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High five

The high five is a celebratory gesture in which two people raise an open hand each to approximately head height, palms facing outward toward one another, and forcefully slap their palms together, typically to mark achievement, agreement, or shared enthusiasm.^[1] Originating in American professional baseball, the gesture gained prominence on October 2, 1977, during a Los Angeles Dodgers game against the Houston Astros, when outfielder Glenn Burke spontaneously raised his hand high above his head to greet teammate Dusty Baker after Baker hit his 30th home run of the season, prompting Baker to slap Burke's palm in response.^[2]^[3] This instance, captured on broadcast footage, marked the first documented high five and rapidly proliferated through sports as a non-verbal expression of team unity and success, evolving from earlier palm-slapping customs like the low five but distinguished by its vertical orientation and athletic context.^[2]^[1] Today, it permeates global culture beyond athletics, serving as an informal ritual in workplaces, schools, and social interactions, though its performative nature has inspired variants such as the air five for remote or contact-averse scenarios.^[3]

Description

Definition and Execution

The high five is a gesture in which two people simultaneously raise one hand each above shoulder or head height, with the palm facing outward, and slap the flat palms together in a brief, synchronized contact.^[4]^[5] This action typically serves as a non-verbal expression of celebration, congratulation, solidarity, or encouragement, conveying shared achievement or positive reinforcement through physical interaction.^[4]^[6] In execution, participants extend their arms upward at an angle facilitating palm-to-palm alignment, often with the upper arm abducted to approximately 90 degrees from the torso to reach the elevated position, while keeping fingers extended and palms parallel prior to impact.^[7] The force of the slap varies contextually, ranging from a gentle tap to a more forceful strike, and the gesture is frequently prompted by verbal cues such as "high five!" or "up top!" to coordinate timing and intent.^[8]^[9]

Cultural Context

The high five functions as a non-verbal gesture of affirmation, conveying enthusiasm, congratulations, and mutual recognition in social interactions, particularly within group dynamics where verbal communication may be secondary to action.^[8] In competitive contexts such as sports, it emerged as a spontaneous expression rewarding individual or collective achievement on merit, bypassing hierarchical verbal praise and emphasizing egalitarian solidarity among participants.^[2] This merit-based utility distinguishes it from more formalized rituals, aligning with empirical patterns of imitation in high-energy environments where immediate, physical feedback reinforces successful behaviors.^[10] Its adoption has occurred predominantly in Western societies influenced by North American sports culture, where it permeates celebrations in athletics, team-building exercises, and casual greetings, reflecting a preference for expressive, contact-based positivity over reserved alternatives. Globally, recognition has expanded through exported media—such as international broadcasts of basketball and baseball events—facilitating observational learning in non-Western contexts, though penetration remains uneven, with stronger uptake in urban, youth-oriented settings exposed to American entertainment.^[1] This diffusion follows patterns of cultural transmission via visual media rather than institutional promotion, evident in its integration into events like the Olympics since the 1980s, where athletes from diverse backgrounds mimic the gesture post-victory. Biologically, the high five's palm-slapping contact contributes to social bonding by stimulating endorphin release, which elevates mood and promotes group cohesion, as physical touch activates the endogenous opioid system implicated in affiliation across primates.^[12] Concurrently, observation of the gesture engages mirror neuron networks, enabling rapid imitation and shared understanding of intent, which underpins its self-perpetuating spread without deliberate instruction.^[13] These mechanisms yield verifiable outcomes in enhanced team performance and rapport, as quantified in studies linking tactile affirmation to reduced stress and synchronized activity in social groups.^[14]

Historical Development

Antecedents

The gesture of slapping palms, a foundational element of the high five, traces its immediate precursors to early 20th-century African American cultural expressions during the Jazz Age, where "slapping skin" or the "low five" involved waist-level palm contact as a form of greeting or camaraderie.^[15] This practice, often verbalized as "gimme some skin," appeared in jazz slang by the 1920s and was formalized in dictionaries like Cab Calloway's Hepster's Dictionary by 1938, denoting a handshake or light palm slap rather than an elevated motion.^[16] Such interactions emphasized rhythmic, low-impact contact, reflecting communal affirmation in musical and social settings without the vertical extension seen in later variants.^[17] By the mid-20th century, these low-hand slaps extended into sports, particularly baseball and basketball, where players routinely slapped palms at chest or waist height to mark successful plays or teamwork, predating widespread adoption of overhead gestures.^[18] For instance, pre-1970 baseball routines favored handshakes or lateral slaps over raised arms, building causal continuity from cultural slang into athletic ritual without amplifying height for visibility.^[2] This evolution maintained limited physical intensity, aligning with the gesture's roots in everyday affirmation rather than performative celebration. Broader anthropological links suggest palm-slapping motifs in West African diasporic traditions, such as elements in the "dap" greeting that incorporated sequential slaps by the 1940s, potentially influencing American variants through migration and cultural exchange.^[19] However, these remained grounded in horizontal or low-contact forms, with empirical records showing no verified high-elevation precedents in tribal rituals or early greetings before modern sports contexts.^[19]

Primary Origin Claims

The most empirically supported origin of the high five occurred on October 2, 1977, during a Major League Baseball game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Houston Astros at Dodger Stadium. Dodgers outfielder Dusty Baker hit his 30th home run of the season in the sixth inning, marking the first time in MLB history that four Dodgers players—Baker, Dave Lopes, Steve Garvey, and Ron Cey—each achieved at least 30 home runs in a single season. As Baker crossed home plate, teammate Glenn Burke, standing on deck, raised his open right hand high above his head in exuberant celebration; Baker instinctively slapped his palm against Burke's, executing the inaugural documented high five.^[20] Burke, a rookie outfielder noted for his athletic flair and positive energy, routinely raised his hand in a similar upright "high" greeting to acknowledge teammates' successes during games, such as safe returns or hits, which primed the team for the gesture's spontaneous emergence.^[2] This innovation aligned with Burke's broader style of fostering camaraderie, distinct from traditional handshakes or low-fives, and Baker's responsive slap transformed the raised-hand signal into a mutual palm-slapping action. Eyewitness accounts from both players, including Baker's later confirmations, consistently describe the moment as unplanned yet immediately resonant within the clubhouse culture.^[20]^[2] The gesture quickly integrated into Dodgers routines, with Burke and Baker repeating high fives in ensuing games to celebrate hits, defensive plays, and other achievements, as recalled by team members. This adoption accelerated due to the Dodgers' prominence, having clinched the National League West division that year and advancing to the National League Championship Series, where televised visibility amplified exposure to fans and other athletes.^[2]^[20]

Debates and Alternative Attributions

Magic Johnson has claimed that he invented the high five during his time at Michigan State University in the late 1970s, performing it with teammate Greg Kelser during celebrations, particularly around the 1979 NCAA championship.^[21] However, this assertion lacks corroborating evidence such as specific dates, contemporaneous witnesses, or footage predating 1977, and it postdates documented instances in professional baseball.^[2] Another competing attribution traces the gesture to University of Louisville Cardinals basketball players Wiley Brown and Derek Smith during a 1978–1979 practice, where Brown reportedly elevated a traditional low five to shoulder height as a playful variation.^[22] This account relies on oral histories first reported in 1980, without video records, contemporary media coverage, or independent verification, rendering it anecdotal and subsequent to the 1977 Dodgers event.^[2] Similar unsubstantiated claims have surfaced for earlier women's volleyball circuits in the 1960s, but these too depend on retrospective recollections absent empirical support like photographs or game footage.^[2] Fringe theories positing scripted origins in 1970s television comedy sketches or hoaxes by writers have circulated but lack substantiation and are contradicted by predating sports documentation; such narratives prioritize fabricated entertainment history over verifiable athletic precedents.^[2] While no claim establishes an indisputable sole inventor due to the gesture's informal evolution from low fives, the October 2, 1977, exchange between Los Angeles Dodgers outfielder Glenn Burke and Dusty Baker—after Baker's 30th home run against the Houston Astros—offers the strongest evidentiary chain, supported by teammate accounts, game context, and its rapid media-documented spread in subsequent years.^[23]^[3] This timeline aligns with the absence of earlier high five references in print or broadcast archives, underscoring the Dodgers instance's causal primacy in popularizing the upright palm-slap.^[2]

Variations

Contact-Based Variations

The double high five, alternatively termed the high ten, entails both participants extending and slapping their two palms against the other's two palms in unison, yielding a louder and more vigorous impact than the standard single-palm version. This variation amplifies celebratory emphasis, frequently observed in sports team huddles or group successes where mutual reinforcement is desired.^[1] The "too slow" variant initiates with a conventional vertical palm slap—termed "up high"—followed by a horizontal low five attempt at waist level, but the offering party retracts their hand at the last moment to evade contact, accompanied by a verbal taunt declaring the responder "too slow." This playful feint, rooted in teasing reaction times, typically unfolds in informal, lighthearted exchanges among peers or youth, though the concluding non-contact element distinguishes it from pure slap executions.^[1]^[24] One-handed modifications preserve the core palm-slapping mechanic for scenarios involving injury, fatigue, or unilateral preference, wherein only the dominant or available hand engages while the other remains passive. Similarly, upside-down adjustments—wherein one participant's palm orients downward to align with the other's upward-facing one—facilitate contact amid height disparities or ergonomic challenges, ensuring the gesture's accessibility without altering its tactile essence.^[25]

Non-Contact Variations

The air five constitutes a primary non-contact variation of the high five, wherein individuals elevate their palms toward one another and simulate the slapping trajectory without actual palm-to-palm contact, often accompanied by verbal cues such as "up high" or synchronized eye contact to affirm mutual recognition.^[26] This gesture replicates the celebratory intent of the traditional high five while eliminating physical interaction, rendering it suitable for contexts demanding separation, including athletic events with remote participants or casual affirmations across distances.^[26] Less precise analogs include exuberant waving or finger-gun pointing directed upward, which convey approbation or triumph through gestural mimicry but diverge from the high five's bilateral palm orientation, potentially yielding diluted symbolic equivalence.^[27] These alternatives emerged prominently amid heightened hygiene protocols, as during the COVID-19 pandemic, when organizations advocated touchless salutations to curb pathogen transmission.^[28] Research on affective touch underscores that direct physical contact in social gestures stimulates oxytocin and dopamine release, fostering stronger interpersonal bonding and emotional reinforcement compared to non-tactile imitations.^[29] ^[30] Absent such sensory input, air fives and kindred variants may achieve rudimentary signaling of solidarity for ephemeral or low-intensity exchanges, though they forgo the neurochemical amplification tied to corporeal affirmation.^[31]

Usage and Significance

In Sports and Team Celebrations

The high five serves as a primary celebratory gesture in team sports like Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), and National Football League (NFL), typically executed immediately after successful plays such as home runs, assists, or touchdowns to affirm individual contributions and reinforce collective effort.^[32]^[33] In baseball, batters and base runners frequently receive sequential high fives from dugout teammates upon returning after extra-base hits, a ritual that amplifies immediate positive reinforcement without disrupting game flow.^[32] Sports psychology research links frequent high fives to enhanced team dynamics, with a 2016 analysis of NBA games by Michael W. Kraus revealing that teams averaging more celebratory physical contacts—including high fives, hugs, and chest bumps—achieved superior win-loss records, as such interactions correlated with higher individual performance metrics and overall cohesion.^[34]^[33] Similarly, in American football, high fives during huddle breaks or sideline returns foster morale boosts, contributing to sustained motivation amid high-stakes competition, though empirical data specific to the NFL remains less quantified than in basketball.^[35] These practices have evolved into structured rituals, such as MLB dugout lines where all position players extend hands for rapid exchanges, or NBA bench celebrations following three-point shots, which promote non-verbal group identity and reduce reliance on extended verbal praise.^[32] Influenced by American professional leagues, high fives have diffused to international team sports like soccer, appearing in post-goal or assist acknowledgments during matches, and occasionally in Olympic team events, yet remain rarer in individual disciplines such as tennis due to minimal teammate proximity during play.^[35] A 2019 psychophysiological study further supports causal benefits, showing high fives elevate heart rate variability in ways indicative of improved arousal and bonding, potentially underpinning performance edges in collective settings.^[36]

In Broader Society and Media

The high five extended into everyday social exchanges during the 1980s, evolving from a sports ritual into a versatile gesture for celebrating minor victories, offering encouragement, or sealing agreements in informal settings like family interactions and peer groups. Its simplicity and lack of verbal commitment made it an accessible form of affirmation, particularly among youth, as evidenced by its integration into children's media and school environments where it reinforced positive reinforcement without formal structure.^[37] Media played a pivotal role in this diffusion, with 1980s films and television embedding the gesture as a marker of camaraderie and triumph, normalizing it beyond athletic contexts. For instance, in Top Gun (1986), naval aviators exchange high fives after successful maneuvers, portraying it as a spontaneous expression of team spirit in high-stakes scenarios. Similarly, the character "The Todd" in the medical comedy Scrubs (2001–2010) popularized exaggerated high fives as a humorous staple of workplace levity, amplifying its appeal through repeated comedic reinforcement.^[38]^[38] By the late 1980s, saturation in popular culture—appearing in action films like Tango & Cash (1989) and sitcoms—fostered a cultural feedback loop, where media depictions spurred real-world adoption, embedding the high five in global youth culture as a symbol of unpretentious exuberance. This organic proliferation via entertainment contrasted with more deliberate social norms, contributing to its status as a low-barrier egalitarian interaction rather than a prescribed etiquette. Occasional critiques in professional contexts highlight potential misfires due to mismatched enthusiasm or cultural variances, yet its egalitarian nature—lacking the verticality of handshakes—generally supports fluid social lubrication, as observed in informal business celebrations.^[37]^[39]

Health Implications

Hygiene and Disease Transmission Risks

The high five requires direct palm-to-palm contact, creating a vector for microbial transfer between individuals, particularly when hands harbor pathogens from respiratory secretions, fecal matter, or environmental surfaces. This skin-to-skin interaction can disseminate bacteria and viruses, as unwashed hands frequently carry transient flora capable of causing infections such as streptococcal pharyngitis or gastroenteritis.^[40] Empirical assessments underscore that such gestures contribute to fomite-mediated spread, where force and surface area enhance adhesion of contaminants compared to non-contact alternatives. A controlled 2014 experiment simulating greetings with Escherichia coli-inoculated gloves measured bacterial dissemination, revealing that high fives transferred nearly twice fewer colony-forming units (CFU) than handshakes—approximately 6.2 × 10^7 CFU versus 1.24 × 10^8 CFU on average—but substantially more than fist bumps, which yielded the lowest rates due to reduced contact duration and area.^[41]^[42] This indicates high fives pose a moderate hygiene risk, rivaling other manual greetings in facilitating pathogen viability on skin, where bacteria and enveloped viruses like influenza can persist for hours under typical conditions.^[43] In group settings, such as team celebrations, cumulative exchanges may elevate outbreak potential, as evidenced by broader hand-contact studies linking inadequate hygiene to 16-21% higher respiratory infection rates. Pathogen-specific risks include viral agents like rhinoviruses or SARS-CoV-2, which survive on hands and transfer via mucous membrane contact post-greeting, though direct empirical quantification for high fives remains limited beyond bacterial proxies. Hand hygiene protocols, including soap-and-water washing or sanitizers, mitigate these hazards by removing up to 99.9% of transient microbes, yet the gesture's spontaneity often precedes such measures, underscoring a causal link between contact and amplified transmission in unsterile contexts.^[44]

Adaptations and Alternatives

During the COVID-19 pandemic beginning in 2020, health organizations including the World Health Organization promoted non-contact or low-contact alternatives to the high five, such as fist bumps and elbow taps, to minimize pathogen transmission through skin contact.^[45] These adaptations reduced surface bacterial transfer by approximately 80-90% relative to full palm contacts like handshakes, with fist bumps transmitting up to 10 times fewer colony-forming units than high fives in controlled glove-culturing experiments measuring contact force and area.^[43] Elbow taps similarly limit exposure by avoiding hand-to-hand interaction, though empirical data on their precise transmission rates remains limited compared to fist-based metrics.^[46] While these substitutes effectively curtailed microbial spread, psychological assessments indicate they deliver diminished social affirmation relative to the high five's expansive, celebratory motion, which activates broader neural reward pathways associated with exuberant group bonding.^[47] Fist bumps, for instance, convey solidarity but lack the high five's vertical reach and mutual elevation, potentially reducing perceived enthusiasm in team contexts per observational analyses of gesture energy.^[48] Post-pandemic hybrids, such as pre-high-five hand sanitization or UV-C light wands for rapid surface decontamination, emerged to preserve the gesture's tactile benefits while addressing hygiene concerns, yet their adoption waned due to added procedural friction disrupting spontaneous use.^[49] UV-C devices can eliminate up to 99.99% of surface pathogens in seconds, but requiring device access or gel application before each interaction introduces delays incompatible with the high five's impulsive nature, leading to lower habitual compliance in empirical usage patterns.^[50] The high five's resilience stems from its alignment with primate-derived tactile mechanisms for social cohesion, analogous to grooming behaviors that reinforce affiliation through direct skin contact, which alternatives inadequately replicate in low-risk environments where perceived benefits outweigh residual hazards.^[51]^[52] In such settings, the gesture rebounds as users prioritize evolutionary-rooted affirmation over mitigated risks, evidenced by sustained prevalence in informal celebrations despite temporary shifts.

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