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Intention tremor

Intention tremor is a type of tremor characterized by involuntary, rhythmic, high-amplitude oscillations of a body part that occur during purposeful, voluntary movements, intensifying as the movement nears its intended target.^[1] This type of kinetic tremor, distinct from resting or postural tremors, primarily arises from dysfunction in the cerebellum or its outflow pathways, leading to impaired motor coordination and precision.^[2] It most commonly affects the upper limbs but can involve other areas such as the head, trunk, or lower extremities, and is often observed in conditions like multiple sclerosis, where it contributes to difficulties in daily activities.^[3] The underlying causes of intention tremor are diverse and typically linked to cerebellar pathology, with multiple sclerosis being the most frequent etiology due to its demyelinating effects on neural pathways.^[1] Other notable causes include vascular events such as cerebellar infarcts, toxic exposures like chronic alcohol use or heavy metals, hereditary disorders such as Wilson disease, and iatrogenic factors from medications like phenytoin.^[2] Less commonly, it may stem from traumatic brain injury, tumors, or metabolic conditions, though physiological triggers like anxiety or fatigue can exacerbate milder forms.^[3] The mechanism involves disrupted cerebellar feedback loops that normally fine-tune motor commands, resulting in overshooting or oscillatory errors during targeted actions.^[1] Symptoms extend beyond the tremor itself and often include associated cerebellar signs such as dysmetria (inaccurate movement amplitude), gait ataxia, nystagmus, and reduced muscle tone, which collectively impair hand-eye coordination and balance.^[2] Patients may experience challenges with tasks like eating, writing, or walking, and in severe cases, the tremor can affect speech or swallowing.^[3] Diagnosis relies on clinical observation through maneuvers like the finger-to-nose or heel-to-shin tests, supplemented by neuroimaging such as MRI to identify structural lesions, and targeted laboratory tests to pinpoint etiological factors.^[1] Treatment focuses on addressing the root cause, with supportive measures including physical and occupational therapy to improve function, and pharmacological options like isoniazid for specific cases such as multiple sclerosis-related tremors.^[2] In refractory instances, interventions such as deep brain stimulation targeting the thalamic nuclei may be considered, though outcomes vary based on the underlying pathology.^[1] Early intervention is crucial to mitigate progression and enhance quality of life.^[3]

Clinical Features

Signs and Symptoms

Intention tremor is characterized by a rhythmic, involuntary oscillation of a body part that emerges during voluntary, goal-directed movements and intensifies in amplitude as the target is approached.^[4]^[2] It typically manifests in the upper limbs, such as the hands or arms, but can also affect the lower limbs, head, or voice, resulting in shaky speech.^[4]^[5] Unlike resting tremors, it is absent when the body is at rest and does not occur during sustained postures, distinguishing it as a kinetic tremor.^[2]^[6] The tremor exhibits a low frequency, generally ranging from 3 to 5 Hz, with movements often appearing as coarse, zigzag deviations rather than fine shaking.^[5] Its amplitude peaks at the end of the movement, near the intended target, and the oscillation may cease once the action is completed.^[4]^[2] Associated cerebellar signs frequently accompany intention tremor, including dysmetria (overshooting or undershooting targets), limb or gait ataxia (uncoordinated walking or movements), nystagmus (involuntary eye oscillations), scanning dysarthria (slow, explosive speech), and hypotonia (reduced muscle tone).^[4]^[2]^[5] Functionally, intention tremor impairs precise, visually guided tasks, leading to difficulties in activities of daily living such as writing, buttoning clothes, eating with utensils, or drinking from a cup without spilling.^[4]^[2]^[6] These challenges can extend to broader coordination issues, like rapid alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia) or heel-to-shin testing in the legs.^[4]^[5] The presentation may begin unilaterally in cases of focal lesions but often becomes bilateral in progressive degenerative conditions, with symptoms fluctuating in severity due to factors like fatigue or emotional stress.^[4]^[6] Over time, worsening tremor can significantly disrupt independence and contribute to emotional distress, such as anxiety from social embarrassment.^[4]^[6]

Differential Diagnosis

Intention tremor must be differentiated from other tremor types based on activation conditions, frequency, amplitude progression, and associated neurological signs. Resting tremor, characteristic of Parkinson's disease, occurs when the affected body part is at rest and typically diminishes or disappears with voluntary movement, exhibiting a frequency of 4-6 Hz and often presenting unilaterally with rigidity and bradykinesia.^[7]^[8] In contrast, intention tremor emerges or worsens specifically during goal-directed movements, particularly as the target is approached, and is usually absent at rest.^[1]^[9] Postural and kinetic tremors, such as those seen in essential tremor, are prominent during maintenance of posture against gravity or at the initiation of action but show less pronounced worsening toward the endpoint compared to intention tremor, with a broader frequency range of 4-12 Hz and often bilateral involvement affecting the hands and head.^[7]^[8] Essential tremor may coexist with intention components in up to 38.5% of cases, particularly with disease duration exceeding 20 years, but lacks the cerebellar signs like dysmetria that accompany true intention tremor.^[1] Non-cerebellar intention-like tremors, such as rubral tremor from midbrain lesions, combine elements of rest, postural, and intention components with a low frequency below 5 Hz and are distinguished by their origin in the red nucleus rather than pure cerebellar pathways.^[8]^[9] Mimics of intention tremor include metabolic disturbances like hyperthyroidism, which produce enhanced physiologic tremors at 8-12 Hz that are bilateral and reversible with treatment, often without progression toward targets.^[7]^[9] Drug-induced tremors, such as those from lithium or anticonvulsants like phenytoin, typically manifest as postural types at around 7 Hz and are identified through medication history review.^[1]^[8] Psychogenic tremors can simulate intention tremor but are irregular, variable in frequency, and notably distractible, decreasing with mental tasks or contralateral stimulation, alongside abrupt onset and absence of organic neurological deficits.^[7]^[8] Associated syndromes include Holmes tremor, also known as rubral tremor, arising from midbrain lesions affecting cerebellar outflow and dopaminergic pathways, featuring low-frequency oscillations across rest, posture, and action without the isolated intention worsening of pure cerebellar tremor.^[8]^[9] Orthostatic tremor, confined to the legs during standing, presents as a high-frequency tremor of 13-18 Hz causing unsteadiness but lacks upper limb involvement or goal-directed exacerbation seen in intention tremor.^[8]^[9] Clinical examination, including targeted maneuvers like finger-to-nose testing, alongside imaging to assess cerebellar integrity, aids in these distinctions.^[1]^[7]

Etiology and Pathophysiology

Causes

Intention tremor arises as a symptom of various underlying conditions that disrupt cerebellar function or its neural connections, rather than as a primary disorder itself. The most common cause is multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune demyelinating disease that affects the central nervous system, leading to plaques in cerebellar pathways in approximately 25% to 60% of patients.^[10] Other acquired causes include stroke, which involves vascular lesions in the cerebellum or its connections, and traumatic brain injury, often resulting from head trauma that damages cerebellar peduncles or related structures.^[4]^[7] Infectious and toxic etiologies also contribute significantly. Central nervous system infections, such as encephalitis from viruses like West Nile or bacterial abscesses, can inflame or form collections in cerebellar tissue and produce intention tremor.^[11] Toxic exposures, including mercury poisoning and chronic alcohol use leading to cerebellar degeneration, are well-documented triggers.^[1] Vitamin deficiencies, particularly of vitamin E or B12, may impair cerebellar integrity and manifest as intention tremor through associated ataxias.^[1] Neoplastic and structural lesions represent another category of causes. Brain tumors, such as cerebellar astrocytomas, compress or infiltrate cerebellar tissue, disrupting function.^[12]^[13] Genetic and developmental conditions are less common but notable. Rare hereditary ataxias, including Friedreich's ataxia, involve progressive cerebellar degeneration that includes intention tremor as a key feature.^[14] Cerebral palsy, particularly the ataxic subtype stemming from perinatal brain injury, frequently presents with intention tremor due to developmental cerebellar damage.^[15] Additional causes fall under metabolic and iatrogenic umbrellas. Wilson's disease, a metabolic disorder characterized by copper accumulation in the brain, often produces intention tremor alongside other movement abnormalities.^[16] Iatrogenic factors, such as certain chemotherapy agents like nelarabine, can induce neurotoxicity leading to intention tremor.^[17] Epidemiologically, intention tremor lacks independent incidence data, as its prevalence is directly linked to the underlying disease; for instance, it affects 25% to 60% of individuals with MS, underscoring its association with progressive neurological conditions.^[10]

Mechanism

Intention tremor arises from dysfunction in the cerebellum, which plays a central role in coordinating voluntary movements by integrating sensory inputs and motor commands to ensure precise execution. Lesions in key cerebellar structures, such as the dentate nucleus, superior cerebellar peduncle, or flocculonodular lobe, disrupt this coordination, particularly the error correction mechanisms essential for goal-directed actions.^[1]^[18] The pathophysiology involves impaired proprioceptive feedback and predictive motor planning, leading to oscillatory corrections that intensify as the target is approached. In normal function, the cerebellum employs a forward model to anticipate movement outcomes and compensate for sensory delays, but damage—often involving Purkinje cell loss or demyelination—results in inaccurate predictions and uncorrected deviations, manifesting as rhythmic oscillations. This disruption in the cerebrocerebellar loop causes irregular, voluntary tremor-like movements during visually guided tasks.^[18]^[19] Neural circuits underlying intention tremor include afferents from the spinal cord to the spinocerebellum for limb position control and efferents projecting via the thalamus to the motor cortex. Disruption in the dentato-rubro-thalamic tract, a critical pathway from the deep cerebellar nuclei to the contralateral thalamus, leads to hypermetria (overshooting) and tremor by impairing the modulation of motor output. The olivo-cerebellar loop further contributes by failing to synchronize climbing fiber inputs to Purkinje cells, exacerbating motor instability.^[18]^[20] The tremor exhibits low-frequency oscillations, typically in the 3-5 Hz range, attributable to delayed feedback loops in the cerebellar circuitry, with amplitude peaking due to accumulating uncorrected deviations near the target. This pattern reflects the cerebellum's role in fine-tuning movements rather than generating high-frequency rhythms seen in other tremor types.^[19]^[21] Recent studies up to 2025 have elucidated oscillatory neural activity in the cerebellar-thalamo-cortical loops using techniques like EEG and fMRI, revealing enhanced synchronization at tremor frequencies that correlates with motor dysfunction in action tremors.^[22]

Evaluation

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of intention tremor relies on a comprehensive clinical evaluation to confirm the presence of the tremor and identify its underlying etiology, typically involving a stepwise approach starting with history and physical examination followed by targeted ancillary testing. A detailed patient history is essential, focusing on the onset and progression of the tremor, which may present acutely in cases of vascular events like stroke or trauma, or gradually in progressive conditions such as multiple system atrophy or spinocerebellar ataxia. Associated symptoms, including gait ataxia, dysarthria, nystagmus, or visual disturbances, are inquired about to suggest cerebellar involvement, while risk factors like family history of hereditary ataxias, chronic alcohol use, medication exposure (e.g., anticonvulsants), or toxin ingestion are assessed to guide further investigation.^[23]^[7]^[1] The neurological examination confirms the characteristic features of intention tremor through observation of rhythmic, high-amplitude oscillations that worsen as the limb approaches a target during purposeful movements. Bedside tests such as the finger-to-nose maneuver, finger-chase test (where the patient tracks the examiner's finger), and heel-to-shin test are performed to elicit the tremor, often revealing associated cerebellar signs like dysmetria, dysdiadochokinesia, hypotonia, or impaired proprioception. The tremor typically diminishes or resolves at rest and may decrease in amplitude with eyes closed, helping to distinguish it from other action tremors.^[1]^[7]^[23] Neuroimaging is crucial to visualize structural lesions contributing to the tremor, with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) serving as the preferred modality to detect cerebellar atrophy, demyelinating plaques in multiple sclerosis, tumors, or vascular malformations. Computed tomography (CT) is utilized in acute settings to rapidly identify hemorrhage or ischemic stroke when MRI is unavailable or contraindicated. Laboratory tests are selected based on clinical suspicion to exclude metabolic, toxic, or genetic causes; these may include a comprehensive metabolic panel, complete blood count, toxicology screen, serum vitamin B12 and E levels for nutritional deficiencies, thyroid function tests, and serum ceruloplasmin with 24-hour urinary copper for Wilson's disease, particularly in younger patients or those with atypical features.^[1]^[7]^[23] To exclude mimics such as essential tremor or parkinsonian tremor, electromyography (EMG) is employed to analyze the tremor's frequency (typically 3-5 Hz for intention tremor), activation pattern (alternating agonist-antagonist bursts increasing toward the target), and regularity during goal-directed tasks, providing objective differentiation from other tremor types like the higher-frequency (4-11 Hz) synchronous pattern of essential tremor.^[24]^[1]

Assessment Tools

Clinical scales are commonly employed to quantify the severity of intention tremor, providing standardized evaluations that incorporate observational assessments of amplitude and functional tasks. The Fahn-Tolosa-Marin Tremor Rating Scale (FTMTRS) evaluates tremor across various body parts, with specific items for upper limb amplitude at rest, posture, and kinetic actions, including drawing and writing tasks that elicit intention tremor components.^[25]^[26] Developed initially in 1988 and revised in 1993, the FTMTRS demonstrates high interrater and intrarater reliability, making it suitable for both clinical monitoring and research in conditions like essential tremor and cerebellar disorders.^[27]^[28] The Tremor Research Group Essential Tremor Rating Assessment Scale (TETRAS), first published in 2012, offers a validated alternative focused on action tremor, including intention components through tasks such as nose-to-finger pointing and pouring water, which highlight upper extremity kinetic tremor.^[29]^[30] TETRAS is designed for quick administration in about 10 minutes using minimal equipment, emphasizing upper limb postural and kinetic tremor severity, and has shown excellent interrater reliability for these features.^[31] While primarily validated for essential tremor, TETRAS has been adapted for assessing intention tremor in other etiologies, such as multiple sclerosis, due to its sensitivity to functional impairment.^[26] Bedside quantification methods provide accessible, non-technological evaluations of intention tremor by observing task performance. The Archimedes spiral drawing test requires patients to trace a pre-drawn spiral with each hand, revealing tremor amplitude, frequency, and direction as the hand approaches the center, where intention tremor is most pronounced.^[32] This task is semi-quantitative, with ratings based on deviation from the template, and is widely used to differentiate intention tremor from other types due to its simplicity and correlation with clinical severity.^[33]^[34] The nine-hole peg test assesses functional impact by measuring the time taken to place and remove pegs from a board, capturing dexterity deficits exacerbated by intention tremor during precise movements.^[26] In multiple sclerosis patients, this test correlates strongly with upper limb tremor severity, explaining a substantial portion of performance variance alongside factors like muscle strength.^[35]^[36] Technological tools enable objective measurement of intention tremor parameters beyond visual assessment. Accelerometry and gyroscopes, often integrated into portable devices, quantify tremor frequency and amplitude by recording linear acceleration and angular velocity during goal-directed tasks, offering superior sensitivity to rotational movements characteristic of intention tremor.^[37]^[26] Gyroscopes, in particular, correlate more accurately with clinical observations than accelerometers alone for head and limb tremors.^[38] Wearable sensors, such as those in smartwatches, facilitate home monitoring by continuously tracking upper limb motion during daily activities, providing data on tremor intensity and duration in real-world settings.^[39]^[40] These devices use triaxial accelerometers to detect kinetic tremor episodes, improving longitudinal assessment for conditions like essential tremor.^[41] Recent advances from 2020 to 2025 have introduced quantitative upper limb assessments leveraging motion capture and AI-based video analysis for precise trajectory evaluation of intention tremor. Motion capture systems, such as those using Microsoft HoloLens2, enable markerless tracking of hand movements in multiple sclerosis patients, assessing reach-to-grasp tasks with high accuracy in functional impairment.^[42] AI-driven video analysis tools extract kinematic features like trajectory deviation and velocity peaks from smartphone recordings, validating their use against clinical scales in tremor disorders.^[43] Studies in multiple sclerosis cohorts have confirmed the reliability of these methods for monitoring intention tremor progression, with correlations to established tests like the nine-hole peg.^[44]^[45] Despite their utility, assessment tools for intention tremor face notable limitations. Clinical scales like FTMTRS and TETRAS rely on subjective rater interpretations, leading to variability in scoring despite good reliability metrics.^[26]^[46] Technological tools, including accelerometry and wearables, require standardization across devices and protocols to ensure comparable results, as differences in sensor placement and calibration can affect frequency and amplitude estimates.^[47]^[48] Ongoing efforts aim to address these issues through validated benchmarks and integration with AI for automated analysis.^[49]

Treatment and Management

Pharmacological Interventions

Pharmacological interventions for intention tremor primarily focus on symptomatic relief, as no medications specifically target the underlying cerebellar dysfunction, and efficacy is generally limited compared to other tremor types. Anticonvulsants like primidone (starting at 50-250 mg daily) have shown modest benefits in reducing cerebellar tremor severity, particularly in multiple sclerosis (MS)-associated cases, by stabilizing neuronal membranes.^[50] Topiramate (up to 200 mg daily) may offer similar effects based on evidence from essential tremor studies, though data specific to intention tremor are limited.^[51] Other symptomatic agents include anticholinergics such as trihexyphenidyl (2-12 mg daily), which may alleviate tremor through central muscarinic receptor blockade, though evidence is anecdotal and primarily extrapolated from other action tremors. Benzodiazepines like clonazepam (0.5-2 mg daily) serve as adjunctive therapy to reduce anxiety-exacerbated symptoms, offering short-term relief via GABAergic enhancement. Isoniazid (up to 1,200 mg daily, often with pyridoxine to prevent neuropathy) is particularly noted for cerebellar intention tremor in MS, with controlled trials demonstrating improvement in postural components in approximately 50% of patients.^[52]^[1] Earlier studies on levetiracetam (up to 2,000-3,000 mg daily) for MS-associated tremor showed no significant or sustained benefits.^[53]^[54] Additional options include botulinum toxin A injections for focal severe tremors and 4-aminopyridine for MS-related symptoms, with varying efficacy reported.^[1] Cause-specific pharmacological management is essential when an underlying etiology is identified. In MS-related intention tremor, disease-modifying therapies such as ocrelizumab (600 mg intravenously every six months) aim to slow disease progression and indirectly mitigate tremor worsening, though they do not directly address acute symptoms. For toxic-metabolic causes like Wilson's disease, chelating agents including D-penicillamine (1-2 g daily, titrated gradually) promote copper excretion, leading to tremor resolution in responsive cases over months of treatment.^[55] Overall efficacy of these interventions is modest, with symptomatic improvements typically ranging from 20-50% in tremor amplitude or functional scores, often limited by incomplete response and tolerance development. Common side effects include sedation, cognitive impairment, fatigue, and gastrointestinal upset, necessitating individualized dosing and monitoring. As of 2025, there are no new FDA approvals specific to intention tremor pharmacotherapy.^[1]

Non-Pharmacological Approaches

Non-pharmacological approaches to managing intention tremor focus on improving functional abilities and reducing symptom severity through rehabilitative, surgical, and supportive strategies, particularly in cases refractory to medications. Physical and occupational therapy play central roles in enhancing coordination and daily activity performance. Physical therapy emphasizes gait rehabilitation, balance training, and strengthening exercises to counteract cerebellar dysfunction underlying the tremor. Occupational therapy incorporates coordination exercises, such as visually guided reaching tasks and tendon vibration techniques, to minimize oscillations during purposeful movements. Weighted utensils and wrist or ankle weights are often integrated into these sessions to dampen tremor amplitude by increasing inertial resistance, thereby stabilizing hand paths. Constraint-induced movement therapy, which restricts the unaffected limb to promote use of the tremulous side, has shown preliminary benefits in improving upper limb function in tremor-related conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS). These therapies collectively support functional recovery without addressing the underlying pathology, with studies indicating modest improvements in activities of daily living for patients with cerebellar or MS-associated intention tremor.^[1]^[4]^[56] Surgical interventions are reserved for severe, medication-refractory intention tremor, targeting the ventral intermediate nucleus (VIM) of the thalamus to disrupt aberrant cerebello-thalamic circuits. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) involves implanting electrodes in the VIM, delivering adjustable electrical pulses to modulate tremor signals; it achieves 50-80% reduction in tremor severity in MS patients, with particular efficacy for proximal and intention components, alongside improvements in feeding and writing abilities. Thalamotomy, a lesioning procedure, offers an alternative by creating a precise ablation in the VIM; radiofrequency thalamotomy has historically suppressed cerebellar intention tremor in up to 86% of cases, restoring functional tasks like drinking from a glass.^[57]^[58] MRI-guided focused ultrasound thalamotomy, approved for essential tremor, is being investigated for intention tremor in MS and cerebellar disorders through ongoing clinical trials (e.g., in Canada as of 2025), showing promising tremor reductions of 60-75% at one year in preliminary data but with effects not yet established as standard treatment. These procedures enhance quality of life but do not cure the tremor, with long-term efficacy varying by underlying etiology.^[59]^[60] Adaptive devices further mitigate the impact of intention tremor on independence by compensating for motor instability. Orthotics, such as wrist splints or stabilizing braces, provide joint support to reduce oscillatory movements during fine motor tasks. Specialized implements like weighted or deep-cavity utensils, laser-guided pointers, and counterbalanced tools help dampen end-point tremors, enabling more accurate eating, writing, and pointing. Assistive technologies, including voice-activated devices and adaptive computer interfaces, bypass manual dexterity demands, promoting participation in work and leisure. These tools are particularly valuable in progressive conditions like MS, where they sustain functionality without altering tremor progression.^[56]^[61]^[62] Lifestyle modifications complement other approaches by addressing exacerbating factors. Stress and anxiety intensify intention tremor through heightened sympathetic activation, so techniques like relaxation training, biofeedback, and mindfulness are recommended to lower arousal and stabilize movements. Alcohol should be avoided, as it provides no benefit for cerebellar intention tremor and may paradoxically worsen symptoms in some cases, unlike its transient suppressive effect in essential tremor. These strategies, often combined with pharmacological adjuncts for optimal outcomes, improve functional adaptation but cannot reverse the tremor, emphasizing their role in medication-refractory scenarios.^[63]^[64]^[65]

Historical Context and Future Directions

History

The earliest references to tremors in medical literature appear in ancient texts, such as the Hippocratic Corpus, where tremors were described in the context of fevers and neurological disturbances, though without distinction of specific types like intention tremor.^[66] In the 19th century, neurologists began linking tremors to ataxic syndromes; for instance, Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne coined the term "locomotor ataxia" in the 1850s to describe gait instability and sensory deficits in tabes dorsalis, laying groundwork for understanding movement disorders involving coordination loss.^[67] A pivotal milestone occurred in 1868 when Jean-Martin Charcot formally described and named "intention tremor" during lectures on multiple sclerosis (MS) at the Salpêtrière Hospital, distinguishing it from resting tremor in Parkinson's disease as a phenomenon that manifests solely during voluntary movements.^[68] Charcot integrated intention tremor into the clinical profile of MS, associating it with the characteristic triad of nystagmus, scanning speech (dysarthria), and ataxia, based on clinical observations and postmortem examinations revealing sclerotic plaques in the central nervous system.^[68] This characterization, later published in his 1872–1873 lectures, marked the first precise delineation of intention tremor as a cerebellar-related sign.^[1] In the early 20th century, Gordon Holmes advanced understanding through his 1917 analysis of cerebellar injuries from World War I gunshot wounds, confirming the kinetic nature of intention tremor as arising from lesions in the cerebellar hemispheres, often accompanied by hypotonia, dysmetria, and intention overshoot.^[69] Mid-20th-century neurophysiological investigations, including early electroencephalography (EEG) studies, began correlating tremor oscillations with central nervous system activity, shifting focus from purely descriptive accounts to underlying neural mechanisms.^[70] The historical evolution progressed from clinical and autopsy-based descriptions—such as Charcot's identification of cerebellar plaques in MS—to mechanistic insights enabled by late 20th-century imaging; advancements in computed tomography (CT) in the 1970s and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the 1980s allowed visualization of cerebellar atrophy and lesions, solidifying the cerebellum's central role in intention tremor pathophysiology.^[71] These foundational developments up to the early 21st century established intention tremor as a hallmark of cerebellar dysfunction, informing modern classifications without significant historical revisions thereafter.^[1]

Research Directions

Recent clinical trials from 2020 to 2025 have explored pharmacological options for managing intention tremor, particularly in multiple sclerosis (MS)-related cases and other cerebellar disorders. A completed phase II trial (NCT01104649) evaluated riluzole for hereditary cerebellar ataxia, demonstrating modest efficacy in reducing tremor severity in spinocerebellar ataxia patients, with improvements in upper limb function scores after 12 weeks, though side effects like fatigue limited broader adoption.^[72] Studies on pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, in crossover designs for essential tremor (ET) revealed moderate benefits in tremor amplitude reduction without significant impact on MS-specific cerebellar pathways. Completed trials on cannabidiol (CBD) derivatives, such as those combining THC/CBD (NCT03805750), targeted ET but showed no significant effect on tremor suppression.^[73]^[74] Technological advances are enhancing the precision of intention tremor management through wearable sensors and artificial intelligence (AI). In 2024 studies, inertial measurement unit (IMU)-based wearables integrated with AI algorithms enabled real-time assessment of upper limb tremor during goal-directed movements, supporting adaptive orthotics such as soft exoskeletons that dampen oscillations. Additionally, 2024 research on upper limb assessment tools has improved clinical trial endpoints by incorporating wearable-derived metrics like spiral drawing analysis, which correlates with patient-reported disability. As of 2025, FDA-cleared AI-driven wearables, such as transcutaneous peripheral nerve stimulation (TPNS) devices, show promise in reducing ET symptoms, with potential applications to intention tremor.^[75] Pathophysiological investigations are uncovering genetic and circuit-level insights into intention tremor. In hereditary ataxias, such as spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs), genome-wide association studies have identified markers like expanded CAG repeats in ATXN genes as predictors of tremor-dominant phenotypes, with prevalence rates up to 70% in SCA2 and SCA6 carriers. Optogenetics in animal models has targeted cerebellar circuits, demonstrating that selective inhibition of Purkinje cells in harmaline-induced tremor mice reduces oscillatory activity in the cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop, highlighting Purkinje cell hyperactivity as a key driver. Emerging therapeutic frontiers include gene therapy and neuromodulation techniques for intention tremor in MS and ataxias. Preclinical gene therapy approaches using AAV vectors to silence mutant ATXN3 in SCA3 models have restored cerebellar Purkinje cell function, attenuating intention tremor in rodents. For MS, early-phase trials of gene editing to target demyelination-related circuits are underway, aiming to preserve thalamic relay integrity. Non-invasive focused ultrasound (FUS) thalamotomy for thalamic modulation has advanced in post-2020 trials, yielding 70-80% reduction in hand tremor scores at one year in ET patients, though long-term effects in cerebellar intention tremor require further monitoring.^[76] Efforts to address research gaps include updated epidemiology through patient registries and longitudinal studies on progression in aging populations. The Dystonia Coalition and ET-specific registries have refined prevalence estimates for essential tremor at 4-5% among those over 65 years old as of 2021, with intention tremor occurring as a symptom in conditions like MS (prevalence ~0.1% globally). Longitudinal cohorts tracking ET progression in older adults show accelerated worsening in late-onset cases, linked to cumulative cerebellar atrophy, informing personalized intervention timing.^[77]

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Mar 7, 2007 · Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate interrater and intrarater reliability of the Fahn–Tolosa–Marin Tremor. Rating Scale ...
[29]
The Essential Tremor Rating Assessment Scale
Jul 21, 2016 · This scale requires only a pen and paper, and can be completed in about 10 minutes. Upper extremity action tremor is the main focus of this scale.
[30]
Tremor Research Group Essential Tremor Rating Scale (TETRAS)
Oct 5, 2020 · The Tremor Research Group Essential Tremor Rating Scale (TETRAS) is a well-validated instrument to assess essential tremor.
[31]
Tremor Research Group Essential Tremor Rating Scale (TETRAS)
Oct 5, 2020 · The Tremor Research Group Essential Tremor Rating Scale (TETRAS) is a well-validated instrument to assess essential tremor.Abstract · Methods · Results · Discussion
[32]
WHIGET and TETRAS Ratings of Action Tremor in Patients with ...
Mar 27, 2024 · Assessment of interrater and intrarater reliability of the Fahn-Tolosa-Marin Tremor Rating Scale in essential tremor. Mov. Disord. Off. J ...<|separator|>
[33]
How to use pen and paper tasks to aid tremor diagnosis in the clinic
The Archimedes spiral drawing captures the frequency, amplitude and direction of a tremor without the necessity of allowing for stylistic differences of ...Archimedes Spiral · Essential Tremor · Dystonic Tremor
[34]
The Spiral Axis as a Clinical Tool to Distinguish Essential Tremor ...
Feb 7, 2014 · Each enrollee was asked to draw four Archimedes spirals (two right, two left) on a standard sheet of paper, without resting their wrist on the ...
[35]
Archimedes Spiral Ratings: Determinants and Population‐Based ...
Sep 5, 2024 · The Archimedes spiral drawing is a rapid, accessible, and practical task for the effective semi-quantitative assessment of action tremor. Bain ...Abstract · Spiral Drawing Task · Spiral Sampling And Clinical...
[36]
Automatic evaluation of the Nine-Hole Peg Test in multiple sclerosis ...
Roughly, 53% of the variance in the 9HPT score is explained by muscle strength, tactile sensitivity of the thumb, and presence of intention tremor [11].
[37]
Measures of Fine Motor Skills in People with Tremor ... - Frontiers
The 9-hole PEG test of upper extremity function: average values, test-retest reliability, and factors contributing to performance in people with Parkinson ...
[38]
Assessment of Head Tremor with Accelerometers Versus ... - NIH
Jul 8, 2016 · Gyroscopes are recommended over accelerometers for measuring head tremor because the rotational movement recorded with gyroscopes correlates ...
[39]
Using Portable Transducers to Measure Tremor Severity
May 17, 2016 · Gyroscopes and accelerometers accentuate tremor relative to lower-frequency voluntary movement because these devices record the first and ...
[40]
Continuous Monitoring of Essential Tremor Using a Portable System ...
A new highly portable system was used to monitor tremor continuously during daily lives. It consists of a smartwatch with a triaxial accelerometer, a ...
[41]
Assessment of overall essential tremor severity by monitoring with a ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Continuous monitoring of ET with a wearable sensor provides more objective information about the overall tremor severity in a real-world setting ...Missing: intention | Show results with:intention
[42]
Continuous tremor monitoring in Parkinson's disease: A wristwatch ...
Dec 20, 2024 · Wearable sensors offer a promising approach for comfortable, continuous tremor monitoring to optimize treatment strategies. Here, we present a ...Missing: intention | Show results with:intention
[43]
A Pilot Study on Mixed-Reality Approaches for Detecting Upper ...
This study explored the feasibility of using Microsoft HoloLens2 for motion capture to assess upper-limb function in PwMS.
[44]
Quantitative assessment of essential tremor based on machine ...
This study automatically rates the severity of symptoms in ET patients using wearable sensors in a standardized scenario.
[45]
(PDF) Effect of Immersive Virtual Reality Training on Hand-to-Mouth ...
Dec 9, 2022 · A recent study demonstrated improvements in upper limb motor function and manual dexterity in neurological patients with motor symptoms, such as ...
[46]
[PDF] Exploring the Potential of Mixed Reality for Functional Assessment ...
Apr 18, 2025 · ROCKapp and PICKapp were tested on nine PwMS with the aim to explore the feasibility of HoloLens2 for consistent hand- tracking and eye-tracking ...
[47]
Wearable sensors during drawing tasks to measure the severity of ...
Mar 28, 2022 · This study proposes the use of wearable accelerometer sensors for the quantitative assessment of ET.<|separator|>
[48]
Wearable Devices for Assessment of Tremor - Frontiers
Jun 10, 2021 · Surface EMG is the gold standard technique for the diagnosis, characterization, and monitoring of tremor (3). Unfortunately, it suffers from ...
[49]
The strengths and limitations of each type of devices used to capture...
Traditional methods for assessing ET severity are often time-consuming, subjective, and require in-person visits to medical facilities. This study introduces a ...
[50]
Digital Technology in Movement Disorders: Updates, Applications ...
Mar 3, 2021 · Smartwatches are able to quantify tremor, have shown good correlation between clinical scales, and are well-accepted by patients [78]. One ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Pharmacologic Trials in the Treatment of Cerebellar Tremor
We studied the effect of long-term administration of propranolol hydrochloride and isoniazid and the acute action of ethyl alcohol on cerebellar tremor.
[52]
The efficacy of primidone in reducing severe cerebellar tremors in ...
Primidone is one of the medications, mostly advised for essential tremor. The ... Multiple Sclerosis / drug therapy*; Multiple Sclerosis / epidemiology ...Missing: intention pharmacological
[53]
MDS evidence-based review of treatments for essential tremor
Propranolol, primidone, and topiramate (>200 mg/day) are the pharmacological interventions in which the data reviewed robustly supported efficacy.Missing: intention | Show results with:intention
[54]
Controlled trial of isoniazid therapy for severe postural cerebellar ...
Six patients with severe postural cerebellar tremor were studied in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with isoniazid.
[55]
Current Management of Neurological Wilson's Disease - PMC - NIH
May 5, 2025 · In addition to these routinely used diagnostic tests, a few other tests are used to diagnose WD. Some of them include serum copper ...
[56]
The Effect of Levetiracetam on Tremor Severity and ... - PubMed
Objectives: To investigate the effects of levetiracetam, an antiepileptic drug, on tremor severity and related functionality in MS. Methods: A randomized, ...Missing: pharmacological | Show results with:pharmacological
[57]
Does levetircetam decrease of the rubral tremor in patients with ...
Our findings suggest that although Levetiracetam caused a decrease tremor rate in MS it surged again after washout period.Missing: riluzole intention 2020-2025
[58]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8916323/
[59]
Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of uncommon tremor ...
These authors reported 87% and 57.2% improvement in postural and intention components of tremor, respectively, with improvement in elements of ataxia. Nandi et ...
[60]
Thalamotomy for essential and cerebellar tremor - PubMed
Thalamotomy significantly suppressed essential tremor in 86% of patients and restored the ability to hold a glass to drink in 81% in the long term, ...
[61]
A Randomized Trial of Focused Ultrasound Thalamotomy for ...
Aug 25, 2016 · The current trial shows that focused ultrasound thalamotomy can further control tremor when it has become advanced and resistant to medication.
[62]
Essential tremor - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic
Mar 15, 2025 · Diagnosing essential tremor involves a review of your medical history, family history and symptoms, and a physical examination.
[63]
Peripheral Devices and Mechanical Strategies to Reduce Tremor
Nov 11, 2024 · Adaptive devices include weighted spoons, deep cavity spoons, counter-balance utensils, and electrical actuator devices. Despite availability, ...
[64]
Patient education - Tremor - UF Health
For tremors caused by stress, try ways to relax, such as meditation or breathing exercises. For tremors of any cause, avoid caffeine and get enough sleep. For ...
[65]
Advice for Patients With Tremor - U.S. Pharmacist
Jan 21, 2015 · Reduce Stress: Stress and anxiety can also worsen tremor. It is often extremely difficult or even impossible to alter your life circumstances to ...<|separator|>
[66]
Effect of Alcohol on Tremors: Comparison With Propranolol - PubMed
Intravenous administration of alcohol decreased postural essential tremor but not parkinsonian resting or cerebellar intention tremor.
[67]
Tremors - National Library of Medicine Institution
In Greece, the Aphorisms of Hippocrates contain the following reference to tremor - "when tremors occur in ardent fevers, they are terminated by delirium" [1]" ...
[68]
Milestones in ataxia - PMC - PubMed Central
The practice to use ataxia to designate a disease goes back to the mid of the 19th century, when Duchenne coined the term locomotor ataxia for tabes dorsalis.
[69]
One hundred and fifty years ago Charcot reported multiple sclerosis ...
Nov 20, 2018 · Charcot summarized the crucial finding by stating: 'In multiple sclerosis the tremor occurs only during intentional movements or when the ...
[70]
The history of the development of the cerebellar examination
In 1917, Gordon Holmes reported hypotonia and dysmetria in men wounded by gunshot wounds to their cerebellum. These observations were rapidly included in ...
[71]
Physiological and pathological tremors and rhythmic central motor ...
This review re-evaluates both early and recent studies on physiological and pathological tremors and other peripheral oscillations in order to gain a new ...
[72]
The Role of the Cerebellum in Tremor – Evidence from Neuroimaging
Nov 15, 2021 · Studies in the 1990s using PET and fMRI have provided the first neuroimaging evidence supporting the role of the cerebellum in tremor. These ...