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Inscrutability of reference

The inscrutability of reference is a thesis in the philosophy of language, advanced by Willard Van Orman Quine, asserting that there is no determinate fact of the matter regarding what individual words or subsentential expressions refer to, even when all available behavioral and empirical evidence is considered, because multiple incompatible reference schemes can yield identical truth values for sentences.^[1] This indeterminacy arises from the underdetermination of translation and interpretation by linguistic data, challenging the idea of fixed semantic content at the level of reference.^[2] Quine introduced the doctrine in his 1960 book Word and Object, particularly in Chapter II, where he argues that reference cannot be pinned down through observation of speech dispositions alone.^[1] A central example is the "gavagai" thought experiment: upon a native uttering "gavagai" while pointing at a rabbit, the linguist cannot empirically distinguish whether the term refers to a whole rabbit, a temporal stage of a rabbit, undetached rabbit parts, or even manifestations of a rabbit-rabbit.^[1] Quine extends this to intra-linguistic cases, showing that even for speakers of the same language, reference remains inscrutable without a fixed background framework, as in reinterpreting "rabbits are escaping" to involve rabbit-stages with compensatory adjustments.^[2] He further elaborates on referential relativity in Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (1969), emphasizing that reference is always relative to a background language or theory, which provides a provisional anchor but does not resolve the underlying indeterminacy.^[2] The thesis has profound implications for semantics, ontology, and epistemology, undermining mentalist accounts of meaning that assume direct word-world connections and suggesting philosophical modesty about metaphysical commitments, as ontological disputes may dissolve into mere differences in reference schemes.^[3] It distinguishes between the inscrutability of reference (a metaphysical claim about indeterminacy) and the scrutability of truth (where sentence truth values remain determinate despite referential flux), as multiple reference assignments can preserve overall truth conditions.^[4] Responses include David Lewis's eligibility constraint, which favors "natural" properties to select standard interpretations over gerrymandered ones, and supervaluationist approaches that assign partial truth to sentences under rival schemes.^[3] Despite these, the doctrine continues to influence debates on interpretationism, vagueness, and the nature of linguistic understanding.^[3]

Background and Origins

Quine's Philosophical Framework

W.V.O. Quine's philosophical framework, which underpins the inscrutability of reference, begins with his seminal critique of the analytic-synthetic distinction in his 1951 essay "Two Dogmas of Empiricism." Quine argued that the traditional empiricist divide between statements true by virtue of meaning alone (analytic) and those true by empirical fact (synthetic) is untenable, as no clear criterion exists to demarcate them without circularity or reliance on unclarified notions like synonymy.^[5] This rejection exposes the interconnectedness of all statements within a scientific theory, leading to the Duhem-Quine thesis of underdetermination, whereby empirical evidence alone cannot uniquely fix a theory but leaves room for multiple empirically equivalent alternatives.^[5] Central to Quine's approach is his advocacy for naturalized epistemology, articulated in his 1969 paper "Epistemology Naturalized," where he posits that epistemology should be reconceived as a branch of empirical psychology rather than a foundational discipline seeking a priori justification for science. In this view, philosophy is continuous with natural science, investigating how sensory inputs shape theoretical beliefs through psychological and neurophysiological processes.^[6] Quine emphasized that even observation sentences, often seen as neutral and theory-free, are laden with theoretical content, shaped by the holistic web of beliefs in which they occur.^[6] Quine's ideas were shaped by historical influences, including B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, which informed his commitment to explaining linguistic and cognitive phenomena through observable stimuli and responses without invoking mental states, and Rudolf Carnap's logical positivism, encountered during Quine's 1930s studies in Prague.^[7] However, Quine critiqued the reductionism inherent in both, rejecting Skinner's strict stimulus-response mechanisms as overly simplistic for complex scientific theorizing and Carnap's program of reducing meaningful statements to verifiable observations as untenable post-"Two Dogmas."^[5] A pivotal development in the 1950s was Quine's shift from Carnap's distinction between internal questions (resolved within a linguistic framework) and external questions (pragmatic choices about frameworks), as outlined in Carnap's 1950 "Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology." Quine reframed this as ontological relativity, arguing that existential commitments depend on the choice of an overall theory or background language, rendering ontology relative rather than absolute.^[8] This perspective aligns with broader Quinean themes, such as the indeterminacy of translation, but underscores the holistic and naturalistic foundations essential for inscrutability.

Introduction in Key Works

The concept of the inscrutability of reference first emerged in Willard Van Orman Quine's Word and Object (1960), particularly in Chapter 2, where it is presented as arising from the limitations of behavioral evidence in determining translation. Quine argues that linguistic meaning is gleaned solely from overt behavior in observable circumstances, making it impossible to fix reference uniquely based on stimulus meanings alone.^[9] For instance, in the famous "gavagai" scenario, a native's utterance of "gavagai" upon seeing a rabbit could be translated as referring to a rabbit, an undetached rabbit part, or a rabbit stage, with no behavioral data to adjudicate between these options, as sameness of stimulus meaning proves insufficient even in straightforward cases.^[10] This formulation underscores that inscrutability is inherent to the radical translation project, where manuals of translation remain empirically equivalent yet divergent in referential assignments.^[9] Quine refined this idea in his 1968 essay "Ontological Relativity," published in the collection Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (1969), extending inscrutability from interlinguistic translation to reference within one's own language through the mechanism of proxy functions. He contends that reference proves "behaviorally inscrutable," as any theory's objects can be systematically permuted via a proxy function—a one-to-one transformation that reinterprets terms while preserving the theory's empirical content and logical structure.^[11] This relativity applies domestically: "We can reproduce the inscrutability of reference at home," Quine writes, noting that distinctions like rabbits versus rabbit stages depend on an arbitrary background language, rendering absolute reference indeterminate even for familiar discourse.^[11] Proxy functions thus highlight that referential assignments are coordinate-dependent, not tied directly to extra-linguistic reality.^[12] In later work, such as Theories and Things (1981), Quine emphasizes the universal scope of behavioral inscrutability, applying it across all theoretical contexts without exception. He reiterates that evidence from sensory stimulations and logical interconnections supports multiple reinterpretations equally, as proxy functions allow drastic shifts in ontology while maintaining theoretical equivalence.^[13] This underscores the thesis's broad implications for semantics, where reference remains opaque regardless of the linguistic or theoretical framework.^[13] Quine further clarified the doctrine in his 1971 paper "The Inscrutability of Reference," reprinted in Semantics: An Interdisciplinary Reader in Philosophy, Linguistics, and Psychology, framing it explicitly as a semantic thesis rather than merely a translational one.^[14] Here, he stresses that referential force cannot be determined absolutely, even intra-linguistically, due to the relativity of reference to a background apparatus, challenging any mentalistic or object-direct account of meaning. This semantic emphasis solidifies inscrutability as a foundational challenge to determinate reference in natural language.^[14]

Core Concept

Definition and Key Principles

The inscrutability of reference, as articulated by W.V.O. Quine, refers to the indeterminacy in determining how linguistic terms map onto objects in the world, such that behavioral evidence alone fails to uniquely fix referential relations. This underdetermination arises because multiple manuals of translation can be empirically equivalent, each compatible with the totality of speech dispositions yet diverging in their assignments of reference to specific terms.^[15] In Quine's framework, reference is not discernible through isolated word-object correlations but emerges holistically from the interconnected fabric of sentences, where confirmation depends on the overall theory rather than individual predicates.^[15] A core principle is the intra-linguistic inscrutability of reference, which extends the indeterminacy beyond translation between languages to one's own native tongue. Even within a single language, terms can be reinterpreted through proxy functions that preserve sentence-level truth values while altering ontological commitments, rendering reference relative to the adopted background theory.^[15]^[16] This relativity underscores Quine's holism, wherein the meaning of sentences is confirmed as a corporate body against sensory evidence, precluding a unique pairing of predicates with classes of objects.^[15] Central to this doctrine is the concept of behavioral equivalence, where translations are indistinguishable if they yield the same stimulus meanings—defined as patterns of stimulation that prompt affirmative or negative responses from speakers. Stimulus meanings, being public and intersubjectively accessible, provide the evidential basis for interpretation but cannot resolve ambiguities in reference, as they fail to differentiate between potential referents without additional theoretical assumptions.^[15] Thus, the inscrutability highlights the limits of empirical scrutiny in semantics, emphasizing that referential relations are inscrutable precisely because they transcend observable behavioral cues.^[15]

Relation to Indeterminacy of Translation

The indeterminacy of translation, as articulated by W. V. Quine, posits that there is no fact of the matter regarding the correct translation of one language into another, owing to the underdetermination of translation by all available linguistic and behavioral evidence. In Chapter 2 of Word and Object, Quine illustrates this through the scenario of radical translation, where a linguist's manual for rendering a foreign language must rely solely on observable speech dispositions and stimulus meanings, yet multiple manuals can be empirically equivalent while yielding incompatible translations of the same expressions. For instance, rival systems of analytical hypotheses—postulates that link foreign terms to native ones—can perfectly accommodate the totality of speech behavior but diverge in their assignments, rendering translation indeterminate beyond observation sentences.^[15] This indeterminacy directly implies the inscrutability of reference, as translation manuals are the mechanisms that assign referential relations to terms, yet their underdetermination extends to those very assignments. If no unique manual exists, then the objects or entities to which terms refer cannot be uniquely fixed by evidence, making reference inscrutable in the sense that it admits of multiple, behaviorally indistinguishable interpretations. Quine extends this to one's native language, arguing against the possibility of a private language; since meaning and reference are public and holistically constrained by shared behavioral evidence, the inscrutability that afflicts inter-linguistic translation applies equally from an intra-linguistic viewpoint, where alternative manuals for our own terms remain compatible with all dispositions to speech.^[15] In his 1968 essay "Ontological Relativity," Quine further elaborates that this inscrutability holds robustly within a single language, rendering ontology relative to the choice of background framework.^[17] He contends that questions of what terms refer to—such as whether "rabbit" denotes whole rabbits or mere temporal stages thereof—are meaningless in isolation, as reference is only coherent relative to a coordinate system or background language; without such relativity, the notion of absolute reference dissolves into nonsense. This intra-linguistic application underscores how inscrutability permeates even our ontological commitments, as proxy functions can reassign references (e.g., mapping rabbits to undetached rabbit parts) while preserving behavioral equivalence across the theory.^[16]^[17] Unlike mere lexical ambiguity, where terms admit multiple senses resolvable by context or further evidence, the inscrutability of reference is radically underdetermined, permitting wildly gerrymandered ontologies—such as construing everyday objects as arbitrary fusions of parts or stages—that exhibit no behavioral or evidential difference from standard ones. This distinction highlights the thesis's challenge to referential realism, as the underdetermination arises not from incomplete data but from the holistic and public nature of language itself.^[15]

Illustrations and Examples

The Gavagai Scenario

The Gavagai scenario, introduced by Willard Van Orman Quine in his 1960 book Word and Object, serves as a pivotal thought experiment illustrating the inscrutability of reference through the challenges of radical translation.^[15] In this setup, a field linguist encounters a native speaker in a remote linguistic community who utters the word "gavagai" upon the appearance of a rabbit in the vicinity.^[15] The linguist, lacking any prior knowledge of the language, must infer the term's meaning based solely on observable behavioral responses and environmental stimuli, such as the native's assent to the utterance in the presence of the rabbit and dissent in its absence.^[15] Initially, the linguist might hypothesize a straightforward translation like "Lo, a rabbit," equating "gavagai" with the whole, enduring animal.^[18] However, Quine argues that this translation is far from uniquely determined, as numerous alternative interpretations fit the same empirical evidence equally well.^[15] For instance, "gavagai" could refer to a temporal stage of a rabbit—such as a fleeting moment in the animal's existence—rather than the complete entity; or it might denote an undetached spatial part of the rabbit, like its ear or tail, without implying the whole.^[15] Other possibilities include "manifestation of rabbithood" or even a fusion of all rabbits past, present, and future, each yielding observationally equivalent sentences that prompt identical assents or dissents from the native under comparable stimulus conditions.^[18] These rivals are said to be stimulus-synonymous, meaning they share the same afferent stimulus meaning—the pattern of sensory inputs that triggers the verbal response—without any observable difference in the native's behavior to adjudicate between them.^[15] The inscrutability arises precisely because no empirical or behavioral test can resolve which interpretation is correct, as all alternatives are empirically indistinguishable and compatible with the totality of the native's speech dispositions.^[15] Quine emphasizes that translation hinges on holistic analytical hypotheses about the entire language, but even these cannot fix reference beyond stimulus equivalence, leading to underdetermination in what "gavagai" denotes.^[15] This ambiguity extends to ontological implications, revealing how the scenario underscores the underdetermination of our conceptual scheme: the choice between referencing wholes, parts, stages, or fusions remains inscrutable, with no fact of the matter discernible from behavioral evidence alone.^[18] As part of Quine's broader thesis on the indeterminacy of translation, the Gavagai example demonstrates that reference is not pinned down by observation but is instead relative to untestable assumptions about the world's structure.^[15]

Proxy Functions and Relativity

In his essay "Ontological Relativity," Quine introduces proxy functions as one-to-one mappings that allow for the reduction of one ontology to another by assigning a unique proxy object to each original object, thereby preserving the truth values of all sentences in the theory.^[17] These functions demonstrate the inscrutability of reference by showing how terms can be reassigned to entirely different entities—such as shifting from whole objects to their parts or stages—without altering the empirical content or behavioral evidence supporting the theory.^[17] Quine illustrates this with adaptations of the "gavagai" scenario, where a term like "rabbit" could be mapped via a proxy function to "undetached rabbit parts" or "rabbit stages," with corresponding adjustments to predicates and logical structure ensuring the overall theory remains empirically equivalent.^[17] For instance, a bijection pairs each rabbit with a spatio-temporally coincident bundle of its parts, redistributing reference while maintaining truth conditions for sentences like "There is a rabbit here."^[19] This redistribution highlights that reference is not fixed by observation alone but depends on the choice of interpretive framework. The application of proxy functions underscores ontological relativity, Quine's thesis that what a theory commits to as existing—what its objects are—makes sense only relative to a background theory or conceptual scheme, with no absolute, theory-independent fact of the matter.^[17] As Quine states, "It makes no sense to say what the objects of a theory are, beyond saying how to interpret or reinterpret that theory in another."^[17] Thus, proxy functions render reference behaviorally inscrutable, as multiple proxy-based reinterpretations yield indistinguishable theories from the standpoint of evidence.^[17]

Interpretations

Anti-Realist Perspectives

Anti-realist philosophers interpret Quine's doctrine of the inscrutability of reference as a direct challenge to metaphysical realism, the view that terms in our language refer to a mind-independent reality in a unique and determinate way.^[20] According to this perspective, the multiple empirically equivalent ways of assigning reference—such as in the "gavagai" example, where a term could refer to a rabbit, its temporal stages, or its undetached parts—demonstrate that reference is not fixed by an external world but is instead conventional and relative to our theoretical framework.^[20] This indeterminacy undermines the realist's assumption of a privileged, objective correspondence between language and reality, suggesting instead that referential relations are imposed by speakers through shared linguistic practices rather than discovered in the world.^[20] Quine's nominalism further aligns with this anti-realist stance, as the inscrutability of reference supports ontological parsimony by justifying a preference for concrete sets or physical objects over abstract entities whenever possible. In Quine's view, since reference lacks a unique behavioral or evidential anchor, commitments to abstracta like numbers or properties become optional heuristics for systematizing experience, rather than necessities dictated by reality itself. This approach favors a sparse ontology grounded in scientific utility, where inscrutability allows philosophers to avoid positing mind-independent abstract references, thereby endorsing a form of nominalism that prioritizes explanatory economy. In his early work influenced by Quine, Hilary Putnam drew on the inscrutability of reference to argue against bivalent truth, the realist notion that sentences are determinately true or false independently of conceptual schemes.^[21] Putnam extended Quine's ideas through model-theoretic considerations, showing that even an ideal theory could permit multiple satisfaction relations, rendering unique reference and thus bivalent truth untenable under metaphysical realism.^[21] This interpretation implies that semantics must be understood as holistic and pragmatic, centered on coherence within a linguistic community and practical efficacy, rather than a direct correspondence to an external domain.^[20] Proxy functions, which reassign references while preserving truth values, serve as a brief illustration of this conventionality in Quine's framework.

Realist Counterarguments

Realists have responded to Quine's thesis of the inscrutability of reference by arguing that it does not necessarily undermine the objectivity of reference or truth, often critiquing the assumptions underlying Quine's radical translation scenarios. Donald Davidson, in his analysis of radical interpretation, contends that Quine's inscrutability arises from a faulty model of translation that treats reference in isolation, whereas the principle of charity—interpreting speakers as largely rational and holding beliefs largely true—allows reference to be fixed holistically through a comprehensive theory of meaning grounded in shared evidence and truth conditions.^[18] Davidson accepts a form of inscrutability at the level of isolated terms but maintains that it poses no threat to realism, as alternative reference schemes (such as proxy functions) yield equivalent overall interpretations when constrained by charity and empirical evidence from speech dispositions. Crispin Wright offers another realist rebuttal by distinguishing Quine's inscrutability of reference from broader indeterminacy of translation, allowing the former as a feature of underdetermined ontological commitments while preserving the assertibility conditions of statements as objectively constrained. In his 1992 book Truth and Objectivity, Wright argues that Quine's thesis primarily affects ontology—such as commitments to entities like rabbits in the gavagai scenario—but leaves intact the realist's ability to assert truths based on superassertibility and cognitive command, where disputes are resolvable through rational methods independent of inscrutability.^[22]^[23] This framework permits multiple reference manuals but upholds objective truth by tying it to minimal factual equivalence rather than unique referential fixes.^[22] In post-2000 analytic philosophy, some realists further limit the scope of Quine's inscrutability, viewing it as confined to artificial radical translation contexts rather than pervasive in everyday reference, where shared linguistic practices and contextual evidence provide sufficient determinacy for objective communication.^[18]

Applications

Connection to Sorites Paradox

The Sorites paradox illustrates the challenge of vague predicates, exemplified by the scenario where a heap of sand gradually loses individual grains yet seemingly remains a heap throughout the process, raising the question of when, if ever, it ceases to qualify as such.^[24] This paradox highlights the absence of a determinate boundary for terms like "heap," where no single grain removal triggers a clear transition from heap to non-heap.^[24] Some interpreters have drawn analogies between Quine's inscrutability of reference and the Sorites paradox, suggesting that the indeterminacy of reference for vague predicates contributes to their lack of sharply defined boundaries, akin to how multiple translation manuals fit the same behavioral data. Quine's ideas on ontological relativity, as explored in his 1969 collection, indirectly inform such applications by emphasizing how reference is relative and inscrutable across holistic linguistic systems, extending to the fuzzy edges of natural language predicates.^[12] This perspective supports non-bivalent approaches to vagueness, such as supervaluationism, which treats borderline cases as semantically undecided without committing to a unique referent, or degree theories like fuzzy logic, which model truth values along a continuum to accommodate gradual shifts without paradox-inducing thresholds.^[24] By viewing vagueness in terms of referential indeterminacy, these theories aim to address the sorites challenge without positing hidden sharp boundaries.

Implications for Semantics

The inscrutability of reference fundamentally challenges referential semantics, particularly direct reference theories like those proposed by Saul Kripke, which assume a determinate, causal connection between linguistic expressions and their worldly referents. Quine's argument demonstrates that no unique assignment of referents to terms is empirically justified, rendering such direct links indeterminate and favoring instead use-based or inferential semantics that emphasize holistic linguistic practice over isolated word-world correspondences.^[25] Epistemologically, the thesis entails that definitive knowledge of reference for individual terms is impossible, as all evidence—behavioral, observational, or otherwise—permits multiple incompatible referential schemes without behavioral distinction. Semantic evaluation thus shifts to the sentence level, where truth is assessed holistically rather than through purported sub-sentential links to the world, preserving empirical adequacy while abandoning the pursuit of referential facts.^[4]^[26] This view has shaped post-Quinean semantics, exemplified by Donald Davidson's truth-conditional framework in the 1980s, which integrates inscrutability by constructing Tarskian theories of truth for entire sentences, thereby sidestepping term-level indeterminacy while maintaining that translation remains determinate at the level of truth conditions.^[27] More broadly, inscrutability underpins ontological pluralism, implying no canonical ontology or privileged domain of discourse exists, as alternative referential assignments yield equally valid but ontologically divergent interpretations of the same evidence.

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