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Lathyrus

Lathyrus is a genus of approximately 150 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants in the legume family Fabaceae, commonly known as vetchlings or peavines.^[1] These plants are characterized by their often climbing or sprawling growth habit, supported by branched tendrils derived from modified leaflets, with even-pinnate leaves, showy papilionaceous flowers in shades of white, yellow, pink, purple, or blue, and flattened, dehiscent legume pods containing 3–15 seeds.^[1] Native primarily to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, Asia, North Africa, and North America, the genus has a center of diversity in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions, with some species extending to tropical East Africa and South America; many are widely naturalized or cultivated globally.^[1]^[2] The genus exhibits significant morphological diversity, including variations in stem winginess, leaf complexity (from 0 to 18 leaflets), and stipule shape, with most species diploid (2n = 14) and unarmed, though some bear unicellular or multicellular hairs.^[1] Economically, Lathyrus species hold value as ornamentals, such as the fragrant sweet pea (L. odoratus), bred for over two centuries into thousands of cultivars with vibrant flowers; as drought- and disease-resistant food crops like the grass pea (L. sativus), a protein-rich pulse used in arid regions since Neolithic times; and as fodder plants including L. cicera and L. hirsutus.^[2]^[3] However, several species, particularly L. sativus, contain β-N-oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP), a neurotoxin that can cause lathyrism—a debilitating neurological disorder—upon excessive consumption, limiting their widespread adoption despite nutritional benefits.^[4] Taxonomically, Lathyrus belongs to the tribe Fabeae and is the second-largest genus in the tribe after Vicia, with ongoing revisions reflecting its complex evolutionary history, including rare polyploidy and adaptations to diverse habitats from coastal dunes to alpine meadows.^[1] While many species serve ecological roles in nitrogen fixation and as wildlife food sources, invasive tendencies in some naturalized taxa, like the everlasting pea (L. latifolius), pose challenges in certain ecosystems.^[5]

Taxonomy

Etymology and History

The genus name Lathyrus derives from the Ancient Greek lathuros (λάθυρος), an ancient term for a type of vetch or pea-like plant, as used by the botanist Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants around 300 BCE to describe wild legumes such as those resembling Lathyrus sativus or L. maritimus.^[6]^[7] The etymology's precise origin remains uncertain, but one interpretation links it to Greek la (meaning "very" or "enhance") combined with thouros (stimulant), possibly alluding to the historical use of Lathyrus seeds in medicinal preparations like the purgative "farina ervi."^[1] Species of Lathyrus have been recognized and utilized since ancient times in Mediterranean agriculture, where legumes such as L. sativus (grass pea) and L. cicera (chickling vetch) were cultivated for food and fodder, as evidenced by archaeological remains and texts from the Iberian Peninsula and Greek islands dating back over 3,500 years.^[8]^[9] The genus was formally established in modern botany by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum (1753), where he described several species and distinguished Lathyrus from related genera like Pisum (pea), though early synonyms persisted due to morphological similarities.^[10] Throughout the 19th century, European botanical explorations significantly expanded the known diversity of Lathyrus, with collectors documenting new species from regions including the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and North America, leading to monographic works such as Alvin C. Beal's A Study of the Genus Lathyrus (1910) that synthesized classifications based on morphology and geography.^[11] These efforts built on Linnaean foundations, incorporating observations from global expeditions, and paved the way for later taxonomic revisions, such as Frances K. Kupicha's sectional division of the genus into 13 groups in 1983.^[12]

Classification

The genus Lathyrus is placed within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Fabales, family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae, tribe Fabeae, and genus Lathyrus L.^[13]^[14] This hierarchical classification reflects its position among the legumes, a diverse family characterized by nitrogen-fixing capabilities and compound leaves. The genus was formally established by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum (1753), where it was described as including climbing herbs with pinnate leaves and tendrils, and it holds conserved status (nom. cons.) under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants to maintain nomenclatural stability.^[13] Phylogenetically, Lathyrus belongs to the tribe Fabeae, where it forms a closely related clade with genera such as Vicia (vetches) and Pisum (peas), supported by shared morphological traits like stipitate gynophores and similar floral structures.^[12] Molecular studies using chloroplast DNA sequences have confirmed the monophyly of Lathyrus, resolving its relationships within Fabeae and indicating a temperate origin with subsequent diversification.^[15]^[16] Infrageneric classification, primarily following Kupicha's 1983 revision, divides the genus into 13 sections based on morphological features including seed surface patterns, pod dehiscence, and style twisting; notable sections include Lathyrus (with flattened pods and smooth seeds) and Orobus (with terete stems and pubescent pods), the latter formerly recognized as a distinct genus from which several species were transferred in the 19th and 20th centuries.^[15] The taxonomy of Lathyrus is accepted as circumscribed by authoritative sources like Plants of the World Online and World Flora Online, encompassing approximately 183 species (as of 2025) with no major generic synonyms, though sectional synonyms persist from pre-molecular era classifications.^[13]^[14] Recent molecular phylogenies have largely validated Kupicha's sections but suggest minor refinements, such as merging or redefining groups like Orobon based on DNA evidence.^[12]^[17]

Description

Morphological Characteristics

Lathyrus species are herbaceous plants, either annual or perennial, that exhibit a range of growth habits including erect, sprawling, or climbing forms, and are unarmed throughout.^[1] The stems are typically angled or winged, glabrous or pubescent, and in climbing species can reach heights of up to 3 meters, supported by twining tendrils.^[1]^[18] Vegetatively, the leaves are alternate and even-pinnate, with 0 to 9 pairs of leaflets (0–18 leaflets) that are entire-margined and glabrous or pubescent on the surfaces; the rachis often ends in a branched or simple tendril, while stipules are present and range from small to foliose, often semisagittate at the base.^[1] The roots form a taproot system or arise from rhizomes, featuring nitrogen-fixing nodules formed in symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria, which enable atmospheric nitrogen assimilation.^[1]^[19] Reproductively, the flowers are zygomorphic and papilionaceous, arranged in axillary racemes of 1 to 20 blooms or occasionally solitary; each corolla measures 6–30 mm and displays colors ranging from white and yellow to pink and purple.^[1] The fruits are linear, dehiscent legumes that are flattened or terete, typically containing 3–15 seeds per pod.^[1]

Growth Forms

Lathyrus species exhibit diverse life cycle strategies adapted to varying environmental pressures, primarily comprising annuals and perennials. Annual species, such as Lathyrus odoratus and L. sativus, complete their life cycle within a single growing season, emphasizing rapid seed production to exploit ephemeral resources in xeric or disturbed habitats.^[20]^[21] Perennials, including L. latifolius and L. sylvestris, achieve longevity through rhizomatous or taprooted growth, allowing persistence over multiple years and repeated reproduction.^[22]^[21] Architectural adaptations in Lathyrus reflect functional strategies for resource acquisition and structural support. Climbing species, like many perennials, employ twining tendrils derived from the main leaf axis to ascend supports, facilitating access to light in dense vegetation.^[22] Erect or prostrate forms predominate in open areas, with stems that are angled, flanged, or winged to enhance stability or dispersal.^[22] Seasonal growth patterns, including vegetative elongation and flowering initiation, are modulated by photoperiod, as seen in L. odoratus where longer day lengths (12–24 hours) accelerate bud formation following vernalization.^[23] Development proceeds through distinct stages, beginning with germination of hard-coated seeds that exhibit dormancy due to impermeable seed coats, as documented in L. maritimus.^[24] Scarification or natural abrasion breaks this barrier, enabling imbibition and radicle emergence, often requiring 7–15 days under optimal conditions. The vegetative phase follows with rapid stem and leaf elongation, supported by tendrils for climbing forms. Reproductive maturity typically occurs within one season for annuals, while perennials reach it in 1–2 years, sustaining productivity across seasons.^[24]^[22]

Diversity

Species Diversity

The genus Lathyrus encompasses approximately 183 accepted species worldwide, as documented in the Plants of the World Online database, reflecting a stable taxonomic consensus into 2025.^[13] These species exhibit a predominantly temperate distribution, with the highest concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere: roughly 52 species native to Europe, 30 to North America, 78 to Asia, alongside smaller numbers in tropical East Africa (24 species) and temperate South America (24 species).^[25] Infragenerically, Lathyrus is classified into 13 sections primarily based on morphological traits such as inflorescence structure, style torsion, and seed characteristics, as established by Kupicha in 1983—a system that integrates geographic patterns and remains widely adopted. This classification highlights regional endemism, particularly in the Mediterranean basin, where the eastern Mediterranean and Pontic regions serve as a primary center of diversity, hosting numerous species restricted to specific microhabitats like coastal dunes and montane grasslands.^[26] Conservation concerns affect a subset of Lathyrus species, with several classified as threatened primarily due to habitat loss from urbanization, agriculture, and climate change; notable examples include L. belinensis (critically endangered in Turkey)^[27] and L. biflorus (rare in California).^[28] Overall, endemics in biodiversity hotspots like the Mediterranean face elevated risks, though global assessments indicate that most species remain of least concern.^[29] Trends in taxonomy show limited new discoveries since 2000, with only a handful of species described, such as L. tefennicus (2011, endemic to Turkey), L. alamutensis (2008, Iran), and L. turcicus (2023, endemic to Turkey), underscoring a maturing understanding of the genus rather than ongoing rapid speciation.^[30]^[31]

Notable Species

Lathyrus odoratus, commonly known as the sweet pea, is a scrambling annual climber native to southern Italy and Sicily, prized for its intensely fragrant flowers that bloom in a wide array of colors including pink, purple, white, and red.^[32] It typically grows to 1-2.5 meters tall, supported by tendrils, and has been extensively cultivated since the 17th century for ornamental gardens, leading to numerous cultivars selected for enhanced fragrance and flower form.^[33] Lathyrus sativus, or grass pea, is a drought-tolerant annual legume widely grown as a pulse crop in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, valued for its high protein content and resilience to harsh environmental conditions such as flooding and poor soils.^[34] However, it contains the neurotoxin β-N-oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP), which can cause lathyrism—a debilitating neurodegenerative disorder—upon excessive consumption, limiting its use despite breeding efforts to reduce toxin levels.^[35] Lathyrus tuberosus, the tuberous pea or earthnut pea, is a climbing perennial geophyte with edible tubers that have served as a historical food source in Europe, where they were collected and consumed raw or cooked for their nutty flavor, particularly during times of scarcity.^[36] Native from Europe to Siberia, Iran, and Algeria, it features pinkish-purple flowers and spreads via rhizomatous tubers, though its use has declined with modern agriculture. Lathyrus vernus, known as spring vetchling or spring bitter vetch, is a long-lived woodland perennial herb found in the understory of temperate forests across Europe to Siberia and Iran, emerging early in spring with yellow to purple flowers before leafing out.^[37] It reproduces sexually after 10-15 years and exhibits phenotypic plasticity in response to spring temperatures, contributing to its persistence in shaded, nutrient-poor habitats.^[38] Lathyrus japonicus, the beach pea, is a prostrate to climbing perennial adapted to coastal environments, ranging from subarctic regions to China, Japan, and western North America, where it stabilizes sandy beaches and dunes with its nitrogen-fixing roots.^[39] This early successional species produces pale purple flowers and is sensitive to human disturbance like trampling, making it a focus for conservation in fragile maritime ecosystems such as the Great Lakes shores.^[40]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Lathyrus is predominantly native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with its approximately 150–170 species exhibiting a Holarctic distribution pattern characterized by high diversity in extratropical zones. Primary centers of origin and diversity are centered in southwest and central Asia, from where the genus expanded to the eastern Mediterranean during prehistoric times, as evidenced by Neolithic remains dating back to 8200–7500 BCE in the Euphrates Valley and 6000 BCE in the Balkans.^[41]^[42] Hotspots of species richness occur in the Mediterranean Basin, which hosts 61–76 taxa, including key areas like the Fertile Crescent, southern-central Turkey, and northeastern Spain, and the Irano-Turanian region encompassing the Caucasus, where Turkey alone records 58 species. Secondary centers include western North America, with around 29 native species primarily in section Orobus, and temperate South America, supporting about 23 species in section Notolathyrus, mainly in central Chile and Argentina. Few species venture into tropical areas, limited to high-altitude populations in East Africa, underscoring the genus's adaptation to cooler, temperate climates across Eurasia and North America.^[42]^[12]^[1] Biogeographic patterns reveal disjunct distributions, with distinct Asian and American clades reflecting ancient vicariance events, alongside Holarctic dominance that links Eurasian and North American floras. Introduced ranges have expanded globally through human activities, including ornamental escapes and agricultural dissemination; for instance, L. latifolius has naturalized widely in North America, forming invasive populations, while species like L. sativus have been introduced to South Asia, Ethiopia, Australia, and Latin America as crops or fodder. These introductions often blur native boundaries in disturbed habitats across southern Europe, North America, and beyond.^[12]^[42]^[41]

Habitat Preferences

Lathyrus species generally thrive in temperate climates characterized by cool winters and moderate summers, with many exhibiting tolerance to semi-arid conditions and low temperatures. They prefer well-drained soils ranging from neutral to calcareous, often succeeding in loamy or clay-loam textures with pH levels between 5.8 and 7.5, though some adapt to mildly acidic substrates. As nitrogen-fixing legumes, they are particularly associated with nitrogen-poor soils, enhancing their suitability for marginal lands where soil fertility is low.^[43]^[44]^[45] These plants occupy diverse microhabitats, including woodland edges, open grasslands, montane meadows, riverbanks, and coastal areas. In forested regions, species like L. vernus favor semi-shaded understories and moist forest margins, while grassland and meadow forms such as L. pratensis occur in open, sunny pastures and fallow fields. Coastal species, exemplified by L. japonicus, are found along seashores, sand dunes, and salt marshes, contributing to dune stabilization in windy, exposed environments. Many also appear on rocky slopes and roadsides, particularly in Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian hotspots.^[46]^[1]^[47] Adaptations to these habitats include climbing or sprawling growth forms supported by tendrils, which allow species to access light in denser vegetation, and deep root systems in drought-tolerant forms like L. sativus for water access in arid soils. Forest-dwelling species demonstrate shade tolerance, while coastal variants such as L. japonicus exhibit salt tolerance, enabling survival in saline conditions. Perennial rhizomatous or tuberous roots in many species, such as L. tuberosus, aid drought endurance and nutrient storage in variable environments.^[43]^[47]^[48]

Ecology

Biotic Interactions

Lathyrus species exhibit a range of biotic interactions that facilitate their reproduction and survival in natural ecosystems. Pollination in the genus is predominantly entomophilous, with flowers attracting insects through nectar rewards and visual cues. Many species, such as Lathyrus japonicus and L. odoratus, are primarily pollinated by bees, including bumblebees (Bombus spp.) and mason bees (Osmia sp.), which access the nectar via specialized floral structures like the keel and wings that require sufficient body mass to open. These interactions promote outcrossing, as some species display self-incompatibility mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization, ensuring genetic diversity.^[49]^[46]^[50] Herbivory plays a significant role in Lathyrus ecology, with several species serving as larval host plants for Lepidoptera. For instance, Lathyrus linifolius and L. pratensis are key hosts for wood white butterflies (Leptidea sinapis and L. reali), where larval feeding influences growth rates, diapause decisions, and gene expression related to detoxification and immunity. Similarly, L. odoratus supports the western tailed-blue butterfly (Cupido amyntula). Seed dispersal occurs mainly through ballistic dehiscence of mature pods, which explosively eject seeds up to several meters, as observed in species like L. pratensis. Animal-mediated dispersal also contributes, with seeds occasionally ingested and excreted by herbivores, aiding wider distribution.^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55] Symbiotic relationships enhance nutrient acquisition in Lathyrus. As legumes, species form nitrogen-fixing nodules with rhizobial bacteria, primarily Rhizobium leguminosarum and R. pisi, enabling atmospheric nitrogen conversion to ammonia for plant use; this symbiosis is well-documented in L. sativus and other annuals, supporting growth in nitrogen-poor soils. Additionally, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) associate with roots for improved phosphorus and water uptake, with diverse communities identified in L. cicera and synergistic effects observed when combined with rhizobia in L. sativus under stress conditions. These mutualisms underscore Lathyrus' adaptation to varied ecosystems.^[56]^[19]^[57]^[58]^[59]

Abiotic Responses

Lathyrus species exhibit varied temperature sensitivities depending on their ecological niches, with montane and temperate perennials often showing growth limitations under elevated temperatures. For instance, in Lathyrus vernus, a woodland perennial common in cooler European habitats, growth during early spring is primarily constrained by low temperatures.^[38] Studies on related species like Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) indicate that high temperatures during reproductive stages can significantly reduce biomass accumulation and seed yield, highlighting vulnerability in warming scenarios for montane-adapted taxa.^[60] Conversely, many perennial Lathyrus species demonstrate notable frost tolerance, hardy in USDA zones 3–9 (surviving down to approximately -35°C in zone 3), as seen in Lathyrus latifolius (zones 4–9) and L. vernus (zones 3–9), which harden off through physiological adjustments to endure winter conditions without significant damage.^[61]^[44]^[62]^[63] Drought resilience is a prominent trait among xerophytic Lathyrus species, particularly L. sativus, which maintains productivity in arid environments through adaptive physiological mechanisms. This species exhibits high water-use efficiency, with roots extending deeply to access soil moisture, enabling survival under prolonged dry spells where other legumes fail.^[64] A key response to water deficit involves rapid stomatal closure mediated by abscisic acid (ABA), which reduces transpiration by 50–70% while preserving photosynthetic rates longer than in sensitive crops, thereby minimizing biomass loss.^[65]^[66] Xerophytic accessions of L. sativus show less yield reduction under moderate drought than less adapted varieties, underscoring their role in water-limited habitats.^[67] Responses to other abiotic stressors, such as soil pH extremes, further illustrate the genus's environmental adaptability. Lathyrus species generally avoid highly acidic soils (pH <5.5), where aluminum toxicity inhibits root elongation and nutrient uptake; optimal growth occurs at pH 6.0–7.5, as in L. odoratus and L. sativus, with tolerance extending to mildly alkaline conditions up to pH 8.0 in well-drained loams.^[46]^[68] These preferences align with their native habitats in neutral to calcareous soils, where extremes disrupt ion balance.^[69]

Cultivation and Uses

Ornamental Cultivation

Lathyrus species, particularly the annual sweet pea (L. odoratus) and its hybrids, are widely cultivated as ornamental climbers and bedding plants for their fragrant, colorful flowers. These plants add vertical interest to gardens, often trained on trellises or obelisks to showcase their cascading blooms in shades of pink, purple, red, white, and bicolors. Popular hybrids derived from L. odoratus dominate ornamental use due to their enhanced flower size, scent, and vigor compared to wild forms.^[70] Propagation of ornamental Lathyrus primarily occurs through seed sowing, with optimal timing in late winter or early spring indoors, or directly outdoors after the last frost. Seeds should be soaked in water for 24 hours to soften the hard coat and nicked with a file if needed to promote germination, which typically occurs in 7-15 days at soil temperatures around 15-20°C. For climbers like L. odoratus hybrids, young plants require sturdy support structures such as netting, bamboo canes, or wire frames installed at planting to prevent damage to tender stems as they reach heights of 1.5-2 meters.^[70]^[71] Ideal growing conditions for ornamental Lathyrus include full sun exposure for at least six hours daily to maximize flowering, paired with fertile, well-drained loamy soil enriched with compost or well-rotted manure to a depth of 30-60 cm. Regular watering is essential to maintain consistent soil moisture, especially during dry spells, but overwatering should be avoided to prevent root rot; aim for deep watering at the base in the morning. For bushier forms, pinch out the growing tips when plants reach 10-15 cm in height to encourage lateral branching and more abundant blooms.^[70]^[71] The ornamental cultivation of Lathyrus traces back to the late 17th century, but Victorian-era breeding in the 19th century transformed L. odoratus into a horticultural favorite through selective hybridization for expanded color ranges and larger flowers. Breeders like Henry Eckford, often called the "Father of the Sweet Pea," introduced over 100 Grandiflora varieties by 1901, featuring plain-petaled blooms with intensified fragrance and hues from soft pastels to vivid scarlets. Modern varieties build on this legacy, incorporating traits like wavey-edged "Spencer" petals from early 20th-century developments and ongoing selections for extended bloom periods.^[72] Disease management in ornamental Lathyrus focuses on preventing common issues like powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi), which thrives in humid, poorly ventilated conditions and appears as white powdery patches on leaves. Selecting resistant hybrids, such as those derived from crosses with L. belinensis, provides qualitative resistance governed by a single dominant gene, where fungal spores collapse post-germination on treated plants. Cultural practices, including good air circulation via spacing plants 20-30 cm apart and avoiding overhead watering, further reduce mildew incidence in susceptible L. odoratus cultivars.^[73]

Edible and Agricultural Uses

Lathyrus sativus, commonly known as grass pea, serves as a key drought-resistant pulse crop in regions like India and Ethiopia, where it thrives under harsh conditions such as low rainfall and poor soils, acting as an "insurance crop" during famines and environmental stresses.^[64] In Ethiopia, its cultivation is particularly valued for tolerance to drought, salinity, waterlogging, and low soil fertility, contributing significantly to local food security.^[74] Similarly, L. tuberosus, or tuberous vetchling, has been utilized as a famine food through its edible tubers, which provide a nutrient-dense option in times of scarcity, especially in historical European contexts.^[75] Nutritionally, L. sativus seeds are high in protein, containing approximately 27% on a dry weight basis, making it a valuable complement to cereal-based diets by providing essential amino acids that enhance overall protein quality when consumed together.^[76] This balance is crucial in staple diets across Asia and Africa, where grass pea supplements the lysine-deficient proteins in grains like rice or wheat.^[77] The tubers of L. tuberosus are also protein-rich, offering up to 25% protein content, alongside vitamins and fiber, positioning it as a resilient food source in marginal lands.^[78] In agricultural practices, Lathyrus species like L. sativus are integrated into crop rotations to leverage their nitrogen-fixing capabilities through symbiotic bacteria, which enrich soil fertility and reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers, thereby supporting sustainable farming systems.^[79] This process improves soil structure and nutrient availability for subsequent crops, such as cereals, while minimizing erosion and weed pressures in rotation sequences.^[80] Yields for L. sativus typically range from 0.8 to 2 tons per hectare under rainfed conditions, varying by region and management, with higher outputs in optimal settings like parts of Russia exceeding 2 tons per hectare.^[81] Historically, Lathyrus cultivation dates back to the Neolithic period in the Near East, with archaeological evidence of consumption in Late Bronze and Iron Age sites in Israel, indicating its role as a staple legume alongside early cereals.^[82] Breeding efforts for L. sativus have focused on developing low-toxin varieties to mitigate health risks from beta-ODAP while preserving agronomic traits, using classical crossing with low-toxin relatives like L. cicer and mutational techniques to achieve ODAP levels below 0.06%. As of 2024, the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute developed varieties like BARI-3 with 0.086% β-ODAP.^[83]^[84] These advancements, including gene-editing informed by genome sequencing, aim to integrate grass pea into modern sustainable agriculture as a climate-resilient crop for food and fodder production in arid and semi-arid zones.^[85] Such varieties enhance its viability in diverse agroecosystems, promoting biodiversity and reducing reliance on high-input crops.^[81]

Toxicity and Health Risks

Certain species of Lathyrus, particularly L. sativus (grass pea), contain the neurotoxin β-N-oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP) in their seeds, which is responsible for the neuromuscular disorder known as lathyrism.^[86] This non-protein amino acid is present in varying concentrations across approximately 21 Lathyrus species, with L. sativus exhibiting notably high levels, often ranging from 0.5% to 2.5% of seed dry weight.^[86] β-ODAP acts primarily by overstimulating glutamate receptors in the central nervous system, leading to excitotoxicity and degeneration of motor neurons.^[4] Health risks from Lathyrus consumption include both acute and chronic effects. Acute exposure, typically from moderate ingestion, can cause gastrointestinal distress such as nausea and vomiting.^[87] Chronic overconsumption, especially when L. sativus forms a staple in the diet, results in neurolathyrism—a progressive, irreversible spastic paraparesis characterized by lower limb weakness, stiffness, and eventual paralysis.^[88] Historical epidemics underscore these dangers; for instance, a major outbreak in central India during 1944–1945 affected thousands due to widespread reliance on Lathyrus seeds amid food shortages, with many cases leading to permanent disability. As of 2023, surveys in Ethiopia report a population-level prevalence of 2.4% neurolathyrism in grass pea-dependent areas.^[89]^[90] Mitigation strategies focus on reducing β-ODAP levels through processing. Soaking seeds in water for 12–24 hours before cooking can leach out up to 50% of the toxin, while boiling soaked seeds further reduces it by 65–70%.^[64] Safe consumption limits are generally set at β-ODAP concentrations below 0.15% in seeds or no more than 500 mg per day per person for 2–3 months to avoid neurotoxic effects.^[84]^[91] In veterinary contexts, Lathyrus species pose risks to livestock; for example, ingestion of L. hirsutus by horses can induce stringhalt-like gait abnormalities, while L. sylvestris consumption in sheep leads to neurologic disease associated with neurolathyrism, such as ataxia and depression.^[92]^[93]

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Habit: Annual, perennial herb, unarmed, glabrous or hairy (glandular), generally rhizomed. · Stem: sprawling, climbing, or erect; angled, flanged, or winged.Missing: adaptations prostrate
[23]
Effects of Seed Vernalization and Photoperiod on Flower Bud ...
Aug 8, 2025 · After a 30- day vernalization, the first flower bud formation was promoted by 14 to 24- hr, 12 to 24-hr, and 8 to 24-hr photoperiods, ...
[24]
The pattern of seed development and maturation in beach pea ...
The developmental patterns of seed, seed coat, and hardseededness were studied in naturally growing crop plants of beach pea (Lathyrus maritimus (L.) Bigel.)
[25]
[PDF] Strategy for the Ex Situ Conservation of Lathyrus (grass pea), with ...
They are primarily native to temperate regions of the world, with approx. 52 species originating in. Europe, 30 in North America, 78 in Asia, 24 in tropical ...
[26]
[PDF] South American Lathyrus
The main centre of diversity in the genus is around the eastern Mediterranean and Pontic region.Missing: continent | Show results with:continent
[27]
Lathyrus biflorus - CNPS Rare Plant Inventory
Lathyrus biflorus is ranked 1B. 1, Plants Rare, Threatened or Endangered in California and Elsewhere; Seriously threatened in California.
[28]
Lathyrus biflorus - NatureServe Explorer
Lathyrus biflorus T.W. & J.P. Nelson (TSN 503337). Conservation Status. NatureServe Status. Global Status: G1. Global Status Last Reviewed: 5/17/2021. Rank ...<|separator|>
[29]
A new species of Lathyrus L. (Fabaceae) from Turkey - GENÇ - 2011
Sep 13, 2011 · The species was collected from only one locality and is rare, confined to a limited area of approximately 2000 m2. The population is not in good ...
[30]
Lathyrus odoratus L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Lathyrus odoratus is a scrambling annual native to S. Italy and Sicilia, used for medicinal, environmental, and food purposes. It is part of the Fabaceae ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[31]
Lathyrus odoratus - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
Lathyrus odoratus, or sweet pea, is an annual with fragrant flowers, growing 3-8 feet tall, and can be bushy or climbing. It has many flower colors.
[32]
β-N-Oxalyl-l-α,β-diaminopropionic Acid (β-ODAP) Content ... - PubMed
Feb 28, 2017 · Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) is an important legume crop grown mainly in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. This underutilized legume can ...
[33]
Identification and Characterization of β-Lathyrin, an Abundant ...
Aug 15, 2018 · Grass pea, a protein-rich, high-yielding, and drought-tolerant legume, is used as food and livestock feed in several tropical and subtropical ...
[34]
Lathyrus tuberosus L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Lathyrus tuberosus L. ... The native range of this species is Europe to Siberia and Iran, Algeria. It is a climbing tuberous geophyte and grows primarily in the ...
[35]
Lathyrus vernus (L.) Bernh. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Lathyrus vernus (L.) Bernh. ... The native range of this species is Europe to Siberia and Iran. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome.
[36]
Spring temperature drives phenotypic selection on plasticity of ...
Sep 6, 2023 · Lathyrus vernus is a long-lived understory herb with an average conditional life span of flowering individuals estimated to 44.3 years [31].
[37]
Lathyrus japonicus Willd. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Lathyrus japonicus Willd. First published in Sp. Pl., ed. 4. 3: 1092 (1802). This species is accepted. The native range of this species is Subarctic to China ...
[38]
Isolated history of the coastal plant Lathyrus japonicus ...
Aug 9, 2011 · Lathyrus japonicus (beach pea) is a perennial coastal herb that commonly occurs in temperate coastal areas of Asia, Europe, and North and South ...
[39]
Wild Lathyrus—A Treasure of Novel Diversity - PMC - PubMed Central
Overconsumption for a longer period of grasspea seeds harvested from landraces may lead to a neurological disorder called neurolathyrism in humans. ODAP is an ...Missing: Theophrastus | Show results with:Theophrastus
[40]
None
Below is a merged summary of the Lathyrus species distribution and biogeography based on the provided segments from Shehadeh (2011) and related sources. To retain all information in a dense and organized manner, I will use a combination of narrative text and a table in CSV format for detailed data points (e.g., species counts, hotspots, and citations). The narrative will provide an overview, while the table will capture specific quantitative and regional details.
[41]
Lathyrus diversity: available resources with relevance to crop ...
Lathyrus cicera has been cultivated since ancient times, and was domesticated in Southern France and the Iberian Peninsula soon after the introduction of ...
[42]
[PDF] Perennial pea (Lathyrus latifolius) Plant Guide
This genus is known for its climbing or sprawling growth habit and branched tendrils (Diggs et al., 1999). Perennial pea is native to Europe and is naturalized ...
[43]
[PDF] Lathyrus sativus L.
Jun 9, 2020 · "Grasspea plants are classified on the basis of color of flowers, markings on pods and size and color of seeds. There is a tremendous variation ...
[44]
Lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea) | CABI Compendium
The genus Lathyrus contains about 160 species distributed throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with species occurring in Europe, North ...
[45]
[PDF] morphology, anatomy and systematics of the genus
Jul 8, 2011 · Lathyrus. Annual and perennial, Procumbent to climbing; Stem angled or winged; Leaf unijugate and tendrillous, rarely with 2-3 pairs of ...
[46]
https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.31584
[47]
[PDF] Pollination biology of the Sea Pea, Lathyrus japonicus
Pollinators in five sections of Lathyrus (sectional classification following KUPICHA 1983). Butterflies are unlikely to be pollinators of Lathyrus and are ...<|separator|>
[48]
Bee pollination of Lathyrus odoratus (Fabaceae) - ResearchGate
Lathyrus odoratus (Fabaceae) are bee pollinated plants and must have characteristics with which to attract bees to their flowers. The purpose of this study ...<|separator|>
[49]
Host plant diet affects growth and induces altered gene expression ...
We investigated host plant preference, fitness consequences, effects on expression profiles and gut microbiome composition in two common wood white (Leptidea ...
[50]
Host‐plant‐induced larval decision‐making in a ... - ESA Journals
Jan 1, 2010 · Here we ask if the larval decision to enter diapause when reared on a host plant associated with a colder habitat is an active or a passive ...
[51]
Lathyrus odorata - Raising Butterflies--How to find and care for ...
Lathyrus odorata. Sweet pea is a common ornamental and a great host plant for rearing the western tailed blue Everes amyntula at home or in the lab.
[52]
[PDF] Differences in seed dormancy and germination in amphicarpic ... - HAL
Nov 24, 2021 · Lathyrus and Vicia disperse. 2 their aerial seeds ballistically ... Ballistic seed projection in two herbaceous. 7 species. American ...
[53]
Lathyrus pratensis L., Meadow Vetchling
However, man has very probably assisted dispersal in past years, through seed being accidently transported with hay, or eaten along with the plant by animals ...
[54]
Genotypic and symbiotic diversity of native rhizobia nodulating red ...
Lathyrus spp. and legumes, such as pea, lentils and vetches, can be nodulated by a number of rhizobial species, such as Rhizobium leguminosarum, R. pisi, ...
[55]
Effect of glyphosate on the growth and survival of rhizobia isolated ...
Dec 6, 2023 · L. sativus aids in the acquisition of nutrients during the nitrogen fixation process through a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia. It can grow ...
[56]
Molecular characterization of arbuscular mycorrhizal communities ...
May 11, 2023 · The article examines the influence of agricultural management practices on AMF species associated with red pea grown in northern Tunisia.
[57]
Genetic Diversity and Association Characters of Bacteria Isolated ...
Synergistic interactions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia promoted the growth of Lathyrus sativus under sulphate salt stress. Symbiosis. 2010;50 ...
[58]
Impact of Heat and Drought Stress on Grasspea and Its Wild Relatives
Oct 8, 2023 · ... (Lathyrus tingitanus, Lathyrus inconspicuus, and Lathyrus annuus). ... High-Temperature and Drought Stress Effects on Growth, Yield and ...
[59]
Lathyrus vernus|spring pea/RHS Gardening
Lathyrus vernus. RHS AGM. The RHS Award of Garden Merit (AGM) helps ... H2: tolerant of low temperatures, but not surviving being frozen (1 to 5); H3 ...
[60]
Buy Lathyrus Vernus in the UK
Hardy: Hardy in the UK down to temperatures of -15 degrees Celcius (RHS hardiness rating H6). Growth & Habit. Lathyrus vernus is a low-growing, clump-forming ...
[61]
Scenario on Production, Processing, and Utilization of Grasspea ...
Sep 4, 2024 · Scenario on Production, Processing, and Utilization of Grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.) ... temperature changes. It can withstand drought ...
[62]
Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) interesting panoply of mechanisms to ...
The aim of this work was to study the range, extent and mechanisms underlying this species' reported tolerance to water stress.3. Results · 3.3. Seed Morphology And... · 4. DiscussionMissing: seasonal | Show results with:seasonal
[63]
[PDF] Adaptation of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus cv
A reduction in stomatal conductance in response to water deficit is the first step in the adaptation of a plant to maintain high water status. (Stoddard et al.
[64]
What is the Difference between the Response of Grass Pea ... - MDPI
Our results indicated that grass pea plants differed in their response to drought and salinity from the very beginning of stress occurrence.
[65]
Latitudinal trends in the responses of growth respiration and ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Growth in the elevated CO2 concentration reduced leaf nitrogen and increased non-structural carbohydrate concentrations. However, for a ...
[66]
Lathyrus polyphyllus Nutt. - Plant Profile - USDA Plants Database
Hedge Tolerance, None. Moisture Use, Medium. pH, Maximum, 8.0. pH, Minimum, 5.9. Precipitation, Maximum, 60. Precipitation, Minimum, 22. Root Depth, Minimum ( ...Missing: preference | Show results with:preference
[67]
https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/10/6/833
[68]
Sweet Pea Flowers: Planting, Growing, and Caring for Sweet Peas
Botanical Name. Lathyrus odoratus ; Plant Type. Flowers ; Sun Exposure. Full Sun ; Soil pH. Alkaline/Basic ; Bloom Time. Summer · Fall.
[69]
How to Grow Sweet Peas - Floret Flowers
Sow sweet peas in autumn. Everywhere else, sow in late winter/early spring. Soak your seeds for 24 hours before sowing. This softens the seed coat and speeds ...
[70]
An introduction to Sweet Peas
The Sweet Pea originated in Sicily as a wild flower first recorded by a monk, Franciscus Cupani, in 1695 who subsequently sent seeds to plantsmen in Europe ...
[71]
Qualitative resistance to powdery mildew in hybrid sweet peas | Request PDF
### Summary of Findings on Powdery Mildew Resistance in Lathyrus odoratus Hybrids
[72]
Genetic improvement of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) in Ethiopia: an ...
Jan 9, 2012 · Its vital importance in the Ethiopian agriculture emanates from its resistance to drought, salinity, waterlogging and low soil fertility.
[73]
[PDF] on edible tuberous legumes - PERSPECTIVES
roots, as both have high nutritional value. The Genetic Resources Center ... Tuber vetchling (Lathyrus tuberosus) is a perennial sprawling plant with ...
[74]
Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus) – Understudied Indigenous Crops
Lathyrus sativus, commonly referred to as grass pea, is a hardy legume with significant nutritional and stress-adaptive traits.
[75]
Genome sequencing and assembly of Lathyrus sativus - Nature
Jan 17, 2023 · Nutritionally, this pulse crop is very rich in proteins, second only to soybean, and provides a balanced amino acid diet in combination with ...
[76]
Protein rich tubers - The aardaker as a new crop
These tubers are particularly protein rich containing up to 25% protein. Furthermore, the aardaker can fix nitrogen and therefor grow in relatively poor soils ...
[77]
Lathyrus Farming: Cultivation and Health Implications
Jan 5, 2024 · Soil improvement: As a legume, Lathyrus helps in nitrogen fixation, thereby enriching the soil and improving its fertility. Low input ...
[78]
Lathyrus improvement for resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses
May 30, 2020 · Lathyrus species have a considerable potential in crop rotation, improving soil physical conditions; reducing the amount of disease and weed ...
[79]
Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus L.)—A Sustainable and Resilient ...
Grass pea is a hardish crop with reported tolerance to extreme temperatures, drought, flooding, and salinity being able to grow successfully in warm climates, ...Grass Pea (lathyrus Sativus... · 3. Grass Pea As A Source Of... · 3.2. Grass Pea Biotic...
[80]
Lathyrus consumption in late Bronze and iron age sites in Israel
This grain legume was a food staple in ancient times, principally in the Aegean region, but also appeared sporadically and in a limited way in the ...
[81]
[PDF] Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) a Crop of Future for Sustainable ... - Ijmra
The global average atmospheric CO2 concentration is 414.72 ppm (± 0.1 ppm). Due to rise in CO2 level, the atmospheric temperature is also raising, and ...
[82]
How the plant with a toxic past can become a climate-smart crop of ...
Jul 10, 2023 · The availability of the genome sequence means the researchers can use gene-editing and modern breeding methods to develop varieties of grass pea ...
[83]
Simple Detection Methods for Antinutritive Factor β-ODAP Present in ...
Grass pea is reported to contain 0.5–2.5% of β-ODAP [1]. Toxic β-ODAP is present in the seeds of 21 Lathyrus species (mainly Lathyrus sativus L., Lathyrus ...Missing: lathyrism | Show results with:lathyrism
[84]
Lathyrus Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com
Jan 2, 2025 · The toxic effects of Lathyrus were described as early as 370 BC by Hippocrates. ... Other symptoms may include GI distress, urinary ...Missing: upset | Show results with:upset
[85]
Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) and its neurotoxin ODAP - ScienceDirect
Heavy and prolonged consumption of grass pea triggers a characteristic motor system disease (a form of spastic paraparesis known as neurolathyrism) in both ...
[86]
El Niño-southern oscillations and lathyrism epidemics - Frontiers
Notable lathyrism epidemics since the mid-1940s occurred following strong El Niños. The lathyrism epidemic of 1944–1945 in Bhopal State, Central India (Shourie ...
[87]
Quantitative analysis of β-ODAP neurotoxin among different ...
Sep 10, 2024 · ... ODAP content of <1.5 mg/g (0.15 %) in L. sativus seeds is safe for human consumption. So, the result revealed that the amount of β-ODAP ...Missing: limits | Show results with:limits
[88]
Reduction of β-ODAP and IP6 contents in Lathyrus sativus L. seed ...
A reduction of β-ODAP from 36.00 to 71.22% by soaked-HHP treatment was observed. β-ODAP reductions were always higher for soaked compared to batter grass pea ...
[89]
Lathyrus hirsutus (Caley Pea) Intoxication in a Herd of Horses
Jan 16, 2015 · Background. Caley Pea (Lathyrus hirsutus) is potentially toxic to horses, but large case series are not reported.Missing: livestock impacts
[90]
The toxic effects of mature flatpea (Lathyrus sylvestris L cv Lathco ...
The toxic effects of mature flatpea (Lathyrus sylvestris L cv Lathco) on sheep ... Plant Poisoning / veterinary; Plants, Medicinal*; Pregnancy; Sheep Diseases ...Missing: livestock impacts