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Imaginary time

Imaginary time is a mathematical construct in theoretical physics, obtained by substituting the real time coordinate t with -i\tau, where i is the imaginary unit and \tau is a real parameter, effectively rotating the time axis in the complex plane to transform the oscillatory integrals of Lorentzian spacetime into convergent Euclidean ones.^[1] This Wick rotation, named after physicist Gian-Carlo Wick, equates quantum mechanical evolution in real time to diffusion processes in imaginary time, bridging quantum field theory with statistical mechanics.^[2] The concept finds extensive application in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics and field theory, where the imaginary-time propagator corresponds to the Boltzmann factor e^{-\beta H} in thermal ensembles, with \beta = 1/kT the inverse temperature, enabling computations of partition functions and ground-state properties.^[3] In condensed matter and particle physics, imaginary time facilitates the study of quantum many-body systems, such as finding ground states via imaginary-time evolution or analyzing Green's functions in the Matsubara formalism.^[4] For instance, imaginary-time propagation algorithms on quantum hardware prepare thermal states by simulating non-unitary evolution, analogous to classical Monte Carlo methods.^[5] In cosmology, imaginary time plays a pivotal role in the Hartle-Hawking no-boundary proposal, where the wave function of the universe is defined as a Euclidean path integral over compact four-geometries without boundaries, summing histories that "emerge from nothing" and avoiding singularities at the Big Bang.^[6] This approach, developed by James Hartle and Stephen Hawking in 1983, treats the early universe in imaginary time as a finite, self-contained manifold resembling the surface of a sphere, with real time emerging only later, providing a quantum mechanical framework for the origin of the cosmos without invoking initial conditions.^[6]

Definition and Foundations

Mathematical Definition

Imaginary time is parameterized by a real variable \tau, obtained by substituting the real time coordinate t with -i \tau, where i = \sqrt{-1}. This substitution extends the time parameter into the complex plane, allowing for a rotation of the temporal axis by 90 degrees counterclockwise.^[7] In this formalism, \tau is real-valued, effectively treating the time dimension as imaginary while preserving the analytic structure of physical theories.^[8] In the complex plane representation, the real time axis aligns with the horizontal direction, and the imaginary time axis, parameterized by real \tau, lies along the vertical imaginary axis. This rotation renders the time coordinate spacelike, transforming the indefinite Minkowski metric into a positive-definite Euclidean metric. The original Minkowski line element,

ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 - dt^2,

under the substitution t = -i \tau (with natural units where c = 1), yields dt = -i d\tau and -dt^2 = -(-i d\tau)^2 = -(-1) d\tau^2 = d\tau^2. Thus, the metric becomes

ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 + d\tau^2,

which describes a flat Euclidean four-dimensional space where \tau functions as an additional spatial dimension.^[9] This transformation ensures all eigenvalues of the metric tensor are positive, facilitating computations that require a well-defined positive-definite inner product.^[10] The validity of this substitution relies on analytic continuation in complex time, where functions of time are extended holomorphically into the complex domain. For path integrals, this involves deforming the integration contour in the complex time plane to the imaginary axis, ensuring the integral converges due to exponential damping rather than oscillation.^[8] Such contour deformations, often implemented via Wick rotation—a counterclockwise rotation of the time contour by \pi/2—bridge real-time dynamics to Euclidean formulations without altering the integral's value, provided no singularities are crossed.^[10]

Relation to Real Time

In real time, spacetime geometry is described by a Lorentzian metric, which has an indefinite signature (typically ds² = -dt² + d\vec{x}² in natural units), leading to hyperbolic trajectories and potential singularities in path integrals due to oscillatory behavior.^[11] By performing a Wick rotation to imaginary time τ = it, the metric transforms to a Euclidean form ds² = dτ² + d\vec{x}², yielding a positive-definite signature that simplifies calculations by ensuring exponential decay in the action rather than oscillations, thus eliminating certain singularities and improving convergence in quantum field theory path integrals. This geometric shift treats time as an additional spatial dimension, fundamentally altering the structure from causal to static. Physically, the transition to imaginary time renders probabilities inherently positive, as the Euclidean action S_E is positive definite, facilitating direct analogies to classical statistical mechanics where amplitudes resemble Boltzmann weights exp(-S_E / \hbar).^[11] However, this comes at the cost of losing causality, since the timelike direction becomes spacelike, preventing the usual light-cone structure and chronological ordering essential for real-time evolution in relativistic theories. These implications make imaginary time particularly useful for equilibrium computations but require careful interpretation when connecting back to observable real-time phenomena. A key example arises in thermal physics, where imaginary time is often compactified on a circle with circumference β = 1/T (in units where k_B = 1 and \hbar = 1, with T the temperature), imposing anti-periodic boundary conditions for fermions and periodic for bosons, which naturally encodes finite-temperature effects through the Matsubara formalism. This periodicity links quantum field correlators in imaginary time to thermal partition functions, enabling the study of systems at nonzero temperature without explicit real-time dynamics. To recover real-time physics, one performs an analytic continuation from imaginary to real time by reversing the Wick rotation (τ → -it), which restores the Lorentzian signature and causality while preserving the computed quantities like Green's functions, provided the continuation is valid in the complex plane.^[11]

Historical Origins

Early Concepts in Quantum Mechanics

The concept of imaginary time emerged in the foundational developments of quantum mechanics during the 1920s and 1930s, particularly through efforts to reconcile quantum theory with relativity and to interpret complex wave functions. Paul Dirac's 1928 relativistic wave equation for the electron introduced a four-component spinor wave function with complex amplitudes, describing particle motion at speeds near light while incorporating spin and antimatter predictions.^[12] This formulation inherently involved complex time evolution via the operator i∂/∂t, laying groundwork for later explorations of time as a complex variable in quantum propagation. In his 1930 hole theory, Dirac interpreted negative-energy solutions as absences in a filled "Dirac sea," positing these holes as positrons with opposite charge, an idea that relied on the complex structure of the wave function to maintain causality and positive probabilities for antimatter particles. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, imaginary time appeared through an analogy between the Schrödinger equation and the classical heat (diffusion) equation. The time-dependent Schrödinger equation,

i \hbar \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial t} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 \psi,

bears formal resemblance to the heat equation

\frac{\partial u}{\partial \tau} = \frac{\hbar}{2m} \nabla^2 u,

where substituting imaginary time \tau = it (or equivalently, Wick-rotating the time coordinate) transforms the oscillatory quantum evolution into a diffusive process that damps high-frequency modes, aiding numerical solutions and conceptual understanding of ground-state properties.^[13] This connection, noted in early analyses of wave function propagation, highlighted imaginary time's role in mapping quantum mechanics onto classical diffusion, with the imaginary unit ensuring unitarity and wave-like interference rather than pure dissipation.^[14] The formal technique of Wick rotation was developed in the 1950s by Gian-Carlo Wick in the context of quantum field theory, where it was used to evaluate Feynman diagrams by rotating the integration contours in the complex plane to improve convergence.^[15] Richard Feynman advanced these ideas in the 1940s with his path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, initially developed in his 1942 doctoral thesis and published in 1948. In this approach, the propagator from initial to final position is expressed as a sum over all possible paths, weighted by the phase factor \exp(iS/\hbar), where S is the classical action. The resulting integrals are highly oscillatory, challenging convergence due to rapid phase variations across paths. Feynman addressed this by introducing a convergence factor, such as replacing \hbar with \hbar(1 - i\delta) for small positive \delta, effectively tilting the contour in the complex plane to damp oscillations— a precursor to full Wick rotation into Euclidean space.^[16] This 1948 paper emphasized the stabilization of such integrals, paving the way for imaginary time in Euclidean path integrals, where real time t \to -i\tau converts the Minkowski metric to Euclidean, improving mathematical tractability and linking quantum amplitudes to statistical mechanics partition functions.^[17]

Development in General Relativity

In the 1970s, Stephen Hawking pioneered the application of imaginary time to general relativity through the development of Euclidean quantum gravity, a framework that reformulates gravitational path integrals over positive-definite metrics to avoid the oscillatory issues of Lorentzian signatures. This approach, building on earlier quantum mechanical techniques like Wick rotation, allowed for the regularization of quantum effects in curved spacetimes by analytically continuing the time coordinate to imaginary values, transforming the Lorentzian metric signature (-,+,+,+) into a Euclidean one (+,+,+,+). Hawking's work emphasized that Euclidean metrics provide a well-defined measure for gravitational path integrals, enabling the computation of partition functions and expectation values in quantum gravity.^[11] A key application emerged in the analysis of black hole thermodynamics, where imaginary time near the event horizon regularizes the geometry, revealing thermal properties. In their 1977 paper, Gibbons and Hawking demonstrated that the Euclidean continuation of the Schwarzschild metric becomes periodic in imaginary time with period β = 8πGM (in natural units where ħ = c = k_B = 1), corresponding to a Hawking temperature T = 1/(8πGM) and enabling the calculation of particle emission rates as blackbody radiation.^[18] This Euclidean method simplified the derivation of black hole evaporation, showing that quantum fields in the near-horizon region exhibit a thermal spectrum as observed by distant detectors, thus bridging quantum field theory in curved spacetime with general relativity. The technique extended Hawking's earlier 1974 announcement of black hole explosions by providing a rigorous path-integral justification for the evaporation process. The transition from Lorentzian to Euclidean signatures facilitated solutions to the Euclidean Einstein equations, yielding gravitational instantons—regular, finite-action configurations that approximate quantum tunneling processes in gravity. Collaborating with Gary Gibbons, Hawking explored these in 1977, computing the Euclidean action for asymptotically flat and anti-de Sitter spacetimes, which governs the probability of instanton-mediated transitions and highlights the role of topology in quantum gravity. Such instantons include wormhole geometries, where Euclidean solutions connect distant regions or multiple universes, as seen in self-dual metrics that satisfy the Euclidean field equations without singularities, providing semiclassical approximations for gravitational pair production or topology changes. In the 1980s, James Hartle extended these ideas in quantum cosmology, co-developing with Hawking the no-boundary proposal for the wave function of the universe. Their 1983 work proposed that the universe's ground-state wave function is obtained by integrating over Euclidean geometries with no boundary in the early universe, effectively replacing the initial singularity with a smooth, hemisphere-like topology in imaginary time. This formulation, using a metric where the scale factor behaves like the radius of a three-sphere, ensures a well-defined path integral without invoking a sharp beginning, attributing the universe's origin to quantum fluctuations in a timeless Euclidean domain that analytically continues to Lorentzian spacetime. Hartle's contributions emphasized the decoherence of the wave function to yield classical probabilities, integrating imaginary time metrics into a consistent quantum mechanical description of general relativity on cosmological scales.^[19]

Applications in Quantum Physics

Path Integrals and Wick Rotation

In quantum field theory, path integrals provide a formulation of quantum mechanics and field theories through summation over all possible field configurations, weighted by the exponential of the action. The Minkowski-space path integral, expressed as Z = \int \mathcal{D}\phi \, e^{i S[\phi]/\hbar}, where S[\phi] = \int d^4x \, \mathcal{L}(M) is the Lorentzian action with metric signature (-,+,+,+), often suffers from oscillatory behavior due to the imaginary unit i, leading to challenges in convergence and evaluation.^[20] Wick rotation addresses this by analytically continuing the time coordinate t to imaginary time \tau = it, effectively rotating the integration contour in the complex plane by 90 degrees counterclockwise. This substitution transforms the oscillatory phase e^{i S} into a convergent exponential e^{-S_E}, where S_E is the Euclidean action obtained by replacing the Minkowski metric with the positive-definite Euclidean metric (+,+,+,+).^[21] For a scalar field, the Minkowski Lagrangian density \mathcal{L}(M) = \frac{1}{2} \partial_\mu \phi \partial^\mu \phi - \frac{1}{2} m^2 \phi^2 becomes the Euclidean form \mathcal{L}(E) = \frac{1}{2} \partial_\mu \phi \partial_\mu \phi + \frac{1}{2} m^2 \phi^2, with the path integral now reading Z = \int \mathcal{D}\phi \, e^{-S_E[\phi]/\hbar} and S_E[\phi] = \int d^4x_E \, \mathcal{L}(E).^[21]^[22] The derivation of Wick rotation originates in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, where the real-time propagator K(x', t; x, 0) = \langle x' | e^{-i H t / \hbar} | x \rangle evolves states forward in time and is expressed as a path integral K = \int \mathcal{D}x(t) \, e^{i S/\hbar}, with S = \int_0^t dt' \left[ \frac{m}{2} \dot{x}^2 - V(x) \right].^[22] To obtain the imaginary-time Green's function, perform the analytic continuation t \to -i\tau, yielding G(x', \tau; x, 0) = \langle x' | e^{-H \tau / \hbar} | x \rangle, which satisfies the Euclidean diffusion equation \partial_\tau G = -\frac{1}{2m} \partial_{x'}^2 G + V(x') G.^[22] The corresponding path integral becomes G = \int \mathcal{D}x(\tau) \, e^{-S_E/\hbar}, with the Euclidean action

S_E = \int_0^\tau d\tau' \left[ \frac{m}{2} \dot{x}^2(\tau') + V(x(\tau')) \right].

This transformation ensures the integrand is real and positive for typical potentials, facilitating convergence, and establishes a direct analogy to the partition function in statistical mechanics at inverse temperature \beta = \tau / \hbar.^[22] In the field-theoretic limit, this extends to Z = \int \mathcal{D}\phi \, e^{-S_E[\phi]/\hbar}, serving as the generating functional for Euclidean correlation functions.^[22] In quantum field theory, Wick-rotated Euclidean path integrals enable practical computations of physical quantities by leveraging the improved analytic properties of the Euclidean framework. The vacuum energy, or ground-state energy, is extracted from the partition function as E_0 = -\lim_{\beta \to \infty} \frac{1}{\beta} \ln Z, where \beta is the temporal extent in Euclidean time, avoiding the ultraviolet divergences and oscillatory issues of Minkowski formulations through regularization techniques like zeta-function methods.^[20] Correlation functions, essential for scattering amplitudes and observables, are generated via functional derivatives of Z[J] = \int \mathcal{D}\phi \, e^{-S_E[\phi]/\hbar + \int J \phi \, d^4x_E}, yielding

\langle \phi(x_1) \cdots \phi(x_n) \rangle = \frac{1}{Z{{grok:render&&&type=render_inline_citation&&&citation_id=0&&&citation_type=wikipedia}}} \left. \frac{\delta^n Z[J]}{\delta J(x_1) \cdots \delta J(x_n)} \right|_{J=0}

.^[20] The two-point Euclidean propagator, for instance, is G_E(x - x') = \int \frac{d^4 p}{(2\pi)^4} \frac{e^{i p \cdot (x - x')}}{p^2 + m^2}, which is positive and Fourier-transformable without branch cuts, facilitating perturbative expansions and lattice discretizations for non-perturbative studies like quantum chromodynamics.^[20] This approach sidesteps the infinities inherent in real-time integrals by ensuring the measure and action yield damped exponentials.^[21] The technique of Wick rotation was developed in the 1950s by Gian-Carlo Wick, who introduced analytic continuations in the context of relativistic quantum mechanics and bound-state problems, earning it his namesake.^[23] Although rooted in earlier path integral ideas from Richard Feynman, its systematic use in quantum field theory gained prominence through Wick's contributions to evaluating collision matrices and propagators via complex-plane deformations.^[23] It was later popularized in gravitational contexts by Stephen Hawking in the 1970s, who applied Euclidean path integrals to quantum cosmology and black hole physics, demonstrating their utility beyond flat-space field theory.

Quantum Tunneling and Instantons

In quantum mechanics, tunneling through a potential barrier is analyzed using the path integral formulation, where rotating to imaginary time via Wick rotation transforms the oscillatory real-time integral into a convergent sum over Euclidean paths dominated by classical solutions known as instantons. These instantons correspond to finite-action configurations in Euclidean space that interpolate between degenerate vacua or metastable states, representing the "bounces" that mediate rare tunneling events.^[24] A foundational example is the BPST instanton, a self-dual solution to the Euclidean equations of motion in SU(2) Yang-Mills theory, discovered in 1975, which describes tunneling between topologically distinct gauge field vacua and has winding number one.^[25] This solution, with its explicit form involving hedgehog-like profiles in four-dimensional Euclidean space, illustrates how imaginary time enables the identification of non-perturbative effects in gauge theories. The semiclassical tunneling rate is derived from the Euclidean path integral, yielding the probability \Gamma \approx e^{-S_E / \hbar}, where S_E is the Euclidean action of the instanton bounce configuration, providing the leading exponential suppression for the decay rate.^[24] In quantum field theory, instantons underpin the decay of a false vacuum, where bubble nucleation via a O(4)-symmetric bounce solution allows transition to the true vacuum; Coleman showed in 1977 that for weakly coupled theories with small energy differences, the thin-wall approximation gives the bounce action S_E = \frac{27 \pi^2 \sigma^4}{2 \epsilon^3}, with \sigma the surface tension and \epsilon the energy density difference.^[24] In particle physics, alpha decay is reformulated through imaginary time paths, where the alpha particle's Euclidean trajectory through the Coulomb barrier yields the decay lifetime via the instanton action, capturing collective nuclear effects in heavy nuclei like uranium.^[26] Semiconductor band tunneling, such as interband transitions in periodic lattices under bias, employs imaginary time propagators in the path integral to compute Bloch state overlaps across forbidden gaps, as demonstrated for Landau-Zener-like processes where the rate depends on the Euclidean action along crystal momentum paths.^[27]

Applications in Cosmology and Gravity

Hawking's Cosmological Models

In the Hartle-Hawking no-boundary proposal, introduced in 1983, imaginary time plays a central role in defining the quantum state of the universe without an initial singularity. The wave function of the universe is given by a path integral over Euclidean metrics and matter fields that match a specified three-geometry on a spacelike hypersurface, formulated as

\Psi[h, \phi] = \int \mathcal{D}[h, \phi] \, e^{-I_E[h, \phi]},

where h is the three-metric, \phi represents matter fields such as a scalar field, and I_E is the Euclidean action for gravity and matter. By performing a Wick rotation to imaginary time, the Lorentzian spacetime is analytically continued to a Euclidean geometry, compactifying the imaginary time coordinate into a finite, closed surface resembling the sphere S^4. This construction imposes no-boundary conditions at the "origin," effectively smoothing out the Big Bang singularity and providing a regular ground state for the universe. This proposal derives from the Wheeler-DeWitt equation, the quantum constraint in canonical quantum gravity that governs the wave function of the universe without an external time parameter. The no-boundary wave function emerges as a solution to this timeless equation by integrating over Euclidean histories with vanishing lapse function near the initial hypersurface, where imaginary time regularizes divergences and selects the lowest-energy, singularity-free configurations. In this framework, the use of imaginary time avoids the need for ad hoc boundary conditions at t = 0, instead yielding a unique ground state that approximates de Sitter space for universes dominated by a positive cosmological constant. Hawking extended the application of imaginary time to inflationary cosmology, particularly in de Sitter space, to compute nucleation rates for bubble universes arising from quantum tunneling. In the Euclidean approach, instantons describe the tunneling probability from a false vacuum, with the bounce action determining the rate \Gamma \propto e^{-S_E}, where S_E is the Euclidean action of the instanton solution.^[28] For supercooled phase transitions in the early universe, Hawking and Moss identified O(4)-symmetric instantons in de Sitter geometry, enabling the calculation of decay rates that initiate inflation within bubble regions, thus linking quantum origins to the observed large-scale structure.^[28] Hawking popularized these ideas in his 1988 book A Brief History of Time, describing the universe in imaginary time as a finite, boundary-free sphere where the "south pole" represents the Big Bang without edge or singularity, making the cosmos self-contained like the surface of the Earth. This analogy emphasized how imaginary time resolves the question of "what happened before the Big Bang" by eliminating a beginning in the classical sense.

Black Hole Thermodynamics

In the context of black hole physics, imaginary time provides a powerful framework for deriving thermodynamic properties, particularly through the Euclidean continuation of the Schwarzschild metric. Near the horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole, the spacetime exhibits a periodicity in imaginary time to ensure regularity and avoid conical singularities. Specifically, the Euclidean metric takes the form

ds^2 = \left(1 - \frac{2GM}{r c^2}\right) d\tau^2 + \frac{dr^2}{\left(1 - \frac{2GM}{r c^2}\right)} + r^2 d\Omega^2,

where \tau = it is the imaginary time coordinate, and it must be periodic with period \beta = \frac{8\pi G M}{\hbar c^3} to smooth the geometry at the horizon.^[29] This periodicity arises naturally from the requirement that the Euclidean action yields a well-defined partition function, interpreting the black hole as a thermal system in equilibrium.^[29] This approach underpins the derivation of Hawking radiation, first proposed in 1974 and detailed in 1975, where quantum fields in the near-horizon region lead to particle creation as if the black hole emits thermal radiation. The imaginary time periodicity \beta directly corresponds to the inverse temperature, yielding the Hawking temperature T = \frac{[\hbar](/page/H-bar) c^3}{8\pi G M k_B}, where M is the black hole mass, G the gravitational constant, \hbar the reduced Planck's constant, c the speed of light, and k_B Boltzmann's constant.^[30] This temperature scales inversely with mass, implying that smaller black holes radiate more intensely, resolving classical paradoxes by allowing black holes to evaporate over cosmic timescales.^[30] The thermodynamic interpretation extends to entropy, where the Bekenstein-Hawking formula S = \frac{k_B c^3 A}{4 \hbar G} emerges from evaluating the imaginary time path integral over gravitational configurations, with A = 4\pi (2 G M / c^2)^2 the event horizon area. This entropy counts the microstates consistent with the macroscopic horizon geometry, providing a statistical mechanics foundation for black hole thermodynamics.^[29]^[30] An analogous effect appears in the Unruh temperature for uniformly accelerated observers in flat spacetime, where imaginary time periodicity mimics the black hole horizon, producing a thermal bath at T = \frac{\hbar a}{2\pi k_B c} with acceleration a. This equivalence highlights how imaginary time unifies acceleration-induced and gravitational thermal effects.^[31]

Interpretations and Criticisms

Physical Interpretations

In the context of quantum field theory and gravity, imaginary time facilitates a Wick rotation that transforms the Lorentzian metric of spacetime, with its indefinite signature, into a Euclidean metric where all dimensions have positive definite signatures. This shift is often interpreted instrumentally as a purely mathematical convenience, enabling the convergence of path integrals that would otherwise oscillate wildly in real time, without implying that Euclidean geometry describes physical reality. However, a more realist perspective posits imaginary time as ontologically significant, particularly in approaches to quantum gravity where Euclidean formulations may represent fundamental aspects of the theory, such as in causal dynamical triangulations that recover Lorentzian physics from underlying Euclidean structures. A key physical interpretation arises from the thermodynamic analogy, where compactified imaginary time, with periodicity \beta = 1/T, directly corresponds to the inverse temperature T of a thermal ensemble. This equivalence links the quantum vacuum fluctuations in curved spacetime to thermal states, as demonstrated in the Euclidean path integral formulation for fields near black holes and in de Sitter space, where the periodicity enforces a natural Hawking temperature without invoking real-time acceleration. In quantum gravity applications, this interpretation extends to smoothing out Lorentzian singularities; for instance, the Big Bang singularity in real time is replaced by a regular Euclidean geometry, suggesting an early universe governed more by geometric constraints than causal breakdown. Philosophically, the use of imaginary time raises questions about the nature of temporality, implying a block universe in which past, present, and future coexist on equal footing with spatial dimensions, akin to eternalism in relativity. This view aligns with broader quantum foundations where physical reality emerges from informational structures, echoing Wheeler's "it from bit" conjecture that the universe's fabric derives from binary yes/no propositions at its core. In string theory dualities, such as those involving Euclidean worldsheets or T-duality mappings, imaginary time further underscores this realist ontology by equating seemingly distinct Lorentzian geometries through shared Euclidean continuations, hinting at a deeper, signature-independent reality.^[32]

Limitations and Debates

One significant mathematical challenge in the use of imaginary time arises from the breakdown of analytic continuation when transitioning back to Lorentzian signatures, particularly at boundaries such as the Cauchy horizon in charged black holes. In these spacetimes, the Euclidean continuation via Wick rotation fails to smoothly map to the full Lorentzian geometry, leading to instabilities and divergences in the quantum fields near the inner horizon. For instance, constructing regular quantum states on the Cauchy horizon requires a double analytic continuation from a negative definite metric, but this process often encounters singularities that prevent a unique or stable extension to real-time observables.^[33] Physically, Euclidean formulations of quantum gravity, which rely on imaginary time, face criticisms for violating causality and unitarity. The absence of a real-time direction in Euclidean space eliminates light-cone structures, rendering causal ordering ill-defined and incompatible with Lorentz invariance essential for particle physics. Moreover, the indefinite metric in Lorentzian signatures is replaced by a positive definite one in Euclidean approaches, which can lead to loss of unitarity through negative probabilities in non-perturbative regimes. In the context of black hole physics, critiques from string theory have highlighted debates over the observer-dependence of Hawking's temperature, arguing that the Euclidean derivation assumes a static, eternal geometry that may not hold for dynamical or accelerated observers, potentially altering the perceived thermal spectrum.^[34]^[35]^[36] Alternative formulations seek to address these issues by favoring Lorentzian path integrals over Euclidean ones. In the 1980s, Richard Feynman explored real-time path integrals for quantum gravity, emphasizing their direct computation of Lorentzian correlators without Wick rotation, though these suffer from oscillatory divergences unlike the convergent Euclidean versions. This contrast underscores a broader debate: Euclidean methods dominate in semiclassical approximations due to better ultraviolet behavior, but Lorentzian integrals preserve causality and are inequivalent in full quantum gravity, as demonstrated by discrete lattice models showing mismatched partition functions. In holographic contexts like AdS/CFT, the correspondence primarily employs real-time Lorentzian dynamics on the boundary CFT, with imaginary time limited to thermal or initial-state preparations rather than core real-time evolution.^[37]^[38] As of 2025, imaginary time remains theoretically influential but lacks direct experimental verification, with limited tests confined to analog systems like light propagation in metamaterials exhibiting Wick-rotated behaviors. Indirect support emerges in cosmology, where imaginary time models predict features in cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies consistent with observed power spectra, such as the cosmological constant's magnitude tied to boundary conditions in Euclidean de Sitter space. However, no direct probes exist, and approaches like loop quantum gravity reject imaginary time altogether, treating it as an emergent artifact rather than fundamental, in favor of discrete, real-time spin networks that resolve singularities without analytic continuation.^[39]^[40]

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The answer we propose is that D-branes in imaginary time define purely closed string backgrounds. In particular we prove that the disk scattering amplitude of ...
[31]
Regular quantum states on the Cauchy horizon of a charged black ...
We construct the quantum state by considering the two-point function on a negative definite metric obtained by a double analytic continuation from the ...Missing: breakdown imaginary time boundaries
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[2206.04072] Causality, unitarity and stability in quantum gravity
Jun 8, 2022 · In this work we present criteria and conditions for the momentum dependence of a graviton propagator which is consistent with unitarity, causality, and ...Missing: Euclidean | Show results with:Euclidean
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Causality, unitarity and stability in quantum gravity: a non ...
Sep 20, 2022 · In this work we present criteria and conditions for the momentum dependence of a graviton propagator which is consistent with unitarity, causality, and ...Missing: loss formulations
[34]
[PDF] Exploring the Unitarity of Renormalizable Quantum Gravity Theories
Jan 9, 2019 · The negative probabilities are responsible for the loss of unitarity, which we know to be a very important feature of a proper quantum field ...
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[PDF] Euclidean vs. Lorentzian quantum gravity - KITP Online Talks
Jan 14, 2020 · In gravity the low-energy Euclidean and Lorentzian path integrals are inequivalent. The former knows more about the UV completion, but to ...Missing: Feynman 1980s
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Real time holography for higher spin theories
Mar 29, 2024 · We obtain a specific map between the field configurations of these two theories in real time, so called Lorentzian AdS/CFT map. We conclude ...
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Physicists Catch Light in 'Imaginary Time' in Scientific First
Jun 30, 2025 · For the first time, researchers have seen how light behaves during a mysterious phenomenon called 'imaginary time'.Missing: tests | Show results with:tests
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On imaginary time - MathOverflow
Jul 18, 2022 · The modern understanding is that time is emergent, not "imaginary". Loop-quantum-gravity is one theory that attempts to formalize this.