nosology, shifting focus from humoral theories to structural degeneration. Twentieth-century developments included radiographic confirmation in the early 1900s, with Joel E. Goldthwait using X-rays in 1904 to visualize osteoarthritic changes underlying such nodes, revealing joint space narrowing and osteophytes that correlated with clinical findings.^[66] By the 1950s, pathological studies, such as Robert M. Stecher's 1955 analysis, confirmed the osteoarthritis association through detailed clinical examinations and emerging histopathological evidence of cartilage degeneration and bone remodeling in affected joints. In the modern era, 1990s genetic research, exemplified by twin studies from Timothy D. Spector and colleagues, established a strong heritability for Heberden's nodes, with concordance rates up to 0.62 in monozygotic pairs indicating polygenic influences on nodal osteoarthritis susceptibility. Post-2000 imaging refinements, including MRI protocols, have enhanced detection of early synovial and osseous changes, as shown in 2018 Osteoarthritis Initiative data linking node severity to knee osteoarthritis progression via quantitative MRI assessments.

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Hand Surgery for Arthritis
The two main surgical options for hand arthritis are fusion (arthrodesis) and total knuckle replacement (arthroplasty).
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Blind Curettage Technique for Treatment of Mucous Cysts ...
The standard treatment for mucous cysts with Heberden nodes is excision of the dorsolateral osteophytes and capsule of the distal interphalangeal joint or thumb ...
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The Treatment of Primary Arthritis of the Finger and Thumb Joint - NIH
A conservative, multimodal treatment approach involving the use of splints, physiotherapy, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can be helpful.
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11127517/
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Terminal finger joint arthritis
Surgery can be used to fuse (stiffen permanently) a joint that is persistently painful, but the potential benefit needs to be balanced against the loss of ...
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The prognosis of pain and function in people with hand and thumb ...
Jul 25, 2025 · Evidence from this review suggests that, on average, there is little change in the hand pain experienced with hand OA over both short and long ...
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Increased lifespan, decreased mortality, and delayed cognitive ...
Dec 9, 2019 · The ICD-10 code M19 represents OA of hand, with little impact on daily mobility and exercise, explaining relatively higher lifespan (85 years vs ...
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Hand Osteoarthritis — Clinical Presentation, Phenotypes and ...
Radiography of Heberden's nodes shows that there is evidence of osteophyte formation in the lateral node and a traction spur in the middle node [31].2.1. Nodal Hand Oa · 2.3. Erosive Hand Oa · 5. Heberden's Nodes: A...
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Digital Mucous Cyst - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Digital mucous cysts are a type of ganglion commonly found on the hand. They commonly have an association with underlying DIP joint osteoarthritis.Missing: entrapment | Show results with:entrapment
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Osteoarthritis and Prosthetic Joints in the Hand - Plastic Surgery Key
May 23, 2021 · There was also no association of implant failure based on the diagnosis of OA or RA. There were 22 complications among 14 patients. There were ...
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Wrist and Hand Osteoarthritis - Physiopedia
The symptomatic hand osteoarthritis is associated with weak grip strength and limits several daily functional activities.
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legacy of William Heberden the Elder (1710–1801) | Rheumatology
To many, he is best known for his description of the nodular swellings in osteoarthritis, the Heberden's nodes. ... named after him called Herbenia [2].<|control11|><|separator|>
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Commentaries on the History and Cure of Diseases. Digitorum Nodi.
The Classic: Commentaries on the History and Cure of Diseases. Digitorum Nodi. Heberden, William MD. Section Editor(s): Schurman, David J MD; Smith, R Lane ...
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The Legacy of William Heberden - Allen Press
Dec 1, 2000 · While his name remains eponymous with one of his relatively minor discoveries, the Heberden nodes of osteoarthritis, Heberden's contributions ...
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Osteoarthritis | Landmark Papers in Rheumatology - Oxford Academic
The impact of Heberden's description of the hands in OA is still evident in the ongoing use of the eponymous term 'Heberden's nodes', coined shortly after the ...
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Nosology versus pathology, two approaches to rheumatic diseases ...
' Charcot was also often quoted in a study published by Archibald Garrod, during his father's lifetime, on the role of the nervous system in rheumatoid ...
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[PDF] Arthritis - National Bureau of Economic Research
In. 1904, Boston physician Joel E. Goldthwait described differences revealed by x-rays. Osteoarthritis is a joint disease that mostly affects the cartilage,.