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Hyoid bone

The hyoid bone is a small, U-shaped structure located in the anterior aspect of the neck at the level of the third cervical vertebra, uniquely positioned as the only bone in the human body that does not articulate directly with any other bones, instead being suspended by muscles and ligaments to support essential functions such as swallowing, speech, and respiration.^[1]^[2] Structurally, it consists of a central quadrilateral body, two greater horns projecting posteriorly from the body, and two superior lesser horns, with the greater and lesser horns sometimes connected to the body by fibrous tissue or synovial joints rather than bone.^[1]^[3] The body forms the anterior curve of the U-shape, while the greater horns extend backward toward the styloid processes, and the lesser horns ascend toward the base of the skull; ossification occurs from multiple centers, beginning in the late fetal period and completing postnatally.^[1]^[2] In terms of attachments, the hyoid serves as an anchor for suprahyoid muscles (including the digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid) that elevate it during swallowing and tongue movement, as well as infrahyoid muscles (such as the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, omohyoid, and thyrohyoid) that depress it to facilitate airway opening.^[1]^[2] Additional connections include ligaments like the stylohyoid ligament linking the lesser horns to the styloid processes, the thyrohyoid membrane to the thyroid cartilage, and muscles of the tongue and pharynx such as the genioglossus, hyoglossus, and middle pharyngeal constrictor.^[3]^[2] Functionally, the hyoid bone plays a critical role in maintaining airway patency, enabling phonation and mastication, and coordinating the movements of the tongue and larynx during deglutition and respiration, thereby contributing to overall oropharyngeal dynamics.^[1]^[3] Embryologically, it derives from the second and third pharyngeal arches, with the lesser horns and upper body from the second arch's cartilage and the greater horns and lower body from the third, alongside contributions from the hypobranchial eminence for the body itself.^[1]^[3] Clinically, the hyoid's mobility makes fractures uncommon outside of high-impact trauma or strangulation, where it can serve as a forensic indicator, and it is implicated in conditions like hyoid bone syndrome causing neck pain or in surgical interventions for obstructive sleep apnea.^[1]^[2]

Anatomy

Body

The body of the hyoid bone constitutes the central quadrilateral portion, forming the foundational U-shaped or horseshoe-shaped structure of the bone overall. In adults, it measures approximately 25 mm transversely, 15 mm anteroposteriorly, and 5-8 mm in thickness.^[1]^[4] The superior surface is smooth and traversed by a well-marked transverse ridge with slight downward convexity, which divides the surface into two shallow depressions serving as attachment sites for the hyoglossus muscle.^[5] The inferior surface features a median longitudinal ridge that separates two lateral depressions, providing insertion points for the sternohyoid and omohyoid muscles.^[3] The anterior surface is convex and directed forward and upward, marked by a transverse ridge in its upper half that accommodates attachments of the digastric muscles.^[5] The posterior surface is smooth and concave, directed backward and downward, and forms the base from which the lesser horns arise.^[5] The superior border is rounded and affords attachment to the thyrohyoid membrane and aponeurotic fibers of the genioglossus muscle, while the inferior border provides insertion for the sternohyoid and omohyoid muscles. The lateral borders connect to the bases of the greater and lesser horns, typically via synchondroses in youth that ossify to bony unions in adulthood.^[5]

Greater horns

The greater horns, also known as the cornu majus, are the elongated lateral projections of the hyoid bone that extend posteriorly from its body, forming the posterior limbs of the characteristic U-shaped structure. These horns are longer and more robust than the lesser horns, measuring approximately 3 cm in length on average (right: 31.4 ± 2.6 mm; left: 31.0 ± 2.5 mm), with a slender, tapering form that curves superiorly and posteriorly. Their surfaces are roughened to facilitate attachments, and they are positioned at the level of the third cervical vertebra, superior to the thyroid cartilage.^[1]^[6]^[7] At their proximal ends, the greater horns articulate with the lateral angles of the hyoid body through either fibrous tissue or a small synovial joint, which often undergoes progressive ankylosis (fusion) with advancing age, influenced by factors such as ethnicity, sex, and individual variation. The distal ends of the horns lie in close proximity to the styloid processes of the temporal bones but do not form direct bony connections; instead, they contribute to neck stability via muscular and ligamentous associations. Key muscular attachments include the stylohyoid muscle, which inserts at the junction of the body and greater horn after its tendon splits around the intermediate tendon of the digastric muscle; the thyrohyoid muscle, inserting on the inferior aspect to facilitate hyoid elevation and depression during swallowing; the hyoglossus muscle, originating from the anterior surface of the greater horn and body to retract and depress the tongue; and the middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle, arising from the greater and lesser horns as well as the stylohyoid ligament to aid in pharyngeal constriction. Additionally, the lateral thyrohyoid ligament extends from the tip of the greater horn to the superior horn of the thyroid cartilage, providing further suspension and support.^[1]^[8]^[9]^[1]^[10]^[11]^[12] Developmentally, the greater horns derive from the third pharyngeal arch, with ossification centers appearing in the late fetal period from the thyrohyal elements. Fusion with the body typically occurs between ages 20 and 25, though this process can be incomplete or delayed, leading to persistent cartilaginous junctions in some adults. Variations in the greater horns are common, including asymmetry in length and shape, bifid configurations at the tips, and rare cases of elongation or partial aplasia, which may impact surgical landmarks or forensic assessments of neck trauma. Ankylosis rates increase with age, potentially affecting the bone's mobility and susceptibility to fracture.^[1]^[13]^[14]^[15]

Lesser horns

The lesser horns, also known as the lesser cornua, are paired small, conical bony projections that extend superiorly from the superolateral angles of the hyoid bone's body, near the junction with the greater horns.^[3]^[16] These structures typically measure approximately 1 cm in length, with a mean of 1.0 cm and a range of 0.8 to 1.2 cm reported in anatomical studies.^[17] They project superoposteriorly toward the base of the skull, contributing to the hyoid's overall U-shaped configuration alongside the greater horns.^[2] Morphologically, the lesser horns are slender and connected to the body of the hyoid bone by fibrous tissue or, less commonly, a synovial joint.^[1]^[16] Their inferior ends may fuse with the body through synostosis in adulthood, though this fusion is not universal and can vary.^[1] The superior ends, or apices, serve as attachment points for ligaments, lacking direct muscular origins in most descriptions but occasionally noted for minor contributions to tongue depressor muscles like the chondroglossus.^[3] The primary ligamentous attachment is the stylohyoid ligament, which extends from the tip of each lesser horn to the styloid process of the temporal bone, providing a fibrous connection to the skull base.^[2]^[1] This ligament may calcify or ossify, potentially leading to elongated lesser horns.^[16] Developmentally, the lesser horns originate from the cartilage of the second pharyngeal arch during embryogenesis and ossify from independent centers during fetal development, with centers appearing around 14-16 weeks gestation.^[3]^[1]^[18] Fusion with the body often occurs later, around puberty or into adulthood.^[1] Anatomical variations in the lesser horns are common and include unilateral or bilateral absence, hypoplasia (rudimentary forms), hyperplasia (elongated or enlarged), and asymmetry, influenced by factors such as age, sex, and ethnicity.^[1]^[19]^[16] These variations can result in ankylosis with the body or ossification of the stylohyoid ligament, forming a continuous bony chain in some individuals.^[19]

Ligaments

The hyoid bone lacks direct articulations with other bones and is instead suspended within the neck by a network of ligaments that connect it to surrounding structures, providing stability and flexibility during swallowing and speech.^[1] These ligaments include the stylohyoid ligaments superiorly, the thyrohyoid membrane inferiorly, and the hyoepiglottic ligament anteriorly, collectively anchoring the bone without rigid bony connections.^[2] The stylohyoid ligament is a slender, fibrous cord that extends from the tip of the styloid process of the temporal bone to the tip of the lesser horn of the hyoid bone, measuring approximately 2-3 cm in length.^[20] It represents an ossified remnant of the second branchial arch from embryonic development and forms part of the stylohyoid apparatus, which can sometimes calcify and contribute to clinical symptoms.^[21] The thyrohyoid membrane is a thin, fibroelastic sheet that connects the superior border of the thyroid cartilage to the inferior aspect of the hyoid bone's body and greater horns. This membrane contains central and lateral portions, with the lateral thyrohyoid ligaments serving as thickenings that provide additional tensile strength and allow passage for the superior laryngeal vessels and nerve.^[22] The hyoepiglottic ligament is an elastic, median fibrous band that extends from the upper border of the hyoid bone's body to the anterior surface of the epiglottis, facilitating coordinated movement during deglutition.^[23] It lies within the pre-epiglottic space and helps position the epiglottis to protect the airway.^[24] These ligaments afford the hyoid bone considerable mobility but render it susceptible to traction injuries from neck trauma, such as whiplash or surgical manipulation, potentially leading to pain, inflammation, or dysfunction in swallowing.^[1]

Development and ossification

Embryonic development

The hyoid bone derives from mesenchymal tissues associated with the second and third pharyngeal (branchial) arches, which begin forming during weeks 4 to 5 of gestation as neural crest-derived cells migrate into the pharyngeal region.^[25] These arches provide the foundational mesenchyme for the hyoid's precursors, with the second arch primarily contributing the lesser horns and the stylohyoid ligament via its cartilaginous bar known as Reichert's cartilage.^[26] Traditionally, the third arch supplies the greater horns and portions of the body (particularly its lower portion) through a distinct cartilaginous element; however, modern studies indicate the body originates from a solitary midline mesenchymal condensation in the hypobranchial eminence, independent of direct contributions from the arch cartilages.^[27]^[18]^[28] Reichert's cartilage emerges as a mesenchymal condensation in the second arch around week 6, undergoing chondrification by weeks 7 to 8, during which its caudal segment directly integrates with the developing hyoid structure to form the lesser horns.^[26] Midline mesenchymal condensations in the hypobranchial eminence appear between weeks 5 and 7, progressing to cartilage formation by week 7; these elements fuse to outline the hyoid body's initial shape.^[18] Neural crest cells from rhombomeres 4 and possibly others populate these sites, ensuring proper segmentation and positioning of the hyoid precursors amid surrounding pharyngeal structures.^[18] Genetic regulation of hyoid formation involves Hox genes, which pattern the anterior-posterior identity of the pharyngeal arches and direct neural crest migration to specific skeletal fates.^[18] Endothelin signaling further modulates dorsoventral patterning within the arches, promoting ventral mesenchymal differentiation essential for hyoid cartilage development and preventing malformations in the visceral skeleton.^[29] These molecular pathways ensure coordinated growth, setting the stage for later ossification while maintaining the hyoid's unique suspension in the neck.

Postnatal ossification

The postnatal ossification of the hyoid bone proceeds via endochondral ossification from multiple centers derived from the branchial arches and midline mesenchymal condensations.^[30] At birth, the hyoid consists of five distinct elements—a central body and bilateral pairs of greater and lesser horns—connected by cartilage or fibrous tissue, with ossification centers already present in the body and greater horns but not yet fused.^[30] The body ossifies from two primary centers shortly after birth, achieving complete ossification by approximately 4 months of age in most cases.^[31] The greater horns develop separate ossification centers near the end of gestation or at birth, but fusion with the body typically begins around age 25 and progresses irregularly thereafter, with complete bilateral fusion observed in about 16-27% of individuals by their 30s to 40s, often earlier in females (mean age ~37-45 years) than males (mean age ~40-56 years).^[32]^[19] The lesser horns, derived from the cartilage of the second pharyngeal arch, begin ossification around age 14 during puberty and fuse with the body or greater horns variably, with no fusion evident until at least age 35 in males or 40 in females, reaching maximum incidence (55-67%) only after age 61.^[33] Full ossification and fusion are generally achieved by early adulthood, though the process may extend into later decades.^[19] Variations in this process include incomplete fusion, resulting in persistent pseudarthroses characterized by diarthrodial (synovial-like) gaps at the horn-body junctions, which occur in up to 16% of older adults and can influence bone stability.^[30]^[19] Hormonal factors, such as growth hormone and sex steroids, regulate endochondral ossification generally during postnatal growth, while mechanical stresses from repeated swallowing may contribute to progressive fusion in the hyoid.^[34]^[30]

Vascular supply and innervation

Blood supply

The arterial supply to the hyoid bone arises primarily from branches of the external carotid artery, ensuring nourishment to this unique floating bone in the anterior neck.^[1] The lingual artery, originating from the external carotid near the greater horn of the hyoid, provides key contributions via its suprahyoid branch, which runs along the superior border of the bone to supply both the hyoid and associated suprahyoid musculature.^[35] Additionally, the facial artery, a direct branch of the external carotid, participates in vascularizing the hyoid region, with the facial artery's submental branch specifically targeting the greater horns. The infrahyoid branch of the superior thyroid artery supplies the inferior border of the hyoid bone via the thyrohyoid muscle.^[1]^[16]^[1] The submental artery, arising from the facial artery at the level of the hyoid, extends inferiorly to perfuse the greater horns and adjacent suprahyoid structures.^[1] Venous drainage from the hyoid bone follows the arterial pathways, emptying into the internal jugular vein primarily via the lingual and facial veins, which accompany their respective arteries.^[36] Small emissary veins also traverse the hyoid's ligaments, facilitating direct drainage into the regional venous network.^[1] A rich anastomotic network interconnects these external carotid branches around the hyoid, promoting redundancy and collateral circulation to maintain supply during potential occlusions.^[1] Anatomical variations may include contributions from the occipital artery, particularly when its origin is atypically low near the hyoid level, altering the standard carotid-dominated supply.^[37]

Innervation

The hyoid bone itself lacks direct sensory innervation, but the periosteum receives sympathetic fibers that may contribute to nociceptive signaling in pathological conditions.^[1] Sensory innervation to the structures associated with the hyoid, including the pharyngeal mucosa and ligaments, is primarily provided by branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) and vagus nerve (cranial nerve X). The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies sensory fibers to the upper pharyngeal mucosa and the stylopharyngeus muscle, which attaches to the lesser horn of the hyoid, via contributions to the pharyngeal plexus.^[38]^[12] The vagus nerve, through its pharyngeal branches and the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, innervates the lower pharyngeal mucosa and adjacent ligaments, such as the thyrohyoid membrane connecting the hyoid to the thyroid cartilage.^[12]^[39] Motor innervation to the hyoid is indirect, occurring through the nerves supplying the attached suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles. Suprahyoid muscles receive innervation from the mylohyoid nerve (branch of mandibular nerve, CN V3) for the mylohyoid and anterior digastric; the facial nerve (CN VII) for the stylohyoid and posterior digastric; and C1 fibers via the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) for the geniohyoid.^[1] Infrahyoid muscles are innervated by the ansa cervicalis (C1-C3) for the sternohyoid, omohyoid, and sternothyroid, while the thyrohyoid receives C1 fibers via the hypoglossal nerve.^[1]^[40] Sympathetic supply to the hyoid region arises from the superior cervical ganglion, with postganglionic fibers traveling via the carotid plexus to innervate the periosteum and associated vasculature.^[1]^[41] In clinical contexts, the innervation of hyoid-associated structures is relevant during neck dissections for tumor excision, where damage to nearby nerves such as the hypoglossal or ansa cervicalis can lead to dysphagia, tongue deviation, or infrahyoid muscle paralysis.^[1]

Function

Mechanical support

The hyoid bone serves as a mobile anchor suspended between the mandible superiorly and the larynx inferiorly, providing essential mechanical support for oropharyngeal functions without direct bony articulation to other skeletal elements. This suspension is achieved through attachments to suprahyoid muscles above and infrahyoid muscles below, along with ligaments such as the stylohyoid and thyrohyoid, enabling coordinated elevation and depression of the hyoid to facilitate tongue protrusion and laryngeal elevation during essential activities like swallowing.^[1]^[2] As the only "floating" bone in the human body, the hyoid transmits mechanical forces during deglutition, where suprahyoid muscles (e.g., digastric and mylohyoid) elevate and protract it anteriorly, while infrahyoid muscles (e.g., sternohyoid and thyrohyoid) contribute to controlled descent, ensuring efficient bolus propulsion and upper esophageal sphincter opening. In phonation, the hyoid stabilizes the vocal tract for shaping sounds, with displacements occurring to adjust laryngeal position and support articulation.^[1]^[42]^[43] Biomechanically, the hyoid's U-shaped structure resists compressive forces in the neck while distributing tension from attached ligaments, maintaining structural integrity during dynamic movements. Evolutionarily, this configuration in mammals, evident as early as 165 million years ago, allows for independent tongue mobility, distinguishing mammalian feeding and vocalization from other vertebrates by enabling precise control over chewed food swallowing.^[1]^[44]

Muscle attachments and movement

The suprahyoid muscles, which include the digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid, attach superior to the hyoid bone and primarily function to elevate the hyoid and larynx during swallowing.^[1] The digastric muscle attaches via its intermediate tendon to the digastric fovea on the anterolateral aspect of the hyoid body, while the stylohyoid inserts at the junction of the hyoid body and greater horn.^[45] The mylohyoid and geniohyoid both insert along the anterior surface of the hyoid body, with the mylohyoid forming a midline raphe and the geniohyoid attaching medially.^[45] These attachments enable the suprahyoid group to collectively lift the hyoid bone, facilitating the upward and forward propulsion of the tongue base in deglutition.^[1] In contrast, the infrahyoid muscles—comprising the sternohyoid, omohyoid, thyrohyoid, and sternothyroid—attach inferior to the hyoid and serve to depress the hyoid bone following swallowing, returning it to its resting position.^[1] The sternohyoid inserts on the medial inferior surface of the hyoid body, the omohyoid's superior belly attaches laterally to the hyoid body near the lesser horn, and the thyrohyoid inserts on the inferior aspect of the hyoid body and greater cornu.^[1] The sternothyroid, while primarily inserting on the thyroid cartilage, contributes to hyoid depression through its synergistic action with the other strap muscles.^[40] These attachments allow for controlled lowering of the hyoid, stabilizing the larynx post-elevation.^[1] The hyoid bone's muscle attachments support a range of movements, including elevation (primarily by suprahyoid contraction), depression (by infrahyoid action), protraction (forward gliding via digastric and mylohyoid pull), and retraction (posterior pull by stylohyoid).^[45] The lesser horns provide attachment points for ligaments, such as the stylohyoid ligament, which indirectly aid muscle-mediated pulls on the hyoid structure.^[1] These motions are coordinated to ensure smooth transitions during swallowing; the suprahyoid muscles are innervated by branches of the trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nerves, while the infrahyoid muscles are primarily innervated by the ansa cervicalis (cervical spinal nerves C1-C3), with the geniohyoid and thyrohyoid receiving contributions via the hypoglossal nerve.^[45]^[46] In speech production, the hyoid's muscle attachments enable fine positional adjustments, particularly for vowel articulation, where subtle elevations and stabilizations modulate vocal tract resonance.^[1] This dynamic role complements the hyoid's broader mechanical support for laryngeal positioning.^[1]

Clinical significance

Fractures and trauma

Fractures of the hyoid bone are exceedingly rare, comprising only 0.002% to 1.15% of all fractures and occurring in less than 1% of neck trauma cases due to the bone's protected position between the mandible and cervical spine.^[47]^[48] They are most commonly associated with manual strangulation or hanging, where incidence rates range from 17% to 76% among victims, with fracture risk increasing with age due to progressive ossification of ligaments, making the elderly more susceptible even to minor trauma.^[47] Hyoid fractures typically result from direct blunt force, neck hyperextension, or traction on attached ligaments during high-impact events such as motor vehicle collisions, falls, or sports injuries.^[47] The threshold force required for fracture is relatively low, with a mean of approximately 3.1 kg (30.55 N) in experimental studies, varying by individual factors such as age and bone fusion state.^[49]^[50] Fractures are classified into three main types: inward compression fractures with outside periosteal tears, antero-posterior compression fractures with inside periosteal tears, and avulsion fractures, often affecting the greater horns; body fractures are typically transverse and may be comminuted in severe trauma.^[47]^[51] Symptoms include severe anterior neck pain, dysphagia, odynophagia, tenderness, swelling, ecchymosis, and crepitus on palpation; complications such as subcutaneous emphysema or airway compromise can arise, potentially leading to life-threatening obstruction.^[47]^[52] Diagnosis relies on clinical suspicion in trauma patients, with computed tomography (CT) imaging preferred over plain X-rays for its superior visualization of the radiolucent bone, revealing cortical disruptions or fracture lines.^[47]^[53]

Surgical and diagnostic relevance

The hyoid bone is integral to several surgical interventions in the head and neck region. In total laryngectomy for laryngeal cancer, the hyoid bone is routinely resected along with the larynx, epiglottis, and portions of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages to ensure oncologic clearance.^[54] The thyrohyoid membrane provides critical access during these procedures and serves as a site for reconstructive flaps, such as the combined muscle-pedicle hyoid bone and thyrohyoid membrane flap, which facilitates one-stage repair of laryngotracheal defects following partial laryngectomy.^[55] Although tracheotomy incisions are typically placed below the cricoid cartilage, high tracheostomies between the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage risk injury to the hyoid and laryngeal structures.^[56] Hyoid suspension procedures, frequently combined with genioglossus advancement, address obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) by repositioning the hyoid anteriorly to widen the hypopharyngeal airway and reduce collapse during sleep.^[57] This multilevel surgery is particularly effective for severe OSA cases with multilevel obstructions, improving apnea-hypopnea index outcomes when integrated with uvulopalatopharyngoplasty.^[58] In thyroidectomy, superior retraction of the hyoid bone and strap muscles enhances exposure of the upper thyroid pole and recurrent laryngeal nerve, minimizing iatrogenic damage during dissection.^[59] Diagnostic imaging modalities are essential for evaluating hyoid bone function and pathology. Ultrasonography assesses hyoid displacement and thyrohyoid approximation during swallowing, offering a non-invasive, reliable tool for diagnosing dysphagia in conditions like post-stroke impairment or thyroidectomy complications.^[60]^[61] It quantifies suprahyoid muscle activity and laryngeal elevation, correlating reduced motion with swallowing inefficiency.^[62] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) delineates the hyoid's soft tissue relationships, aiding preoperative planning for OSA by identifying adenotonsillar hypertrophy or parapharyngeal fat distribution.^[63] Videofluoroscopy provides dynamic visualization of hyoid motion in swallowing, enabling quantitative kinematic analysis of anterior-superior displacement to evaluate dysphagia severity and guide rehabilitation.^[64]^[65] Hyoid pathologies include age-related calcification, which may contribute to arterial compression through posterior tilting or reduced distance to the internal carotid artery, though its association with carotid atherosclerosis remains unclear. Primary tumors are uncommon, but chondrosarcomas represent the predominant malignancy, arising from cartilaginous remnants and often presenting as painless neck masses; complete surgical resection is the mainstay of treatment, with imaging guiding margins.^[66]^[67] Recent post-2020 innovations incorporate 3D-printed anatomical models in otolaryngologic surgery for planning, simulating procedures to improve precision and reduce operative time.^[68]

Comparative anatomy

In mammals

The hyoid bone in mammals is typically U-shaped or horseshoe-shaped, providing a floating suspension for the tongue, larynx, and associated musculature without direct attachment to other skeletal elements. This configuration allows for extensive mobility essential to feeding, swallowing, and vocalization across diverse mammalian lineages. In herbivores such as horses, the hyoid apparatus features an elongated stylohyoid bone and a developing lingual process on the basihyoid, which enhance tongue flexibility and support the lowered head posture required for grazing on ground-level vegetation.^[69] In contrast, aquatic mammals like whales exhibit an enlarged hyoid apparatus adapted for underwater feeding; in odontocetes (toothed whales), the robust hyoid and hypertrophied tongue muscles generate suction by acting as a piston to create negative pressure and draw in prey, while in mysticetes (baleen whales), it facilitates oral cavity expansion during filter feeding.^[70] Among primates, the hyoid bone closely resembles the human form in its overall structure, with a robust body that anchors muscles critical for vocalization and swallowing; however, in African apes such as chimpanzees and gorillas, it is more elongated with greater length relative to width and an expanded bulla housing laryngeal air sacs, adaptations that may influence sound production.^[71] In carnivores, particularly felids, hyoid elements display notable fusion and ossification variations that support both vocal and feeding functions; roaring species like lions and tigers (Pantherinae) have a ligamentous epihyoid that permits laryngeal descent for low-frequency roars, whereas purring species like domestic cats (Felinae) feature fully ossified epihyoids for structural rigidity during tongue-based prey manipulation and lapping.^[72]^[73] Functionally, the hyoid enables specialized feeding behaviors in mammals; in cats, it imposes elliptical movement paths on the tongue during lapping, combining with jaw motions to transport liquid intra-orally by protracting the anterior tongue high and retracting it low.^[74] In ruminants like cows, the hyoid anchors the tongue via its lingual process and genioglossus muscle attachments, facilitating the regurgitation of bolus from the rumen for rechewing during rumination, a process conserved across species with similar hyoid shapes despite variations in feeding types.^[75] Ossification patterns of the hyoid vary phylogenetically and ontogenetically, with endochondral formation from pharyngeal arch cartilages leading to segmented, jointed structures in most mammals; in large species like felids, fusion of elements such as the epihyoid occurs later or remains incomplete (e.g., ligamentous in Pantherinae), potentially accommodating prolonged growth and biomechanical demands.^[73]^[76] Evolutionarily, the mammalian hyoid derives from the simpler rod-like hyoid of reptilian ancestors, transforming into a complex, saddle-shaped apparatus with mobile joints by the Jurassic period in early mammaliaforms; this innovation supported a muscularized throat for powered swallowing suited to endothermy's high metabolic demands and provided a laryngeal framework enabling advanced vocalization, predating the diversification of crown mammals.^[77] These adaptations parallel the human hyoid's role in facilitating speech and deglutition.^[71]

In non-mammals

In non-mammalian vertebrates, the hyoid apparatus originates from the second pharyngeal (branchial) arch and typically comprises multiple cartilaginous or bony elements that support respiration, feeding, and gill function in aquatic forms, transitioning to roles in tongue manipulation and laryngeal support in terrestrial tetrapods. Unlike the simplified, U-shaped hyoid bone in mammals, the non-mammalian hyoid is more elaborate, often retaining connections to branchial elements and varying significantly across taxa due to evolutionary adaptations for diverse lifestyles.^[78] In bony fish (Osteichthyes), the hyoid arch forms a critical component of the splanchnocranium, consisting of the dorsal hyomandibula (which articulates with the neurocranium to suspend the jaw in hyostylic fashion), the interhyal (connecting the hyomandibula to the ventral elements), the paired ceratohyals (ventral rods supporting the gill cover), and the midline basihyal. Additional dermal bones, such as branchiostegal rays attached to the ceratohyal, aid in opercular movement for gill ventilation, while the epihyal extends posteriorly from the ceratohyal in many teleosts like zebrafish. This structure facilitates suction feeding and respiration, with ossification progressing from cartilage during development, as observed in models like Danio rerio where the hyomandibula ossifies early (around 3 days post-fertilization).^[78] Among amphibians, the hyoid apparatus is predominantly cartilaginous and adapted for tongue-based prey capture, particularly in anurans (frogs and toads). In most anurans, it features a central hyoid plate (corpus) with three pairs of anteriorly projecting processes: alae (for geniohyoid muscle attachment), anterolateral processes, and posterolateral processes, connected to the sternohyoideus muscle for rapid hyoid depression during tongue projection. In urodeles (salamanders), the apparatus includes more discrete elements like paired ceratohyals and basihyal, supporting a less protrusible tongue, while in larval stages across lissamphibians, it retains branchial connections for gill support before metamorphosis reduces these. Ossification is limited, with dermal parahyoid bones occasionally present in basal forms, emphasizing flexibility over rigidity for hydrostatic tongue movement.^[79] In reptiles, the hyoid apparatus varies with feeding ecology but generally includes a central basihyal, paired thyrohyals (connecting to the larynx), ceratohyals, and sometimes epihyals or dorsal elements, providing anchorage for hyolingual musculature. For example, in the lizard Acanthodactylus boskianus, the basihyal is a small, triangular bone articulating with elongate thyrohyals and curved ceratohyals, enabling tongue retraction during prey swallowing, with partial ossification enhancing mobility. In crocodilians like Alligator mississippiensis, it comprises a robust midline entoglossal ossification, basihyal, and paired first ceratobranchials, supporting gular depression for aquatic feeding. Turtles exhibit further diversity, with the hyoid linked to respiration and sound production via reduced branchial remnants, where morphological variation correlates with aquatic versus terrestrial habits.^[80]^[81]^[82] Birds possess a specialized hyoid apparatus suited to diverse feeding strategies, comprising five primary elements: the anterior paraglossal bones (forming the tongue tip), midline basihyal and urohyal (forming the tongue body and root), and paired ceratobranchials and epibranchials (elongated as hyoid horns). In species like woodpeckers, the apparatus is exceptionally long and flexible, with the horns wrapping around the skull for tongue protraction up to 2.5 times body length to access insects, achieved through a compliant keratinous sheath over bony cores. Passerines and other perching birds retain a complete set with well-developed attachments for mylohyoid muscles, facilitating seed manipulation, while aquatic birds show reductions for streamlined swallowing. This configuration evolved from reptilian ancestors, prioritizing tongue dexterity over laryngeal suspension.^[83]^[84]

References

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[PDF] Name the muscle, A: (Action), O: (Origin), and I: (Insertion) FRONTALIS
Name the muscle,. A: (Action), O: (Origin), and I: (Insertion) ... tongue; O: (Origin) Body and greater horn of hyoid bone; I: (Insertion) Lateral and.
[12]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Pharyngeal Muscles - StatPearls - NCBI
Middle constrictor: This muscle arises from the greater and lesser horns of the hyoid bone and the stylohyoid ligament. The middle constrictor also inserts ...
[13]
The Hyoid Bone - the Anatomy of a Small Bone of the Neck in ... - NIH
Figure by Allen Thomson in Jones Quain's Elements of Anatomy, Longmans ... The key role concerning the basihyal (body of the hyoid) was found in the ...
[14]
Anatomical Variation of Hyoid Bone: a Case Report - PMC - NIH
At neck dissection, lengths of right and left greater horns of hyoid bone were measured 11 cm and 7 cm respectively (Figure 1-2). At histopathological ...
[15]
Variants of the hyoid-larynx complex, with implications for forensic ...
Nov 4, 2019 · One example is the complete ossification of the lateral thyrohyoid ligament between greater horns of the hyoid bone and superior horns of ...
[16]
Hyoid bone | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
Oct 8, 2025 · It is divided into five parts: body with a transverse ridge running along its superior anterior surface and an incomplete vertical ridge in ...
[17]
[PDF] Morphological and Morphometric Variations of the Hyoid Bone in ...
Lesser Horns: The mean length of the lesser horns was 1.0 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.1 cm ranged from 0.8 cm‐1.2 cm. The results of this study ...
[18]
Variants of the hyoid-larynx complex, with implications for forensic ...
Nov 4, 2019 · Minor variations in hyoid-larynx comprise age-related fusion of the body with greater and/or lesser horns by ankyloses of the joints (Fig. 2a2–6) ...
[19]
Stylohyoid ligament | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
May 13, 2020 · The stylohyoid ligament forms part of the styloid apparatus. The origin is at the styloid process of the temporal bone and it inserts into lesser horn of the ...
[20]
Stylohyoid Ligament | Complete Anatomy - Elsevier
The stylohyoid ligament is a fibrous cord derived from the second pharyngeal arch during embryonic development.
[21]
Thyrohyoid membrane | Radiology Reference Article
Jun 21, 2025 · The thyrohyoid membrane connects the hyoid bone above and the thyroid cartilage below. Gross anatomy. origin: upper border of the body and ...
[22]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Larynx - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The hyoepiglottic ligament connects the surface of the epiglottis with the upper border of the hyoid bone. The cricotracheal ligament connects the cricoid ...
[23]
Hyoepiglottic Ligament | Complete Anatomy - Elsevier
The hyoepiglottic ligament is an elastic fibrous band that connects the anterior surface of the epiglottis to the upper border of the body of the hyoid bone.
[24]
Craniofacial Development - Duke Embryology
the hyoid bone is derived from neural crest associated with pharyngeal arches II and III. the laryngeal cartilages are derived from neural crest associated with ...
[25]
Morphogenesis of the second pharyngeal arch cartilage (Reichert's ...
This study was performed on 50 human embryos and fetuses between 7 and 17 weeks of development. Reichert's cartilage is formed in the second pharyngeal arch ...
[26]
Hyoid Bone - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Parsons (1909) reported the ranges and means of the dimensions of the body of 81 adult hyoid bones. Sign in to download full-size image. Figure 5-71 ...Missing: average | Show results with:average
[27]
Human fetal hyoid body origin revisited - PMC - NIH
The hyoid body is traditionally believed to have a dual origin from second and third arch mesenchyme, but this theory remains controversial.
[28]
Endothelin 1-mediated regulation of pharyngeal bone development ...
Apr 1, 2003 · Here we report studies supporting the idea that changes in developmental regulation involving a gene network controlled by a single conserved ...
[29]
Hyoid bone fusion and bone density across the lifespan
Apr 25, 2016 · At birth, the hyoid bone consists of a central body and pairs of right and left lesser and greater cornua. Fusion of the greater cornua with ...Missing: horns | Show results with:horns
[30]
Ossification of the hyoid bone during childhood - PubMed
Ossification of the hyoid was seen only after 30 weeks' gestation. The body of the hyoid was ossified in all infants older than 4 months.
[31]
Time of fusion of greater cornu with body of hyoid bone in ... - PubMed
The lesser cornu was not fused with the junction or with greater cornu till the age of 35years in males and 40years in females. The maximum incidence of fusion ...Missing: ossification centers horns
[32]
Growth and sexual dimorphism of the hyoid bone and its ...
The lesser cornua and the upper portion of the hyoid body are derived from the second pharyngeal cartilage, whereas the greater cornua and the caudal ...Missing: horns | Show results with:horns
[33]
Factors affecting prepubertal and pubertal bone age progression
Aug 21, 2022 · In endochondral ossification, cartilage first develops and is later replaced by bone. ... Pubertal height gain is smaller in obese children than ...
[34]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Lingual Artery - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
The lingual artery moves medially to the greater hone of the hyoid bone and dives deep to the digastric and stylohyoid muscles. The lingual artery passes ...
[35]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554513/
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Venous Drainage of the Head and Neck - Dural Sinuses
Dec 2, 2024 · There are three main jugular veins – external, internal and anterior. They are ultimately responsible for the venous drainage of the whole head and neck.
[37]
Vertical Levels of the Occipital Artery Origin - PMC - NIH
Feb 8, 2023 · Surgeons should, however, be aware of hyoid and infrahyoid types of the OA that occasionally add this artery to the list of structures closely ...
[38]
Tracking the glossopharyngeal nerve pathway through anatomical ...
Jun 13, 2018 · In this pictorial review, we aim to conduct a comprehensive review of the GPN anatomy from its origin in the central nervous system to peripheral target organs.
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Anatomy, Head and Neck, Thyrohyoid Membrane - StatPearls - NCBI
The thyrohyoid membrane connects the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone and facilitates the superior movement of the larynx during swallowing.
[40]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Thyroid Muscles - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
Nerves. The infrahyoid muscles receive innervation from the ... During swallowing, these muscles act to elevate the hyoid bone and the base of the tongue.
[41]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Sympathetic Chain - StatPearls - NCBI
Sep 26, 2022 · The cervical sympathetic chain has 3 adjacent ganglia: superior cervical ganglion, middle cervical ganglion, and inferior cervical ganglion.
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Hyoid displacement patterns in healthy swallowing - PMC - NIH
Mar 4, 2022 · Contraction of the suprahyoid muscles causes the hyoid bone to move upward and forward. Such displacement, together with the tongue during bolus ...
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Hyoid Bone: Function, Location & Anatomy - Cleveland Clinic
Main body: The front (and thickest) portion of your hyoid bone. The average hyoid bone body measures about 2.5 centimeters wide by 1 centimeter thick, though it ...Missing: dimensions mm
[44]
Fossil shows how early mammals could swallow like their modern ...
Jul 18, 2019 · “Essentially, the specialized way for mammals to chew and then swallow is all made possible by the agile hyoid bones at the back of the throat,” ...
[45]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Suprahyoid Muscle - StatPearls - NCBI
Mar 25, 2025 · Suprahyoid muscles are above the hyoid bone, facilitating chewing, swallowing, and phonation. They include digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, ...
[46]
Hyoid Bone Fracture: Associated With Head and Neck Trauma ... - NIH
Injuries to the hyoid bone are rare. The most commonly reported injury is fracture, yet this is often a post-mortem finding, with an incidence of between 17–76 ...
[47]
Concurrent Hyoid Bone Fracture w/ Facial Fractures: Case Report
Hyoid bone fracture incidence is extremely rare 0.002–1.15%. · Hyoid bone fractures can occur with other facial fractures and laryngeal injuries. · Strangulation ...Concurrent Hyoid Bone... · 2. Case Report · 3. Discussion
[48]
experimental approach to the genesis of hyoid bone fractures
May 10, 2013 · Fused bones were not more susceptible to fracture than non-fused bones. Fracture occurred at a mean force of 30.55 N (±18.189). Multiple linear ...Missing: threshold | Show results with:threshold
[49]
Experimental approach to the genesis of hyoid bone fractures
However, it is demonstrated that for thyrohyoid fractures to occur, the applied pressure of about 3 kg can be sufficient, which is most often less than the ...
[50]
Hyoid bone fracture: a review of a rare injury - ResearchGate
Aug 30, 2025 · Hyoid bone fractures (HBF) are rare clinical injuries, commonly associated with sport accidents, traffic accidents and manual strangulation.
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A pain in the neck: a rare case of isolated hyoid bone trauma - NIH
Jul 1, 2011 · Due to their low incidence, hyoid bone fractures/dislocations can be easily missed. Symptoms vary from mild neck pain to severe, acute airway ...
[52]
Traumatic hyoid bone fracture – a case report and review of ... - NIH
Traumatic fractures of the hyoid bone are a rare entity, with potentially life threatening complications. Airway preservation is of the highest importance.
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Laryngectomy | Tracheostomy Education
In a total laryngectomy the entire larynx is removed (including the vocal folds, hyoid bone, epiglottis, thyroid and cricoid cartilage and a few tracheal ...Missing: thyrohyoid | Show results with:thyrohyoid
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combined muscle-pedicle hyoid bone and thyrohyoid membrane ...
The combined muscle-pedicle hyoid bone and thyrohyoid membrane flap is a reliable graft that can be used in one-stage repair of laryngotracheal defects.Missing: tracheotomy | Show results with:tracheotomy
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[PDF] FEEDBACK TO THE FIELD (FT2F) #5: - Emergency Tracheostomy ...
Placement of an emergency tracheostomy tube between the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage may result in injury of the epiglottis (Cases 1 and 2) and in ...
[56]
Genioglossus advancement and hyoid suspension plus ... - PubMed
Conclusion: GAHM plus UPPP may benefit severe OSAHS patients with oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal obstruction. The success was best predicted by low BMI and ...
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Evaluating outcomes of hyoid suspension combined with other ...
Jul 7, 2025 · Evaluating outcomes of hyoid suspension combined with other upper airway surgery for obstructive sleep apnea
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Thyroidectomy and Thyroid Lobectomy
May 1, 2017 · Mobilize upper pole by dividing the branches of the superior thyroid artery and vein as close to the capsule of the gland as possible (this ...<|separator|>
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Ultrasonographic analysis of the hyoid bone distance in individuals ...
May 31, 2024 · The ultrasound measurement of distance from the approximation of the hyoid bone during of the maximum deglutition peak showed less laryngeal elevation.
[60]
Ultrasonographic evaluation of hyoid-larynx approximation in ...
Among stroke patients, hyoid-larynx approximation was less in the dysphagia group than in the nondysphagia group. In conclusion, ultrasound can quantitatively ...
[61]
Application of Real-time Submental Ultrasonography to Assess ...
US is a good method to assess the suprahyoid muscles and hyoid bone movement, which could provide valuable information on swallowing. Keywords: Dysphagia; head- ...
[62]
Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of anatomical risk ...
Aim of our study was to identify anatomical risk factors involved in the development of pediatric OSAHS through a MRI-based case-control pilot study.
[63]
Computer-assisted assessment of hyoid bone motion from ... - PubMed
Videofluoroscopic examination of swallowing remains the standard for evaluation of patients with swallowing complaints. Although attempts have been made to ...
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Hyoid Bone Tracking in a Videofluoroscopic Swallowing Study ... - NIH
Jun 23, 2021 · Kinematic analysis of the hyoid bone in a videofluorosopic swallowing study (VFSS) is important for assessing dysphagia.
[65]
(PDF) Assessment of posterior tilting of the hyoid bone in relation to ...
The number and severity of calcifications increased with age. The Chi-square test showed that there was a strong association (p < 0.001) between bilateral ...
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Chondrosarcoma of the hyoid bone - PubMed
Although chondrosarcoma is the second most common primary malignant bone tumor, only 10 % of chondrosarcomas occur in the head and neck region. The hyoid bone ...
[67]
Chondrosarcoma of the hyoid bone: a case of mistaken identity in ...
Jun 1, 2023 · Chondrosarcomas in the head and neck region are uncommon and presentations in the hyoid bone are very rare with only approximately 27 previously ...Missing: tumors | Show results with:tumors
[68]
3D Printing in Otolaryngology Surgery: Descriptive Review of ... - NIH
Dec 29, 2022 · 3D printing can be used for planning in case of malformation/complex surgery, for surgeon training, and for recreating missing tissues.Missing: hyoid | Show results with:hyoid
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Correlated Imaging of the Equine Hyoid Apparatus Using CT, Micro ...
Jul 4, 2021 · Some studies have shown that horses have synovial joints between the stylohyoid and epihyoid and between the epihyoid and ceratohyoid, similar ...
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Anatomical adaptations of aquatic mammals - Reidenberg
May 21, 2007 · They use their hyoid and tongue as a piston: a sudden retraction generates negative pressure in the mouth which, in turn, draws prey into the ...
[71]
Comparative Morphology of the Hominin and African Ape Hyoid ...
Human hyoids have width slightly greater than length, while African ape hyoids have much greater length. Human hyoids are also more shallow. The loss of air ...Missing: structure variations mammals
[72]
Hyoid apparatus and pharynx in the lion (Panthera leo), jaguar ...
The tetrapod hyoid apparatus provides the skeletal scaffolding supporting the tongue, upper vocal tract and larynx, and thus forms the core of the vocal ...
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The roar of Rancho La Brea? Comparative anatomy of modern and fossil felid hyoid bones
### Summary of Ossification Patterns in Large Mammals, Felids
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Tongue movement of the cat during lapping - PubMed
The movements could be explained as having utility for the intra-oral transport of liquid by two mechanisms. The transported liquids then accumulated between ...Missing: function bone
[75]
A comparative study of the hyoid bone (os hyoides) of 6 ruminant ...
The shape, position and measurements of the hyoid bone of 6 small and medium-sized European ruminant species of different feeding types
[76]
Bone development in laboratory mammals used in developmental ...
Jun 19, 2018 · The cartilages of the second and third arches undergo endochondral ossification and eventually fuse to form the definitive hyoid bone. The ...
[77]
New Jurassic mammaliaform sheds light on early evolution of ...
Jul 19, 2019 · The jointed anterior hyoid cornu from embryonic pharyngeal arch 2 had evolved into mammal-like structures before the separation of the middle ...
[78]
Evolution and development of the fish jaw skeleton - PMC - NIH
In jawed vertebrates, typically the first and second pharyngeal arches are referred to as the mandibular and hyoid arches respectively, and the gill-bearing or ...
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Hyoid Skeleton, Its Related Muscles, and Morphological Novelties in ...
Oct 28, 2009 · In most anurans, the hyoid apparatus consists of a central cartilaginous corpus (hyoid plate) that bears three pairs of cartilaginous processes ...
[80]
Comparative anatomical study of the hyoid apparatus of Bosk's ...
Jun 26, 2019 · The present study aimed to illustrate comparative morphological, histological, and functional variations of the hyoid apparatus of Acanthodactylus boskianus ...Missing: birds fish<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
New insight into the anatomy of the hyolingual apparatus of Alligator ...
Bone and cartilage hyoid elements in Alligator mississippiensis. The hyoid apparatus (Figs1 and 2) of Alligator mississippiensis is composed of a midline ...
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Morphological Diversity of Turtle Hyoid Apparatus is Linked to ...
May 2, 2024 · We observed that, in many species, the hyoid apparatus predominantly undergoes ontogenetic changes in their ossification patterns after hatching ...
[83]
Evolutionary insights from an anatomical network analysis of the ...
Jan 3, 2023 · Birds possess five hyoid bones: paraglossal, basihyal, ceratobranchial, urohyal, and epibranchial (Figures 3 and 4). Inside the avian tongue, ...
[84]
Structural analysis of the tongue and hyoid apparatus in a woodpecker
In most birds, the hyoid apparatus consists of five distinct bones: the paraglossal, basihyal, urohyal, paired ceratobranchial, and paired epibranchial (Fig. 1 ...