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Ken Jacobs

Ken Jacobs (May 25, 1933 – October 5, 2025) was an American experimental filmmaker and a pioneering figure in , known for his innovative manipulations of found footage, of cinematic illusions, and development of "paracinema" performance techniques that blurred the boundaries between film, video, and live projection. Born in the Williamsburg section of , , to working-class Jewish parents, Jacobs grew up in a creative environment that shaped his artistic sensibilities, initially exploring painting under the tutelage of Abstract Expressionist master from 1956 to 1957. His transition to began in 1955, influenced by the art scene of the 1950s and 1960s, where he collaborated with figures like on early "guerrilla " projects such as Blonde Cobra (1963) and Little Stabs at Happiness (1960). Jacobs' career spanned over seven decades, marked by relentless experimentation with form and perception; he founded the Millennium Film Workshop in from 1966 to 1968, fostering the next generation of independent filmmakers, and later established the Department of Cinema at (now SUNY Binghamton) in 1969, where he taught as a professor from 1974 until his retirement as Distinguished Professor of Cinema around 2000. Among his most influential works is Tom, Tom, the Piper’s Son (1969), a seminal of a 1905 that explores loops, , and optical illusions, earning induction into the . Other landmark films include Star Spangled to Death (2004, a seven-hour epic on American culture using archival footage) and Perfect Film (1986), which repurposes reactions to the 1963 to critique media spectacle. A hallmark of Jacobs' oeuvre was his invention of the "" in the 1970s, a dual-projection setup that created pulsating, three-dimensional effects from static images without digital aids, later evolving into the "Nervous Magic Lantern," a mechanical device simulating early cinema illusions using 19th-century glass slides. His works often interrogated the viewer's nervous system and perceptual limits, drawing from early cinema, , and to challenge narrative conventions and in moving images. Jacobs received numerous accolades, including the Award (1994), a (1995), and the Vision Award (2004), and his films were featured in retrospectives at institutions like the (1996) and the Whitney Biennials (1981–2002). He died of in a hospital at age 92, survived by his son, filmmaker , leaving a legacy as a foundational influence on experimental media arts.

Early life and education

Birth and family background

Kenneth Martin Jacobs was born on May 25, 1933, in the Williamsburg section of , , to a working-class Jewish family of first-generation immigrants from . His parents were divorced prior to his birth, and he was initially raised by his mother, Janice Rosenthal—known as —a writer and artist who submitted short stories to publishers but whose work remained unpublished. His father, a former player, played a limited role in his upbringing amid the family's broken home dynamics. When Jacobs was seven years old, his mother died, leaving him to be raised primarily by his father in modest circumstances, though the paternal figure was often distant and uninvolved. No siblings are documented in available accounts of his early life. Growing up in the poorest neighborhood of during the and era, Jacobs experienced the vibrant yet gritty urban environment of 1930s–1940s Williamsburg, a bilingual enclave of and English spoken by and immigrant families. This setting, centered around his home on Berry Street with views of the and skyline, fostered an early fascination with the motion and spectacle of everyday street life, which he later described as "Wizard of Oz-like" in its blend of the ordinary and the strangely wondrous. From a young age, he played independently in the streets, protected by a tight-knit community that watched over children, exposing him to the raw visuals of immigrant life and urban hustle—precursors to his lifelong interest in capturing mundane movements and visual rhythms. These formative experiences in a socioeconomically humble, culturally rich milieu laid the groundwork for his artistic sensibilities in the ensuing decade.

Artistic influences and training

Ken Jacobs began experimenting with drawing and painting in the mid-1950s, producing works that reflected his emerging interest in visual form and . These early pieces, some of which survive and are documented in his personal archive, demonstrate tentative explorations of gesture and composition, often executed on modest materials amid his urban surroundings. His upbringing provided a rich visual inspiration, with the bustling streetscapes of the neighborhood fueling his initial artistic impulses. In 1956–1957, Jacobs enrolled in painting classes taught by , a pivotal figure in , where he studied techniques emphasizing spontaneous gesture, bold color application, and the emotional intensity of the School. Hofmann's classroom, offered at little or no cost to aspiring artists, exposed Jacobs to the vibrant milieu of postwar American painting, including influences from artists like and . Central to this training was Hofmann's concept of "push-pull" dynamics, which involved creating illusions of depth and movement through contrasting colors and forms on the flat canvas, a principle that profoundly shaped Jacobs' perceptual experiments. This approach later informed his filmmaking, where he manipulated space and viewer perception to evoke similar tensions between illusion and reality. Jacobs' initial interest in film was sparked around 1955, prior to his first productions, through encounters with cinema history at the , where he explored silent films and early animations as a teenager. These screenings, beginning in his youth, ignited a fascination with the mechanics of motion and projection, leading him to draft early movie scripts without yet committing to creation. This pre-filmmaking phase marked a gradual shift from static painting toward dynamic visual media, bridging his abstract expressionist roots with future innovations in moving images.

Entry into avant-garde film

New York underground scene

In the early 1960s, Ken Jacobs relocated to , immersing himself in the vibrant downtown art scene that defined 's underground culture. This period coincided with the rise of figures such as and , alongside the lingering influence of the , including writers like , fostering an environment of experimental expression and countercultural energy. Jacobs engaged actively in this milieu, participating in informal gatherings and artistic exchanges that blurred lines between visual arts, poetry, and performance. Jacobs was also a founding member of the Film-Makers' Cooperative in 1961, which distributed independent films and supported the experimental community. A pivotal relationship in this scene was Jacobs' close friendship with , which began in the late 1950s and deepened through shared living arrangements in lofts that served as creative hubs. They influenced each other profoundly, with Smith's flamboyant style contributing to Jacobs' exploration of performance aesthetics, including elements of that challenged conventional and artistic norms in theater. These interactions not only shaped their mutual artistic development but also exemplified the collaborative spirit of the era's networks. In 1966, Jacobs co-founded the Millennium Film Workshop with his wife, Flo Jacobs, establishing a key venue in for screenings, discussions, and equipment access that supported the burgeoning community. He frequently attended events at the Filmmakers' Cinematheque, where exposure to international works, including those of , reinforced his commitment to an anti-narrative approach that prioritized sensory experience over traditional storytelling. This engagement with global influences solidified Jacobs' role within the scene, emphasizing innovation and communal exploration.

Initial films and collaborations

Ken Jacobs began his filmmaking career in the late with ambitious projects that blended staged and found footage to critique American society. His earliest major work, Star Spangled to Death, was initiated between 1956 and 1960 using 16mm film, incorporating everyday scenes of urban life and discarded archival material to evoke a sense of national disillusionment and cultural excess. This sprawling project, shot on a limited budget, remained unfinished for decades until its release in 2004, laying the groundwork for Jacobs' experimental style through its raw portrayal of decay and personal vignettes. During this period, Jacobs created the Little Stabs at Happiness series (1958–1963), a collection of handmade 16mm animations featuring cutout figures and everyday objects manipulated to explore themes of , motion, and fleeting joy. These short films, often screened in varying versions, served as a respite from larger undertakings like Star Spangled to Death, emphasizing playful yet poignant disruptions of conventional narrative through stop-motion techniques and aesthetics. The series captured the chaotic energy of City's bohemian underbelly, using simple materials to highlight the surreal in the mundane. A pivotal collaboration emerged in Blonde Cobra (1963), a 16mm co-created with , edited from abandoned footage shot by Smith and Bob Fleischner, featuring Smith's drag performances amid chaotic, rapid-cut sequences that portrayed underground excess and performative frenzy. This work exemplified Jacobs' collaborative process, drawing on performers like the eccentric Jerry Sims—who appeared in early Star Spangled to Death footage as a symbol of urban poverty and intellectual bitterness—to document the gritty, decaying landscapes of 1950s–1960s . These partnerships, fostered through friendships in the New York underground scene, provided access to raw, unfiltered subjects that infused Jacobs' films with authentic depictions of societal margins.

Academic career

Binghamton University contributions

Ken Jacobs joined Harpur College (now ) in 1969 following a guest seminar that prompted students to petition the administration for his hiring, leading to the co-founding of the Cinema Department that same year alongside Larry Gottheim. This established one of the earliest academic programs dedicated to cinema in the United States, prioritizing experimental moving image arts over conventional narrative filmmaking. Jacobs' background in the New York underground scene briefly informed the department's emphasis on innovative, non-commercial practices. The curriculum under Jacobs' leadership focused on hands-on production, integrating with practical access to cameras, equipment, and projection tools, which set it apart from Hollywood-oriented programs prevalent at the time. He recruited key collaborators, including Larry Gottheim as co-founder and chair, and his wife Flo Jacobs, fostering a collaborative faculty environment that drew from the community. This approach encouraged interdisciplinary exploration, with faculty like Gottheim contributing to a syllabus that balanced theoretical analysis and creative experimentation. Jacobs oversaw the expansion of departmental facilities, including dedicated screening rooms for regular showings and the development of archives to preserve experimental works, alongside the establishment of the Experimental Television Center in 1970 by faculty member Ralph Hocking. The department also began hosting events to showcase avant-garde films, evolving into annual festivals such as the Student Experimental Film Festival (SEFF), which highlights student and emerging experimental shorts from across the country. These initiatives solidified Binghamton's role as a hub for avant-garde education and exhibition.

Teaching methods and student impact

Ken Jacobs' teaching at emphasized an unconventional centered on expanding students' perceptions of , treating classes as experimental laboratories where participants explored the mechanics of , motion, and viewer experience. Students engaged in hands-on workshops, building devices to manipulate projections and investigate optical illusions, which encouraged a deeper understanding of as a tool for questioning reality rather than passive . This approach, rooted in the he co-founded in , prioritized the "seeing" process over narrative conventions, fostering critical engagement with the medium's perceptual foundations. Jacobs mentored students on an individual basis, recognizing each as a unique thinker and encouraging personal experimentation in over pursuits of commercial success. Notable protégés included Lynne Sachs, a former student who became an acclaimed experimental documentarian, and , who developed into a prominent film critic; his guidance inspired them to innovate within underground cinema traditions. Through sharp, impassioned critiques and improvised lectures that juxtaposed diverse ideas, Jacobs cultivated a supportive community, where students not only created films but also critiqued and performed works collectively, laying the groundwork for broader influences in global experimental . He integrated live performances into his curriculum, such as demonstrations of his apparatus—a dual-projector setup generating three-dimensional effects from archival footage—which served as dynamic teaching tools to demonstrate perceptual manipulation in real time. This method not only honed technical skills but also instilled an ethical dimension to , prompting students to interrogate societal and visual norms; alumni like Phil Solomon carried these principles forward, shaping international practices. Jacobs retired around 2000 as of , becoming Professor Emeritus, but maintained ties to Binghamton through guest lectures and screenings into the , including a 2012 campus visit to present recent works and engage with emerging filmmakers. His enduring impact is evident in the generations of students who advanced experimental worldwide, perpetuating his legacy through their own innovative contributions.

Filmmaking techniques and innovations

Structural and found footage approaches

Ken Jacobs pioneered structural filmmaking techniques in the by reworking found footage to emphasize the medium's formal properties, such as duration, repetition, and visual rhythm, rather than narrative progression. In his seminal work Tom, Tom, the Piper’s Son (1969), Jacobs rephotographed a 1905 silent directed by , extending its ten-minute runtime to nearly two hours through meticulous looping and magnification of individual frames. This approach deconstructs the original's comedic chase scene by isolating gestures and movements, repeating segments to reveal perceptual shifts and the illusionistic nature of early cinema, effectively turning the film into an archaeological excavation of cinematic time and space. Building on this foundation, Jacobs developed the Nervous System apparatus in the mid-1970s, a live system that bypassed traditional editing to generate optical effects from static images. Consisting of two synchronized 16mm projectors fed with paired strips of found , the setup created through variable shutter speeds and depth by offsetting the projectors by a single frame, producing three-dimensional illusions without the need for cuts or special glasses after initial refinements. Performed often at , where Jacobs taught, the Nervous System transformed archival material—such as urban photographs or early —into dynamic, pulsating visuals that explored and perceptual instability, extending sessions to over an hour to induce viewer disorientation. Jacobs further advanced these methods in later Nervous System works derived from found footage of urban scenes, where he rearranged and looped image sequences to uncover latent patterns and optical illusions. By shuffling frames akin to linguistic anagrams, Jacobs revealed hidden spatial relationships and rhythmic abstractions in everyday settings, such as crowds and architecture, emphasizing film's capacity to reorder reality and expose underlying visual structures. These innovations were theoretically aligned with the structuralist , particularly the ideas of Hollis Frampton, who advocated for cinema's focus on material processes over storytelling, viewing narrative as a haunting specter to be exorcised through formal experimentation. , a contemporary and collaborator in New York's underground scene, shared Frampton's interest in film's ontological essence, using found footage not as but as for dissecting illusion and , thereby prioritizing the viewer's sensory engagement with the medium itself.

3D, digital, and performance experiments

In the 1990s, Ken Jacobs began transitioning from analog to and computer-based tools, marking a significant in his structural foundations that enabled new explorations of and motion. This shift allowed him to manipulate found and still images with unprecedented precision, creating illusions of depth and movement without traditional narrative or linear progression. Jacobs pioneered the use of techniques in works such as Gift of Fire: Nineteen (Obscure) Frames That Changed The World (2007), where he transformed historical still photographs into immersive depth experiences viewed through red-cyan glasses. In this film, he layered slightly offset images to simulate from static sources, evoking a sense of historical resurrection and perceptual disorientation. He further refined this approach in Anaglyph Tom (Tom with Puffy Cheeks) (2008), revisiting footage from his earlier Tom, Tom, the Piper's Son (1969) by digitally altering early 20th-century material to produce pulsating 3D effects that distort time and viewer expectation. In Razzle Dazzle: The Lost World (2008), Jacobs extended anaglyph methods to a circa one-minute Edison clip from , expanding it into an approximately 90-minute silent that emphasized and spatial illusion, demonstrating how digital processing could revive obsolete cinema for contemporary . Parallel to his 3D innovations, Jacobs embraced digital looping to animate archival material, producing infinite variations through software manipulation of found footage. A key example is Celestial Subway Lines/Salvaging Noise (2005), a collaboration with composer , where Jacobs digitized and looped urban imagery—evoking subways and flickering lights—to generate hypnotic, non-narrative sequences that mimic eternal motion. This technique, rooted in his interest in perceptual persistence, allowed for real-time adjustments and endless recombinations, transforming static sources into dynamic, software-driven explorations of urban ephemerality. Jacobs' live projector performances evolved from his analog "Nervous System" apparatus—developed in the 1970s for dual-projection manipulations—into digital "Eternalisms" starting in the late , where he alternated pairs of slightly shifted still images to create illusory movement and depth in real-time. These performances, often presented in galleries and festivals, manipulated audience perception through stroboscopic flicker and cross-eyed viewing techniques that required no , fostering a shared, immersive experience of simulated from immobility. Eternalisms extended the 's improvisational into the digital realm, allowing Jacobs to adjust projections on the fly and explore themes of illusion and eternity during live events. Throughout these experiments, Jacobs frequently collaborated with his wife, Flo Jacobs, on digital projects that included archiving and restoring early works for modern exhibition. Their joint efforts produced films like Cyclopean 3D: Life with a Beautiful Woman (2011), an piece celebrating their fiftieth anniversary through layered personal photographs that created intimate depth effects. Additionally, they co-directed Ulysses in the Subway (2017), a work that transforms an archival audio recording of a subway ride into abstract, variable visual scenes using software, highlighting their shared commitment to preserving and innovating with Jacobs' vast film legacy through digital means. Jacobs continued these digital experiments into the 2020s, creating additional Eternalisms and pieces that sustained his interrogation of and .

Major works

1950s–1970s films

Ken Jacobs began his filmmaking career in the 1950s with ambitious projects that laid the groundwork for his critique of American society, including early underground shorts. His collaborations with in the scene produced Little Stabs at Happiness (1960, 14:57 min, color, sound), a series of vignettes capturing absurd and poetic moments of urban life. This was followed by Blonde Cobra (1963, 33 min, color and b&w, sound), a guerrilla-style portrait of Smith's flamboyant , blending performance and to challenge social norms. His earliest major work, Star Spangled to Death (filmed 1956–1960, completed 2004), is a monumental seven-hour exploration of U.S. cultural contradictions, assembled from found footage and original scenes featuring non-professional actors like and Jerry Sims, who embody archetypes of alienation and absurdity in post-war America. This sprawling narrative dissects , , and through disjointed vignettes, reflecting Jacobs' early fascination with the underbelly of urban life and the emptiness of the . By the late 1960s, Jacobs shifted toward structural experimentation, most notably in (1969), a 30-minute rephotography of the 1905 Biograph short of the same name. Through meticulous looping, freezing, and magnification of the original footage depicting a chaotic street scene, the film probes the nature of time, perception, and memory, transforming a simple narrative into a hypnotic meditation on film's materiality and the viewer's gaze. This work marked a pivotal evolution in Jacobs' oeuvre, emphasizing deconstruction over straightforward storytelling and influencing subsequent structuralist cinema. In the mid-1960s, Jacobs turned his lens inward to domestic spaces, as seen in (1964), a 12-minute silent color film shot on 8mm that frames everyday life through a literal window, creating a voyeuristic tableau of movement and light in his home environment. This approach extended to his estate project films from the same year, including (50 minutes) and (64 minutes), both silent 8mm works capturing intimate, unscripted moments of family and urban periphery with a painterly emphasis on texture and transience. These pieces highlight Jacobs' interest in the poetry of the ordinary, using constrained framing to evoke isolation amid the bustle of . Throughout the decade, Jacobs' shorts increasingly incorporated themes of absurdity, urban alienation, and anti-war sentiment, often through collaborative efforts in the underground. Such works, employing found footage briefly as a tool for thematic disruption, solidified Jacobs' reputation for provocative, socially charged experimentation.

1980s–2025 projects

In the and , Jacobs continued to explore live performance and projection techniques through his apparatus, producing works like The Whole Shebang (1982, 70 minutes), a multi-projector that manipulated and to create pulsating optical illusions from abstract forms. This period marked a shift toward more immersive, site-specific presentations, often involving dual 16mm projectors to generate synthetic motion and depth without traditional narrative. A key example from this era is Perfect Film (1986, 23:57 min, color and b&w, sound), which repurposes found footage of crowd reactions to the 1963 , looping and isolating faces to critique media sensationalism and collective response. By the late , Jacobs transitioned to digital tools, as seen in (1999, 10 minutes), where he digitally altered a 1905 street scene to produce rhythmic, clock-like pulsations that evoke temporal disorientation and hypnotic repetition. The early 2000s saw Jacobs delve deeper into digital manipulation of historical footage, exemplified by the Celestial Subway Lines series (2002–2003, approximately 68 minutes in performance format), a collaboration with composer that used a modified to project and animate 1905 footage, transforming urban scenes into ethereal, star-like abstractions with swirling colors and motion for mesmerizing, otherworldly effects. This series highlighted Jacobs' interest in salvaging and reanimating early to reveal hidden visual poetry, often performed live to enhance the hypnotic immersion. One of Jacobs' most ambitious late-career achievements was Star Spangled to Death (2004, 440 minutes), a sprawling found-footage begun in the 1950s and incorporating 1960s material, which critiques American consumerism, racial injustice, and cultural excess through juxtaposed clips of minstrel shows, advertisements, and political imagery, narrated by Jacobs and featuring interventions like intertitles and . Released after decades of editing, the film synthesizes earlier experiments into a monumental anti-epic, blending humor, , and historical reflection to indict societal ills. In the mid-2000s, Jacobs focused on restoration and reinterpretation of early 20th-century films, notably Ghetto Fishmarket 1903 (2007, 132 minutes), which reworks Thomas Edison's 1903 footage of Jewish immigrants on the , applying digital frame-by-frame colorization and motion enhancement to animate the bustling market scene, emphasizing communal vitality and the passage of time. This project underscores Jacobs' commitment to reviving obscured histories, transforming silent, degraded archival material into a vibrant, meditative portrait of urban immigrant life. Similarly, Return to the Scene of the Crime (2008, 93 minutes) revisits the 1905 firehouse footage from his seminal 1969 film , using digital interpolation to fill in missing frames and create fluid, dreamlike movements among the firefighters, thereby extending and complicating his lifelong engagement with . Into the 2010s and 2020s, Jacobs produced shorter digital animations and 3D experiments, such as the 3-D Eternalisms series (2014–2017), including Popeye Sees 3D (22 minutes), which manipulates static cartoon images into perpetual motion illusions viewed through red-cyan glasses, exploring perceptual eternity. These late works often involved family collaborations, including with his son Azazel Jacobs, on digital animations that refined optical tricks from earlier footage. The Eternalisms continued into the 2020s with pieces like Double Wow (2021) and XCXHXEXRXRXIXEXSX (2022), maintaining his focus on perceptual innovation and historical reclamation in concise formats up to his death in 2025.

Personal life and death

Marriage and family

Ken Jacobs met his future wife, Florence "Flo" Jacobs (née Beth Karpf), in the summer of 1961 in , where both were involved in artistic circles; they married in the early 1960s and shared a partnership that lasted over six decades until her death in 2025. , an artist in her own right who initially pursued painting, became an integral collaborator in Jacobs' experimental filmmaking, contributing to editing, production logistics, and archival management throughout their marriage. The couple had two children: daughter Nisi Ariana Jacobs, a multimedia artist, and son , born September 27, 1972, who grew up to become a narrative filmmaker known for works like Momma's Man (2008). In Momma's Man, Ken and Flo appeared as actors portraying Azazel's parents, blurring the lines between their family dynamics and artistic output; the family also participated in joint festival screenings, such as the 2013 series "Ken Jacobs & Family," which highlighted works involving Nisi and Azazel. During Jacobs' tenure as a at from 1969 to 2002, the family relocated to , where they balanced domestic life with ongoing experimental pursuits; Flo managed the practical aspects of their home-based film production, including handling prints and equipment amid the demands of raising young children. This period saw Flo's hands-on involvement in restorations, such as the 1971 version of (1969), and co-direction of live performances using the apparatus—a dual-projector setup for improvised 3D effects that they operated together at screenings. Family footage from their Binghamton years appeared in films like Urban Peasants (1975), capturing everyday domestic scenes as raw material for structural experimentation.

Final years and passing

Following his retirement from teaching at in late 2002 after over three decades, Jacobs entered a phase of semi-retirement while remaining based in his longtime loft in , where he continued producing digital shorts and delivering lectures on experimental cinema through the 2010s and into the 2020s. In the , Jacobs faced age-related health challenges, including declining mobility, yet persisted with creative work, releasing numerous digital animations and providing insights into his techniques as late as August 2024. Supported by his family, including son , he maintained this output from home amid these difficulties. Jacobs died on October 5, 2025, at age 92 in , following a short illness attributed to ; this came just four months after the death of his wife, Florence Jacobs, on June 4, 2025. Immediate tributes from the community emphasized his profound impact, with institutions like posting remembrances and organizing memorial screenings of his works in the weeks following his passing.

Awards and legacy

Key awards and honors

In 1994, Ken Jacobs received the Award from the , recognizing his lifetime achievement in independent and . The following year, 1995, he was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship, which supported his mid-career experiments, including developments in his projection performances. Jacobs' visionary contributions to cinema were further honored in 2004 with the Vision Award from the USA Film Festival, celebrating his innovative approaches to film structure and perception. Throughout his career, Jacobs secured multiple grants from prestigious institutions, including several from the —such as a special grant in 1999—and ongoing support from the spanning the 1970s to the 1990s. In the , he received a Creative Capital Award in 2012 to fund new moving image projects, alongside a Artists Fellowship in 2014, which acknowledged his enduring impact on media arts. His long tenure as a professor at from 1969 to 2002 bolstered his prestige within academic and artistic circles.

Influence on experimental cinema

Ken Jacobs's emphasis on perception and the materiality of film profoundly inspired subsequent generations of structuralist filmmakers, who adopted his techniques to interrogate the medium's illusions and physical properties. Filmmakers such as Abigail Child drew from Jacobs's performative approaches to montage and improvisation, integrating them into their own explorations of fragmentation and viewer engagement, as evidenced in Child's analysis of Jacobs's oeuvre as a model for dynamic, audience-involved cinema. Similarly, Su Friedrich's structuralist works echoed Jacobs's focus on perceptual disruption and material texture, building on his legacy of transforming everyday footage into meditative inquiries into form and reality within the New York avant-garde tradition. Jacobs played a pivotal role in preserving early cinema through collaborative restorations, which advanced archival practices at institutions like the (MoMA). His partnership with MoMA led to the restoration of key works such as Orchard Street (1955) and Urban Peasants (1975), emphasizing the recovery and re-presentation of analog materials to highlight their historical and aesthetic value, thereby influencing how experimental films are conserved and exhibited in major collections. Through his critical writings and lectures, Jacobs shaped film theory by challenging notions of illusion and promoting viewer agency in experimental cinema. In essays published in Millennium Film Journal, such as "Painted Air: The Joys and Sorrows of Evanescent Cinema," he critiqued narrative-driven illusionism, advocating instead for films that expose projection mechanisms and invite active audience participation, as seen in his discussions of works like The Nervous System that blend performance with perceptual play. Following his death in October 2025, obituaries in prominent publications underscored Jacobs's enduring legacy as a pioneer who bridged analog and digital eras in experimental cinema. highlighted his transition from early found-footage manipulations to digital innovations, positioning him as a foundational figure whose techniques continue to redefine the medium's boundaries. similarly recognized his pioneering manipulations of and projection, affirming his influence on the movement's evolution from physical materiality to computational possibilities.

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