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Intestinal epithelium

The intestinal epithelium is a single-layered columnar epithelium that lines the luminal surface of the small and large intestines, serving as a selective barrier that regulates the absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes while preventing the entry of pathogens, toxins, and harmful luminal contents.^[1] This dynamic tissue, organized into crypt-villus units in the small intestine and crypts in the colon, undergoes rapid renewal every 2–5 days in humans, driven by stem cells at the crypt base to maintain its integrity amid constant exposure to the gut environment.^[1] Composed of diverse cell types, including absorptive enterocytes, mucus-secreting goblet cells, antimicrobial Paneth cells, hormone-producing enteroendocrine cells, sensory tuft cells, and antigen-sampling M cells, the epithelium coordinates digestion, secretion, and immune surveillance.^[1] Structurally, the intestinal epithelium features tight junctions, adherens junctions, and desmosomes that form an apical junctional complex, with tight junctions—comprising proteins like claudins, occludin, and tricellulin—acting as the primary regulators of paracellular permeability to maintain barrier function.^[2] These junctions create size- and charge-selective pathways: high-capacity "pore" pathways for small ions and solutes, and low-capacity "leak" pathways that restrict larger molecules and microbes, supported by a protective mucus layer secreted by goblet cells that further shields the epithelium from direct bacterial contact.^[2] In the small intestine, villi and microvilli dramatically expand the surface area by up to 600-fold, enhancing absorption efficiency, while the colonic epithelium focuses more on water reabsorption and fermentation byproduct handling.^[1] Functionally, the epithelium not only absorbs essential nutrients via enterocyte transporters but also secretes antimicrobial peptides from Paneth cells and hormones from enteroendocrine cells to modulate gut motility, satiety, and metabolism.^[1] It interacts bidirectionally with the gut microbiota, with tuft cells sensing microbial signals to initiate type 2 immune responses against parasites and goblet cells adjusting mucus production in response to bacterial density, thereby preserving homeostasis.^[1] Lgr5-positive crypt base columnar stem cells, sustained by niche signals like Wnt and Notch pathways, ensure continuous regeneration, with remarkable plasticity allowing dedifferentiation during injury to restore barrier integrity.^[1] Dysfunction in the intestinal epithelium, often involving increased permeability due to altered tight junction expression (e.g., elevated claudin-2 in inflammatory conditions), is implicated in diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and celiac disease, highlighting its role as a therapeutic target for barrier-modulating agents.^[2]

Anatomy and Structure

Cell types

The intestinal epithelium comprises a diverse array of specialized cell types that arise from multipotent intestinal stem cells (ISCs), primarily Lgr5-positive cells located at the base of crypts in both the small and large intestines. These stem cells generate transit-amplifying progenitors that differentiate into the major epithelial lineages along the crypt-villus axis in the small intestine or crypt-surface axis in the colon, ensuring functional specialization for absorption, secretion, and barrier maintenance.^[3]^[4] Enterocytes, also known as absorptive columnar cells, form the predominant population and are characterized by their tall, columnar morphology with an apical brush border of densely packed microvilli that dramatically increase surface area for nutrient uptake. These cells are located primarily on the villi of the small intestine and the surface epithelium of the large intestine, originating from ISCs through high Notch signaling that promotes an absorptive fate while repressing secretory differentiation.^[3]^[5] In contrast, goblet cells exhibit a distinctive goblet-shaped morphology filled with secretory granules containing mucins, enabling mucus production; they are scattered throughout the epithelium in both crypts and villi, derived from Atoh1-expressing secretory progenitors regulated by low Notch and Klf4 signaling.^[3]^[4] Paneth cells, residing exclusively at the base of small intestinal crypts, possess a pyramidal shape with prominent secretory granules that store antimicrobial peptides like defensins; they differentiate from ISCs via Wnt/β-catenin and Sox9 signaling, providing niche support to neighboring stem cells.^[3]^[5] Enteroendocrine cells are rare, scattered hormone-secreting cells with a small, basally located nucleus and apical processes; they emerge from Neurog3-positive progenitors in the secretory lineage and are found along both crypts and villi in the small and large intestines.^[3]^[4] Tuft cells, named for their tuft-like bundles of apical microvilli, adopt a chemosensory morphology and derive from Atoh1- and Pou2f3-dependent secretory progenitors, appearing sporadically throughout the epithelium in both intestinal regions.^[3]^[5] M cells, specialized for antigen sampling, display an irregular apical surface with microfolds rather than microvilli and are located within the follicle-associated epithelium overlying Peyer's patches, primarily in the small intestine; their differentiation involves RANKL signaling, potentially from enterocyte precursors or direct ISC lineage commitment.^[3]^[4] ISCs themselves are small, undifferentiated cells marked by Lgr5 expression, positioned at the crypt base interspersed with Paneth cells in the small intestine, and they self-renew while producing all other epithelial lineages through asymmetric division and progenitor expansion.^[3]^[5] Proportions of these cell types vary regionally: in the small intestine, enterocytes constitute approximately 80-90% of the epithelium, goblet cells 5-10%, Paneth cells ~5%, and enteroendocrine and tuft cells each <1%, with M cells being very rare and confined to lymphoid areas.^[5]^[4] In the large intestine, enterocytes (or colonocytes) remain dominant but goblet cells increase to up to 50% to bolster the mucus layer, while Paneth cells are absent and tuft cells persist at low levels.^[3]^[4]

Epithelial organization and renewal

The intestinal epithelium exhibits a highly organized architecture along the crypt-villus axis in the small intestine, where stem cells and Paneth cells reside at the base of invaginated crypts, transit-amplifying cells occupy the mid-crypt region, and differentiated epithelial cells migrate upward to the villus tips before extrusion.^[6] This hierarchical arrangement ensures efficient renewal, with Paneth cells providing essential niche signals to support stem cell maintenance at the crypt base.^[7] In the colon, crypts are present but lack villi, resulting in a flat surface epithelium where cells migrate from crypt bases to the luminal surface.^[8] Epithelial renewal is remarkably rapid, with the entire intestinal lining turning over every 3-5 days in humans, driven by continuous proliferation in the crypts and subsequent migration of daughter cells.^[9] Newly generated cells from the transit-amplifying compartment migrate upward at rates that sustain this turnover, reaching the villus tip or colonic surface for shedding, thereby maintaining epithelial integrity and function.^[10] This dynamic process replaces approximately 10^11 cells daily, adapting to physiological demands while minimizing disruption to barrier properties.^[11] At the core of this renewal is a stem cell hierarchy comprising active Lgr5+ crypt base columnar cells, which drive daily homeostasis through rapid cycling and generation of progenitors, and quiescent +4 reserve cells positioned approximately four cells above the crypt base, which serve as a backup population activated during injury.^[11] Lgr5+ cells differentiate into transit-amplifying progenitors that amplify the output of differentiated lineages, while +4 cells, marked by genes like Bmi1, exhibit slower proliferation but contribute to long-term repopulation.^[12] Key signaling pathways orchestrate this hierarchy: Wnt signaling promotes stem cell proliferation and Paneth cell differentiation at the crypt base, while Notch signaling regulates the balance between proliferation in transit-amplifying cells and differentiation into secretory or absorptive lineages as cells ascend.^[13] These pathways interact dynamically, with Wnt maintaining the stem cell niche and Notch suppressing secretory fates to favor absorptive differentiation higher along the axis.^[14] Regional differences persist, as colonic crypts lack Paneth cells in the same density but retain Lgr5+ stem cells and similar Wnt/Notch-driven renewal, albeit with adjusted turnover kinetics suited to the absence of villi.^[7]

Cellular junctions

The intestinal epithelium relies on specialized cellular junctions to maintain structural integrity, polarity, and selective intercellular communication among its diverse cell types, such as enterocytes and goblet cells. These junctions form a belt-like network at the apical-lateral membrane domains, ensuring mechanical cohesion and barrier formation while allowing coordinated signaling. In the dynamic environment of the gut, where epithelial cells undergo rapid turnover, these structures are essential for preventing paracellular leakage and supporting tissue homeostasis.^[15] Tight junctions (TJs) represent the most apical junctional complex, forming a selective seal that regulates paracellular permeability. Composed primarily of transmembrane proteins including claudins and occludins, TJs create strand-like networks that intertwine between adjacent cells. Claudins, a family of over 24 members, form the backbone of these strands, with specific isoforms like claudin-1 and claudin-5 promoting barrier tightness, while claudin-2 facilitates cation-selective channels. Occludins, characterized by four transmembrane domains, associate with claudins to modulate strand stability and contribute to the seal against macromolecules. Cytoplasmic plaque proteins such as zonula occludens (ZO)-1, ZO-2, and ZO-3 anchor these transmembrane components to the actin cytoskeleton, enabling force transmission and junctional maturation.^[15]^[16]^[17] Adherens junctions (AJs) lie immediately basal to TJs and provide adhesive strength through calcium-dependent interactions. Central to AJs is the E-cadherin-catenin complex, where E-cadherin homodimers from neighboring cells engage extracellularly, while their cytoplasmic tails bind β-catenin and p120-catenin intracellularly. α-Catenin further links this complex to the actin cytoskeleton, facilitating actomyosin contractility and epithelial sheet integrity. This linkage is crucial for maintaining cell-cell adhesion in the mechanically stressed intestinal lining.^[15]^[18] Desmosomes, positioned more basally than AJs, serve as robust anchors conferring mechanical resilience to the epithelium. These junctions feature desmosomal cadherins—desmogleins (e.g., desmoglein-2) and desmocollins (e.g., desmocollin-2)—which form heterophilic or homophilic bonds across the intercellular space. Intracellularly, these cadherins connect via armadillo proteins like plakoglobin and plakophilins to desmoplakin, which bundles intermediate filaments such as keratins 8 and 18. This architecture distributes tensile forces across the epithelial layer, essential for withstanding peristaltic shear in the intestine.^[19]^[20] Gap junctions enable direct cytoplasmic continuity for intercellular exchange, composed of connexin proteins that assemble into hexameric hemichannels (connexons). In the intestinal epithelium, predominant connexins include Cx32 and Cx43, which dock between cells to form aqueous pores permeable to ions, metabolites, and signaling molecules up to ~1 kDa, such as cAMP and ATP. These channels support synchronized cellular responses, including propagation of calcium waves among enterocytes.^[21]^[22] The assembly and regulation of these junctions involve coordinated molecular scaffolding and post-translational modifications. Zonula occludens proteins orchestrate TJ maturation by recruiting claudins and occludins to the apical membrane, often following AJ formation as a prerequisite. Phosphorylation by kinases such as protein kinase C (PKC) and tyrosine kinases modulates junctional dynamics; for instance, PKC phosphorylation enhances occludin localization to TJs, while dephosphorylation promotes endocytosis and barrier disruption. In AJs and desmosomes, catenin and plakoglobin phosphorylation by Src kinases influences adhesion strength and cytoskeletal linkage. Connexin trafficking to gap junctions is similarly regulated by phosphorylation, with sites on Cx43 targeted by MAPK pathways to control channel gating and stability. These mechanisms ensure adaptive responses to environmental cues while preserving epithelial architecture.^[15]^[23]^[24]

Physiology

Absorption and secretion

The intestinal epithelium plays a central role in nutrient and fluid homeostasis through coordinated absorption and secretion processes. Absorption primarily occurs via transcellular and paracellular pathways across enterocytes, the predominant cell type in the villi, while secretion is driven by specialized crypt cells, including chloride secretion for fluid balance. These mechanisms ensure efficient uptake of dietary components and maintenance of luminal hydration, with energy provided by ion gradients.^[25] Transcellular absorption involves active transport across the apical and basolateral membranes of enterocytes. For carbohydrates, the sodium-glucose linked transporter 1 (SGLT1) facilitates glucose and galactose uptake in a sodium-dependent manner, with a stoichiometry of two sodium ions per sugar molecule, primarily in the small intestine.^[26] Peptide absorption relies on the proton-coupled oligopeptide transporter PEPT1, which handles di- and tripeptides generated from protein digestion, contributing to nitrogen balance.^[27] Lipid absorption occurs through diffusion of free fatty acids and monoglycerides into enterocytes, followed by re-esterification into triglycerides and packaging into chylomicrons for secretion via exocytosis into lacteals.^[28] Paracellular absorption supplements transcellular routes by allowing passive movement of ions, water, and small solutes through tight junctions between epithelial cells. This pathway, often driven by solvent drag from osmotic water flow generated by active solute transport, facilitates the uptake of ions like calcium in the jejunum and ileum, modulated by junctional proteins such as claudins.^[29] Secretion in the intestinal epithelium maintains luminal conditions and supports digestion. In crypt cells, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel mediates chloride secretion into the lumen, creating an osmotic gradient that drives fluid secretion for hydration.^[25] Goblet cells, interspersed among enterocytes, secrete mucins to form a protective gel layer that aids in lubrication and nutrient passage.^[30] Paneth cells in the crypt base release antimicrobial peptides, such as α-defensins, into the lumen to regulate the local environment.^[31] Regional specialization enhances efficiency along the small intestine. The duodenum primarily absorbs iron via divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and recycles bile salts through apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT).^[25] The ileum specializes in vitamin B12 uptake via the cubam receptor complex. pH gradients, lower in the duodenum and increasing distally, influence solubility and transport of ions like calcium.^[25] These processes are energetically dependent on the basolateral Na+/K+ ATPase pump, which hydrolyzes ATP to extrude three sodium ions and import two potassium ions per cycle, establishing the electrochemical gradient essential for secondary active transport via SGLT1 and other carriers.^[32]

Barrier function and permeability

The intestinal epithelium functions as a selective physical and biochemical barrier, allowing the controlled passage of essential molecules such as nutrients, ions, and water while restricting the entry of pathogens, toxins, and antigens from the luminal environment. This barrier selectivity is mediated by two main routes: transcellular transport across the epithelial cells and paracellular transport between adjacent cells. Disruption of this balance can lead to increased permeability, or "leakiness," potentially compromising host defense without affecting absorptive functions.^[33] Transcellular permeability occurs through the epithelial cell interior via vesicular transport mechanisms, including fluid-phase endocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, and transcytosis, which enable the uptake and potential transfer of macromolecules across the cell. These processes are dynamically regulated by endocytosis and exocytosis cycles, where internalized vesicles are often routed to lysosomes for degradation to prevent pathogen translocation, ensuring the pathway remains selective and non-permissive to harmful agents. For example, in the neonatal intestine, receptor-mediated endocytosis facilitates antibody transport but is downregulated in adults to enhance barrier tightness.^[33]^[34] Paracellular permeability is primarily controlled by tight junctions, which form pore pathways for small ions and uncharged solutes (up to ~4 Å) and selective pathways for larger or charged molecules based on size and charge discrimination. Tight junction proteins such as claudins regulate these pathways, with the overall barrier integrity quantified by transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), which typically ranges from 100 to 200 Ω·cm² in the intestinal epithelium, reflecting primarily paracellular resistance. The tight junction structures enabling this permeability are discussed in the section on cellular junctions.^[33]^[35] Maintenance of barrier integrity relies on signaling molecules like interleukin-22 (IL-22), which sustains homeostasis by inducing antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as Reg3γ and β-defensins in epithelial cells, thereby limiting microbial invasion. IL-22 also modulates apoptosis in infected cells, promoting survival and regeneration of healthy epithelium via STAT3 activation while facilitating the targeted elimination of compromised cells to avert pathogen dissemination. Secretory contributions to the barrier, such as mucus production, aid in physical separation of luminal contents.^[36] Permeability is influenced by external factors, including diet and stress; for instance, high-fructose diets can reduce tight junction proteins like occludin and claudin-1, increasing leakiness, particularly under stress conditions that trigger zonulin release. Zonulin, a precursor to haptoglobin-2, reversibly disassembles tight junctions in response to psychological or physiological stress via glucocorticoid signaling, thereby elevating paracellular flux and potentially allowing antigen translocation.^[37] Measurement of barrier permeability commonly employs Ussing chambers, an ex vivo system where intestinal tissue is mounted between reservoirs to assess flux of inert probes (e.g., FITC-dextran for paracellular or lucifer yellow for transcellular routes) across the epithelium under physiological conditions, simultaneously monitoring TER to evaluate integrity. This technique provides quantitative insights into both pathway-specific permeability and overall barrier function in health and experimental perturbations.^[38]^[35]

Interactions with immune system and microbiota

The intestinal epithelium serves as a critical interface for immune surveillance, employing pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to detect microbial and danger signals from the lumen. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), such as TLR4 and TLR5, are expressed on the apical surface of epithelial cells and recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) like lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria and flagellin from motile microbes, respectively, initiating downstream signaling via NF-κB to promote antimicrobial responses. In the cytoplasm, NOD-like receptors (NLRs), including NOD1 and NOD2, detect peptidoglycan fragments from bacterial cell walls, activating pathways that enhance autophagy and inflammasome assembly to maintain barrier integrity.^[39] Epithelial cells modulate immune responses by secreting cytokines that orchestrate leukocyte recruitment and antibody production. For instance, upon PAMP stimulation, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) produce interleukin-8 (IL-8), a potent chemokine that recruits neutrophils to the lamina propria, facilitating rapid pathogen clearance.^[40] Additionally, IECs interact with underlying plasma cells to support secretory IgA (sIgA) production; through the release of factors like APRIL and BAFF, IECs promote B-cell differentiation and IgA class switching, enabling non-inflammatory neutralization of luminal antigens.^[41] The epithelium senses microbiota through specialized cells that bridge luminal contents and immune effectors. Tuft cells, a rare IEC subset, detect succinate from protozoan parasites via the succinate receptor SUCNR1 (GPR91), triggering IL-25 secretion that activates group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) to produce IL-13, amplifying goblet cell mucus production and type 2 immunity.^[42] Microfold (M) cells in Peyer's patches sample particulate antigens and microbes from the lumen, transcytosing them to underlying dendritic cells for antigen presentation and T-cell priming, thus initiating adaptive responses without breaching the barrier.^[43] Feedback mechanisms reinforce epithelial-immune-microbiota harmony, with microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate binding to G-protein-coupled receptor 43 (GPR43) on IECs to upregulate tight junction proteins and antimicrobial peptides, thereby strengthening barrier function.^[44] Recent 2025 studies highlight IEC involvement in microbiota quorum sensing via autoinducer-2 (AI-2), a universal signaling molecule that modulates bacterial colonization and IEC responses; for example, AI-2 from commensals promotes epithelial repair and reduces inflammation by influencing microbial community dynamics and host signaling.^[45]

Functions in Homeostasis

Nutrient processing and transport

The intestinal epithelium plays a central role in integrating luminal digestion with nutrient assimilation, primarily through the action of brush-border enzymes on the apical surface of enterocytes. These enzymes, such as lactase-phlorizin hydrolase and sucrase-isomaltase, catalyze the hydrolysis of disaccharides like lactose and sucrose into absorbable monosaccharides, including glucose and galactose, facilitating the final stages of carbohydrate breakdown that complement pancreatic secretions.^[25] Similarly, in lipid processing, bile salts emulsify dietary fats in the proximal small intestine, enabling micelle formation for efficient uptake, while the ileal epithelium actively reabsorbs over 95% of these bile salts via apical sodium-dependent transporters, supporting their recirculation to the liver through the portal vein and maintaining the enterohepatic cycle essential for ongoing fat digestion.^[25]^[46] Once internalized, nutrients are processed within enterocytes and transported systemically to support metabolic homeostasis. Glucose and other monosaccharides exit the basolateral membrane primarily via facilitative transporters like GLUT2, which equilibrates intracellular sugars with the bloodstream, allowing rapid delivery to peripheral tissues.^[25] Lipids, re-esterified into triglycerides within the endoplasmic reticulum, are packaged into chylomicrons and secreted apically into lacteals, entering the lymphatic system before joining the venous circulation via the thoracic duct, thereby bypassing initial hepatic processing.^[25]^[47] Homeostatic regulation of nutrient processing involves enteroendocrine cells within the epithelium that sense luminal contents and release hormones to coordinate digestive responses. For instance, cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted by I-cells in response to fats and proteins stimulates gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme release, enhancing luminal digestion while feedback mechanisms prevent overload.^[25]^[48] The epithelium adapts dynamically to nutritional states; postprandial hyperemia increases splanchnic blood flow by 30-50% to support heightened absorption rates, whereas fasting reduces epithelial cell turnover by up to 50%, conserving energy and minimizing unnecessary renewal.^[25]^[49]^[50] Quantitatively, the human intestinal epithelium absorbs approximately 9 liters of water and 100 grams of protein daily, underscoring its efficiency in maintaining fluid and nitrogen balance for systemic needs.^[25]

Defense and immune modulation

The intestinal epithelium serves as a frontline barrier against pathogens through the secretion of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) primarily from Paneth cells, which reside at the base of small intestinal crypts. These cells produce α-defensins such as human defensin 5 (HD5) and HD6, which disrupt bacterial membranes and limit microbial proliferation in the crypt lumen.^[51]^[52] Paneth cells also secrete lysozyme, an enzyme that hydrolyzes peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls, further contributing to innate antimicrobial defense.^[53] Complementing these mechanisms, goblet cells in the epithelium produce a mucus layer rich in mucins, which physically traps pathogens and prevents their adhesion to epithelial surfaces, thereby facilitating clearance by peristalsis and immune cells.^[54]^[55] Epithelial cells actively prime adaptive immune responses by secreting cytokines that modulate dendritic cell (DC) function and T cell differentiation. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and interleukin-33 (IL-33), released from intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in response to stress or microbial signals, condition DCs to promote type 2 immune responses and enhance antigen presentation to T cells.^[56]^[57] Additionally, IECs produce IL-23, which drives the differentiation and maintenance of Th17 cells, thereby supporting IL-17-mediated defense against extracellular bacteria and fungi at mucosal sites.^[58]^[59] Upon injury, the intestinal epithelium undergoes rapid wound healing through collective cell migration, where neighboring epithelial cells coordinate movement to reseal breaches without proliferation in the initial phase. This restitution process is accelerated by epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling, which activates receptor tyrosine kinases on IECs to promote lamellipodia formation and directed migration.^[60]^[61]^[62] In response to viral and bacterial threats, IECs mount targeted defenses via cytokine production and inflammasome pathways. Type III interferons (IFN-λ), secreted by IECs upon viral recognition, induce an antiviral state in neighboring epithelial cells by upregulating interferon-stimulated genes, effectively restricting viral spread while minimizing inflammation compared to type I interferons.^[63]^[64] For bacterial pathogens, activation of inflammasomes such as NAIP/NLRC4 in IECs leads to caspase-1-mediated processing of IL-1β and IL-18, promoting pyroptosis and expulsion of infected cells to limit bacterial invasion.^[65]^[66] Aging impairs these defensive functions, with reduced production of AMPs like HD5 in the elderly intestinal epithelium, leading to diminished antimicrobial activity and heightened susceptibility to infections. Recent studies indicate that this decline correlates with altered microbiota composition and increased inflammation, exacerbating vulnerability in older individuals.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Regulation of microbial symbiosis

The intestinal epithelium plays a pivotal role in regulating microbial symbiosis by creating specialized niches that support beneficial gut microbiota while maintaining host-microbial balance. One key mechanism involves the provision of mucus-derived glycans, which serve as a primary nutrient source for symbiotic bacteria such as Akkermansia muciniphila. This mucin-degrading bacterium colonizes the mucus layer, utilizing O-linked glycans through enzymes like sialidases and fucosidases to access carbon and nitrogen, thereby reinforcing the epithelial barrier and preventing excessive mucus degradation that could lead to dysbiosis.^[70] Additionally, radial oxygen gradients established by the epithelium favor the growth of anaerobic symbionts; oxygen diffuses from host tissues into the lumen but is rapidly consumed by facultative anaerobes near the epithelium, creating a low-oxygen environment deeper in the mucus that sustains obligate anaerobes essential for mutualistic interactions.^[71] Bidirectional signaling between the epithelium and microbiota further stabilizes symbiosis, with microbial metabolites like butyrate—produced by fermentative bacteria—enhancing epithelial integrity. Butyrate acts as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, promoting histone acetylation that upregulates tight junction proteins such as synaptopodin and claudins, thereby strengthening the barrier and reducing permeability to prevent microbial overgrowth.^[72] This metabolite also modulates epithelial gene expression to foster a symbiotic environment, illustrating how microbiota-derived signals reciprocally influence host epithelial function. To prevent dysbiosis, the epithelium employs regulatory circuits involving specialized cells. Tuft cells, sensing microbial or parasitic cues via metabolites like succinate, activate an ILC2-dependent type 2 immune response that limits helminth overgrowth and maintains microbial diversity by promoting epithelial remodeling without excessive inflammation.^[73] Complementing this, secretory IgA (sIgA) produced by the epithelium coats symbiotic bacteria, promoting their retention in the gut lumen and metabolic fitness while inhibiting pathogenic invasion, thus ensuring a stable microbial community.^[74] Developmentally, the microbiota shapes epithelial maturation post-weaning, when microbial colonization accelerates the transition from immature to adult-like epithelium. Neonatal microbiota primes goblet cell differentiation and mucin production, enhancing barrier maturation and adapting the epithelium to solid food digestion, with disruptions leading to delayed homeostasis.^[75] Recent advances as of 2025 highlight the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in IEC-microbiota communication, where bacterial EVs carry DNA for horizontal gene transfer to other microbes and host cells, facilitating genetic material exchange that modulates symbiotic adaptation and epithelial responses.^[76]

Clinical Significance

Role in intestinal diseases

The intestinal epithelium plays a central role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a group of chronic disorders including Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), where epithelial barrier dysfunction allows luminal antigens to penetrate the mucosa, perpetuating inflammation. In CD, inflammation is transmural, affecting all layers of the intestinal wall and often leading to fistulas and strictures, whereas UC is confined to the mucosal layer, primarily involving the colon with continuous inflammation. This barrier impairment precedes clinical symptoms and is driven by the IL-23/Th17 axis, where IL-23 promotes Th17 cell differentiation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-17 and IL-22, which disrupt tight junctions via upregulation of claudin-2 and myosin light chain kinase, increasing paracellular permeability.^[77]^[78] Epidemiological data indicate a rising prevalence of IBD in Western populations, with rates of approximately 0.7–0.8% in North America and higher in parts of Europe (e.g., 0.83% in Canada and 1.19% for Denmark as of 2025), reflecting ongoing increases despite stabilizing incidence in adults.^[79] In celiac disease, an autoimmune enteropathy triggered by gluten ingestion in genetically susceptible individuals, the intestinal epithelium exhibits heightened permeability due to gliadin-induced release of zonulin, a tight junction modulator that disassembles occludin and ZO-1 proteins, facilitating antigen translocation to the lamina propria and immune activation. This zonulin release is mediated by gliadin binding to CXCR3 receptors on enterocytes, activating a MyD88-dependent pathway that elevates intestinal permeability within hours of exposure. Concurrently, gliadin promotes intraepithelial lymphocytosis, characterized by an influx of CD8+ T cells and γδ T lymphocytes into the epithelium, contributing to villous atrophy and crypt hyperplasia.^[80]^[81] Infectious agents further highlight the epithelium's vulnerability, as seen in Clostridioides difficile infections where toxins A and B inactivate Rho GTPases (Rho, Rac, Cdc42), leading to F-actin depolymerization and redistribution of tight junction proteins like occludin and ZO-1 from membrane microdomains, thereby increasing paracellular permeability and enabling bacterial persistence. Similarly, norovirus, a leading cause of gastroenteritis, replicates efficiently in human intestinal enteroids derived from stem cells, targeting differentiated enterocytes while relying on progenitor-derived monolayers for propagation, which disrupts epithelial integrity and impairs barrier function during acute infection.^[82]^[83] Beyond inflammatory and infectious conditions, epithelial alterations underpin other disorders, such as colorectal cancer, where APC gene mutations in intestinal stem cells initiate tumorigenesis by destabilizing the β-catenin destruction complex, promoting Wnt signaling hyperactivation and clonal expansion of mutant crypts into adenomas. In short bowel syndrome following extensive resection, the remnant epithelium undergoes adaptive hyperplasia with increased villus height, crypt depth, and enterocyte proliferation, enhancing absorptive surface area through upregulated nutrient transporters like SGLT1, though this compensation often remains insufficient for full nutritional autonomy.^[84]^[85]

Advances in research and therapy

Recent advances in intestinal epithelium research have leveraged three-dimensional (3D) organoid models derived from intestinal stem cells to recapitulate the crypt-villus architecture and enable high-fidelity simulations of epithelial function. These patient-derived organoids maintain genomic and phenotypic fidelity to the donor tissue, facilitating personalized drug screening for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapies by assessing epithelial responses to candidate compounds in a controlled environment. For instance, organoids have been used to evaluate the efficacy of novel anti-inflammatory agents in restoring barrier integrity during IBD flares, accelerating the identification of therapeutics that target epithelial dysfunction.^[86]^[87]^[88] Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has unveiled significant heterogeneity in intestinal stem cell states, revealing dynamic transcriptional programs that govern epithelial renewal and differentiation. Studies have identified distinct stem cell subpopulations with varying proliferative capacities, influenced by niche signals, which contribute to tissue homeostasis under stress. In 2025, transcriptomic analyses demonstrated aging-related shifts in intestinal epithelial cells, including upregulated senescence-associated pathways and altered barrier gene expression in the colon, linking age-dependent decline to reduced regenerative potential.^[89]^[90] Therapeutic strategies targeting epithelial regeneration have progressed, with mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplants showing promise in preclinical and early clinical settings for repairing radiation- or chemotherapy-induced epithelial damage in IBD models. These cells promote epithelial proliferation and junctional integrity by secreting anti-inflammatory factors, with phase I/II trials reporting improved mucosal healing rates. Anti-TNF biologics, such as infliximab and adalimumab, restore tight junction proteins like claudins and occludins in the intestinal epithelium, enhancing barrier function and reducing permeability in active Crohn's disease patients.^[91]^[92]^[93] Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) modulates epithelial-microbiota symbiosis by enriching beneficial taxa that upregulate mucin production and antimicrobial peptides, thereby supporting epithelial homeostasis and reducing inflammation in ulcerative colitis.^[94]^[95] Emerging technologies include CRISPR-Cas9 editing of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) within organoids, enabling precise modeling of genetic variants associated with epithelial disorders and high-throughput screens for regulators of stem cell fate. This approach has identified key genes influencing epithelial maturation, with editing efficiencies exceeding 80% in human organoids. Additionally, AI-driven models predict intestinal permeability by integrating molecular descriptors and epithelial transcriptomic data, aiding in the design of drugs that preserve barrier function without empirical testing.^[96]^[97]^[98] Despite these innovations, challenges persist in translating organoid-derived insights to in vivo applications, including discrepancies in vascularization, immune interactions, and long-term stability that limit direct comparability to native epithelium. Ethical concerns with human-derived organoids encompass informed consent for tissue donation, potential for unintended sentience in complex models, and equitable access to personalized therapies derived from patient-specific lines.^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]

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In this review we discuss cell-cell adhesion complexes in the intestinal epithelial layer with a focus on the nuclear functions of adherens junction ...
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Gap junctions connect cells and allow passage of molecules, ion, and electrical impulses between them.
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Purpose of review SGLT1 mediates almost all sodium-dependent glucose uptake in the small intestine, while in the kidney SGLT2, and to a lesser extent SGLT1, ...
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Intestinal Barrier Function: Molecular Regulation and Disease ...
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Nov 18, 2023 · The hallmark function of the gut barrier entails the selective transport of luminal substances toward blood circulation, and it is determined by ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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It is well established that gastrointestinal blood flow increases after meals, a phenomenon referred to as postprandial or functional hyperemia.
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Paneth cell α-defensins and enteric microbiota in health and disease
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In the intestinal tract, type III IFNs have been shown to play a key role in helping to maintain this balance and protecting the intestinal epithelial cells ...
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Neonatal microbiota colonization primes maturation of goblet cell ...
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Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
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Jun 15, 2023 · IL-23 interacts with both the innate and adaptive immune systems, and IL-23/Th17 appears to be involved in the development of chronic intestinal inflammation.4.1. The Il-23-Th17 Axis · 4.3. Regulatory T Cells · 9. Treatment
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Global evolution of inflammatory bowel disease across ... - Nature
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Gliadin Induces an Increase in Intestinal Permeability and Zonulin ...
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Celiac Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 4, 2025 · Gliadin also increases intestinal permeability, allowing more peptides to pass through the intestinal barrier and interact with the immune ...
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Clostridium difficile Toxins Disrupt Epithelial Barrier Function by ...
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Polyclonality overcomes fitness barriers in Apc-driven tumorigenesis
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Intestinal adaptation after massive intestinal resection - PMC - NIH
Patients with short bowel syndrome require long term parenteral nutrition support. However, after massive intestinal resection the intestine undergoes ...
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Intestinal organoids in inflammatory bowel disease - Frontiers
Intestinal organoids are not only valuable for understanding disease mechanisms but are also revolutionizing drug discovery and personalized therapy for IBD.
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May 31, 2024 · We have summarized the current applications of intestinal organoid technology in disease modeling, drug screening, and regenerative medicine.
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Stem cell-derived intestinal organoids: a novel modality for IBD
Jul 21, 2023 · Intestinal organoids can be used for intestinal development and IBD disease modeling, drug/toxicity testing, and host-pathogen interaction ...
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Intestinal cellular heterogeneity and disease development revealed ...
Sep 1, 2022 · In this review, we summarize the single-cell RNA sequencing applications to understand intestinal cell characteristics, spatiotemporal evolution, and ...
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Tissue and cellular spatiotemporal dynamics in colon aging - Nature
Oct 22, 2025 · The cellular branch of the atlas encompassed a total of ~400,000 snRNA-seq profiles (n = 21), integrating newly generated and publicly available ...
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The therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cells in intestinal ...
Jul 21, 2025 · MSCs alleviate chemotherapy-induced intestinal damage by promoting the regeneration and repair of intestinal epithelial cells, thereby improving ...
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The therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cells in intestinal ...
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Anti-TNF-α antibodies improve intestinal barrier function in Crohn's ...
The present study demonstrates that anti-TNF-α antibodies are able to restore the impaired intestinal permeability of patients with active Crohn's disease.Missing: biologics | Show results with:biologics
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Therapeutic faecal microbiota transplantation controls intestinal ...
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Fecal microbiota transplantation and next-generation therapies
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[96]
An organoid-based CRISPR-Cas9 screen for regulators of intestinal ...
Jul 12, 2023 · Our approach demonstrates the utility of organoid models in the identification of factors regulating cell fate and state transitions during tissue maturation.
[97]
Efficient genetic editing of human intestinal organoids using ...
Oct 5, 2023 · Here, we describe an efficient method for intestinal organoid editing using a ribonucleoprotein-based CRISPR approach. Editing efficiencies of ...
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Artificial Intelligence-Based Quantitative Structure–Property ...
Apr 18, 2023 · Sun et al. focused on permeability prediction through the intestinal wall expressed as Peff (human effective intestinal membrane permeability).
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Technological advances and challenges in constructing complex gut ...
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Intestinal organoids: roadmap to the clinic
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Organoids: a systematic review of ethical issues
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Ethical issues in human organoid and gastruloid research
Mar 15, 2017 · Research involving human organoids and gastruloids involves ethical issues associated with their derivation as well as their current and future uses.