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Limb-sparing techniques

Limb-sparing techniques, also known as limb salvage surgery, refer to a suite of orthopedic procedures designed to excise diseased, injured, or malignant tissue from an arm or leg while reconstructing the limb to maintain its form and function, thereby avoiding amputation.^[1] These methods are particularly prominent in musculoskeletal oncology for treating bone and soft tissue sarcomas, such as osteosarcoma, where they allow for tumor resection with wide margins followed by reconstruction to preserve mobility and quality of life.^[2] Applicable beyond cancer, limb-sparing approaches also address severe trauma, chronic infections, vascular occlusions, and degenerative conditions like arthritis by restoring blood flow, bone integrity, and soft tissue coverage through multidisciplinary interventions.^[3] The evolution of limb-sparing techniques has been driven by advancements in neoadjuvant chemotherapy, high-resolution imaging (e.g., MRI and CT), and microsurgical innovations since the late 20th century, shifting the standard of care from routine amputation to preservation in approximately 90% of extremity sarcoma cases.^[2] Surgical principles emphasize achieving oncologically safe margins—typically 2–5 cm of healthy tissue around the tumor, guided by anatomical barriers like joint cartilage—while ensuring the reconstructed limb outperforms prosthetic alternatives in functionality.^[4] Common reconstruction options include endoprosthetic replacements for metaphyseal defects, which involve modular metallic implants to replace resected bone segments; allografts or autografts for larger skeletal gaps, utilizing donor or patient-derived bone; and soft tissue flaps or vascularized grafts to cover defects and promote healing.^[2] In vascular and trauma scenarios, techniques such as angioplasty, bypass grafting, or bone transport via distraction osteogenesis further enhance salvage rates, with success depending on ischemia duration and neurovascular involvement.^[3] Despite their benefits— including comparable long-term survival rates (66–82% at five years for osteosarcoma) and superior psychological outcomes compared to amputation—limb-sparing procedures carry risks such as infection (up to 22% in the first year), aseptic loosening of implants (35% of prosthetic failures), non-union, and local recurrence if margins are inadequate.^[2] Recovery typically involves extended hospitalization, rigorous physical therapy, and potential revision surgeries, with full functional restoration often requiring 6–12 months.^[1] Ongoing innovations, including antibiotic-impregnated coatings, expandable prostheses for pediatric patients, and orthoplastic collaborations between orthopedic and plastic surgeons, continue to improve outcomes and expand eligibility for these life-altering interventions. Recent advances as of 2025 include 3D-printed custom implants, advanced image guidance for precise tumor resection, and extracorporeal irradiation for bone sterilization.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Limb-sparing techniques, also known as limb-salvage surgery, encompass a range of surgical procedures designed to excise diseased or malignant tissue—such as tumors or infected bone—while preserving the affected limb's anatomy, form, and function, thereby avoiding amputation. These methods integrate oncologic resection with reconstructive interventions to restore skeletal stability, soft tissue coverage, and neurovascular integrity, ultimately aiming to enable patients to maintain mobility and daily activities.^[7]^[4] The core principles of limb-sparing techniques prioritize oncologic safety alongside functional preservation. Achieving negative surgical margins (R0 resection) is paramount in cancer cases, ensuring complete tumor removal with a safety margin of typically 3–5 cm of healthy tissue to minimize local recurrence rates, which exceed 90% control with proper execution.^[7] Maintaining vascularity through preservation or reconstruction of blood vessels—often via interpositional grafts or microvascular techniques—is essential to support tissue viability post-resection. Similarly, neurovascular structures are safeguarded whenever feasible, as sarcomas typically displace rather than infiltrate these elements, allowing for their rerouting or repair to prevent ischemia or neurological deficits. Above all, these principles emphasize enhancing patient quality of life by favoring limb preservation over radical amputation, which historically was the standard but has been supplanted by limb-sparing approaches without compromising long-term survival.^[4]^[8] In contemporary practice, limb-sparing techniques are applicable in approximately 95% of eligible extremity sarcoma cases, reflecting a shift from amputation as the default to reconstruction-focused surgery that yields equivalent survival outcomes—up to 70–80% for extremity malignancies—while improving functional and aesthetic results. The basic workflow involves initial tumor resection to secure oncologic margins, followed by immediate or staged reconstruction, such as endoprosthetic replacement or vascularized flaps, to rebuild the defect and optimize limb durability.^[9]^[8]^[4]

Historical Development

Prior to the 1970s, amputation was the standard treatment for extremity sarcomas and severe trauma, as local excision alone resulted in high rates of recurrence and mortality.^[10] Early attempts at reconstruction were limited, but in 1943, Austin Moore introduced the first Vitallium endoprosthesis for proximal femoral reconstruction, marking an initial step toward alternatives to amputation in select cases.^[11] The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence of limb-sparing techniques, driven by advances in adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy that improved local control and enabled safer resections.^[12] This shift culminated in the 1984 National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference (published in 1985), which endorsed limb salvage as equivalent to amputation in terms of survival and local control for the majority—approximately 90%—of patients with extremity soft-tissue sarcomas and osteosarcomas.^[13]^[14] In the 1990s and 2000s, improvements in imaging modalities such as MRI and CT facilitated precise preoperative planning and safer tumor margins, while the development of modular endoprostheses expanded reconstructive options.^[12]^[15] These advancements also broadened limb-sparing applications beyond oncology to non-oncologic conditions, including vascular diseases through revascularization techniques.^[16] From the 2010s to 2025, limb-sparing evolved with the integration of multidisciplinary teams, patient-specific 3D-printed implants for complex reconstructions, and minimally invasive approaches that reduced complications.^[17] Recent 2025 studies continue to affirm the equivalence—or in some cases superiority—of survival outcomes with limb salvage compared to amputation, with five-year survival rates reaching 83.8% in limb-spared osteosarcoma patients versus 62.5% in amputees.^[18]

Indications and Selection

Primary Indications

Limb-sparing techniques, also known as limb salvage surgery, are primarily indicated in conditions where amputation would result in significant functional loss, but reconstruction can restore viability and mobility. These techniques are preferred when the limb's neurovascular structures remain salvageable and the underlying pathology allows for effective eradication or management through surgical intervention.^[9] In oncologic cases, limb-sparing is the standard for high-grade bone and soft tissue sarcomas, such as osteosarcoma and Ewing's sarcoma, where neoadjuvant chemotherapy enables wide-margin resection without compromising oncologic outcomes. For extremity sarcomas, including malignant fibrous histiocytoma and synovial sarcoma, salvage rates exceed 95% with comparable survival to amputation when clear margins (R0 resection) are achievable. Metastatic bone disease without widespread systemic involvement also qualifies, particularly in the lower extremities, provided the tumor does not encase major vessels or nerves extensively. Suitability hinges on preoperative imaging confirming resectability and patient fitness for prolonged reconstruction.^[8]^[9] Traumatic injuries represent another key indication, particularly severe open fractures (Gustilo-Anderson Type IIIB/C) with extensive soft tissue loss, bone defects, or vascular disruption, such as in mangled extremities from crush or blast injuries. Limb salvage is pursued when early revascularization and soft tissue coverage can be achieved within 72 hours to prevent secondary complications like non-union or infection. In pediatric trauma, salvage is more aggressively indicated due to superior regenerative potential and growth plate preservation. Critical factors include adequate perfusion post-stabilization and absence of irreversible ischemia, with scoring systems like the Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS <7) guiding decisions.^[19]^[9] For vascular etiologies, limb-sparing is essential in critical limb ischemia (CLI) secondary to peripheral artery disease, where rest pain, non-healing ulcers, or gangrene threaten viability due to atherosclerosis or trauma-induced occlusion. Endovascular or open revascularization, combined with debridement, achieves limb salvage rates of up to 87% at two years in suitable candidates. Aneurysmal disease or acute occlusions from embolism also warrant salvage if collateral flow can be augmented. Suitability requires demonstrable improvement in ankle-brachial index post-intervention and manageable comorbidities like diabetes.^[20]^[9] Infectious and diabetic conditions, including chronic osteomyelitis and diabetic foot ulcers with necrosis or neuropathy-induced deformities, indicate limb-sparing when aggressive debridement and vascularized flap coverage can eradicate infection and promote healing. In diabetic patients, where lifetime ulcer risk reaches 15-25%, salvage prevents major amputations in up to 91% of cases using free flaps for complex defects. Osteomyelitis from trauma or hematogenous spread qualifies if bone stability can be restored without hardware removal. Key criteria include controlled infection markers (e.g., normalized CRP) and preserved sensation to ensure functional outcomes.^[9]^[21] Other indications encompass severe, refractory arthritis (e.g., advanced osteoarthritis unresponsive to arthroplasty) or congenital deformities like fibular hemimelia, where salvage reconstruction via osteotomy or distraction osteogenesis preserves length and function. These are selected based on limb viability, low comorbidity burden, and potential for durable restoration, often evaluated through multidisciplinary assessment.^[9]

Contraindications

Limb-sparing techniques are contraindicated in certain scenarios where the risks outweigh potential benefits, necessitating amputation to ensure oncologic safety and patient survival. Absolute contraindications include extensive neurovascular encasement by the tumor without feasible reconstruction options, as this prevents adequate margins and risks incomplete resection.^[22] Uncontrolled infections leading to sepsis also preclude limb-sparing approaches, given the high risk of systemic complications and failure of reconstruction.^[23] Additionally, patients with end-stage cancer or poor overall performance status, such as a Karnofsky score below 60, represent absolute barriers due to limited life expectancy and inability to tolerate prolonged rehabilitation.^[7]^[22] Relative contraindications encompass factors that may allow limb-sparing in select cases but often favor amputation for optimal outcomes. These include pathological fractures with soft tissue compromise or hematoma extension beyond compartmental boundaries, which contaminate tissues and complicate margin achievement.^[24] In pediatric patients, immature skeletal age—particularly under 8-12 years—poses risks of significant leg-length discrepancies exceeding 8 cm and growth disturbances, potentially requiring multiple revisions.^[22]^[25] Poor vascular status that precludes revascularization, such as major vessel involvement without bypass feasibility, further limits options.^[26] High comorbidity burdens, exemplified by severe cardiopulmonary disease contributing to low performance status, increase perioperative risks and may render reconstruction unsustainable.^[7] Decision-making for contraindications relies on preoperative imaging and multidisciplinary assessment to determine if negative margins are unattainable or if post-salvage functional prognosis would be inferior to amputation with prosthetic use, such as in distal extremity lesions where prosthetics yield superior results.^[24]^[7]

Multidisciplinary Approach

Team Composition

Limb-sparing techniques require a collaborative multidisciplinary team to optimize outcomes, particularly in complex cases involving tumors, trauma, vascular compromise, or infections. The core members typically include an orthopedic oncologist or trauma surgeon who leads the resection and bone reconstruction efforts to preserve limb function while achieving oncologic margins.^[27] Vascular surgeons play a critical role in assessing and restoring blood flow through procedures like bypass or angioplasty, ensuring tissue viability during and after surgery.^[28] Plastic surgeons contribute expertise in soft tissue coverage, using techniques such as flaps or grafts to promote wound healing and prevent complications.^[29] Supportive specialists enhance the team's capacity for comprehensive care. Medical oncologists and radiation oncologists manage adjuvant therapies, such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy, to control disease progression without compromising limb preservation.^[27] Physical therapists focus on rehabilitation planning to restore mobility and strength, while infectious disease specialists address risks in diabetic or infected cases by optimizing antimicrobial strategies.^[28] Prosthetists provide functional assessments and custom solutions for residual deficits, ensuring long-term limb utility.^[28] In integrated multidisciplinary clinics, as emphasized in recent 2025 reviews, these teams coordinate to reduce amputation rates significantly, with meta-analyses showing 39-56% lower major amputation rates in vascular and diabetic limb salvage compared to standard care.^[30] The orthopedic surgeon or lead clinician directs the overall strategy, but the oncologist verifies adequate resection margins for tumor control, and the vascular specialist evaluates perfusion to guide revascularization decisions.^[27] This structured collaboration, often through regular team meetings, facilitates individualized plans that prioritize limb preservation over amputation.^[27]

Preoperative Planning

Preoperative planning for limb-sparing techniques involves a systematic evaluation to assess disease extent, patient suitability, and surgical feasibility, ensuring optimal outcomes while minimizing risks such as amputation. This phase begins with comprehensive diagnostic imaging to delineate tumor boundaries, soft tissue involvement, and vascular integrity. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is particularly valuable for evaluating intramedullary malignant bone tumors and soft tissue sarcomas, providing detailed visualization of tumor extent and aiding in the determination of resection margins. Computed tomography (CT) complements MRI by assessing bony structures and cortical involvement, while contrast-enhanced CT angiography is essential for mapping vascular anatomy in cases of peripheral artery disease or tumor encasement, identifying potential bypass routes or areas at risk of ischemia. Biopsy, typically performed via core needle or open techniques under imaging guidance, confirms pathology and guides neoadjuvant therapy decisions, with histopathological analysis essential for distinguishing benign from malignant lesions.^[31]^[32]^[31] Staging systems are employed to stratify risk and inform treatment planning, tailored to the underlying pathology. For musculoskeletal sarcomas, the TNM classification by the American Joint Committee on Cancer integrates tumor size (T), nodal involvement (N), metastasis (M), and histologic grade to stage disease from I to IV, with higher stages indicating greater complexity for limb preservation. The Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) score evaluates preoperative functional status in sarcoma patients, assessing pain, function, emotional acceptance, walking ability, gait, and support, with scores ranging from 0 to 30 to predict postoperative outcomes and guide salvage decisions. In diabetic foot ulcers, the Wagner classification grades wounds from 0 (no ulcer) to 5 (full gangrene), correlating with infection depth and ischemia to prioritize salvage candidates. These staging tools facilitate multidisciplinary discussions on resectability and expected limb function post-intervention.^[33]^[34]^[35] Patient optimization is critical to enhance healing and reduce complications prior to surgery. For sarcomas, neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy can shrink tumors and improve resectability, contributing to limb-sparing surgery in approximately 90% of extremity cases without compromising survival.^[2] In diabetic patients, glycemic control targeting hemoglobin A1c below 8% is associated with reduced risk of major lower extremity amputation.^[36] For vascular limb salvage in smokers with peripheral artery disease, preoperative smoking cessation is recommended, as it decreases perioperative complications like graft failure and enhances long-term patency, with benefits accruing after at least 2 years of abstinence.^[37] These measures, coordinated by the multidisciplinary team, address modifiable risk factors to maximize salvage success. Advanced simulation techniques further refine planning through patient-specific modeling. Three-dimensional (3D) printing based on preoperative CT or MRI data creates custom implants for bone reconstruction, allowing surgeons to evaluate fit and simulate resections, which has been shown to reduce operative time and improve precision in tumor resections. Vascular mapping via angiography or magnetic resonance angiography delineates runoff vessels and collateral circulation, enabling tailored bypass planning to preserve distal perfusion in ischemic limbs. Emerging tools, such as AI-driven predictive modeling, are increasingly used to assess surgical risks and outcomes in 2025 multidisciplinary protocols.^[38]^[39]^[28]

Postoperative Management

Following limb-sparing surgery for sarcomas, immediate postoperative care emphasizes wound monitoring to detect early signs of dehiscence or necrosis, with dressings changed regularly and vigilant observation for erythema or drainage. Prophylactic antibiotics, such as cefazolin or clindamycin, are administered perioperatively and continued for 24-48 hours to prevent surgical site infections, which occur in up to 15-30% of cases without flaps. Pain management employs a multimodal approach, including regional nerve blocks, non-opioid analgesics like acetaminophen, and short-term opioids to control acute discomfort while minimizing opioid-related side effects. Deep vein thrombosis prevention involves mechanical measures such as intermittent pneumatic compression devices and early mobilization, supplemented by low-molecular-weight heparin in high-risk patients, given the reported DVT incidence of 1-5% in orthopedic oncology procedures. Complications like infection may necessitate debridement if they arise during this phase. Rehabilitation begins in the first postoperative week with phased physical therapy tailored to the surgical site, focusing initially on gentle range-of-motion exercises to prevent contractures and promote circulation. Progressive strengthening of surrounding muscles follows immobilization, incorporating isometric contractions and resistance training to restore function, with orthotics such as knee braces or ankle-foot orthoses used to support weight-bearing and stability as tolerated, typically advancing to partial loading by 4-6 weeks. A standardized protocol has demonstrated improved outcomes, with therapy continuing for 6-12 months to achieve optimal mobility and reduce atrophy. Follow-up involves serial radiographs or CT scans every 4-6 weeks initially to assess bone union and implant integrity in reconstruction cases, transitioning to less frequent imaging for healing confirmation. Oncologic surveillance includes PET-CT or MRI at 3, 6, and 12 months post-surgery to monitor for local recurrence or metastasis, aligned with guidelines recommending 3-4 visits per year in the first 2-3 years. Functional assessments, such as the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, are performed regularly to quantify mobility and gait improvements. Patient education is integral, instructing individuals on recognizing complication signs like increasing pain, swelling, or fever, and emphasizing adherence to rehabilitation to attain 80-90% functional recovery, as evidenced by mean Musculoskeletal Tumor Society scores of 87% in standardized programs.

Bone Reconstruction

Endoprostheses

Endoprostheses, also known as tumor prostheses, are metallic implants designed to replace resected segments of bone in limb-sparing surgery, particularly for oncologic resections where large skeletal defects result from tumor removal. These devices enable functional restoration by reconstructing the affected bone while preserving the limb's integrity, contrasting with amputation. They are primarily indicated for high-grade bone sarcomas such as osteosarcoma or Ewing's sarcoma in weight-bearing bones like the distal femur or proximal tibia, where defects exceed 50% of the bone length.^[40]^[41] Modular endoprostheses consist of interchangeable components, such as stems, bodies, and articular surfaces, allowing intraoperative customization to match the resection site, with the distal femur being a common application due to its prevalence in sarcomas. Materials typically include titanium alloys like Ti6Al4V for their biocompatibility, strength, and corrosion resistance, often combined with cobalt-chromium for high-load areas. For pediatric patients with skeletally immature bones, expandable endoprostheses feature mechanisms like noninvasive lengthening devices to accommodate growth, reducing the need for frequent revisions. Recent advances as of 2025 incorporate 3D-printed porous coatings, such as trabecular metal or highly cancellous titanium structures, to promote osseointegration through bone ingrowth, enhancing long-term stability without cement in select cases.^[40]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45] Surgical implantation occurs immediately following wide-margin tumor resection, with the prosthesis fitted intraoperatively to bridge the defect and restore alignment. Fixation is achieved using intramedullary stems, which may be cemented with polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) for immediate stability in adults or uncemented with press-fit designs relying on osseointegration in younger patients. The procedure involves reaming the medullary canals of the remaining bone segments, inserting the stems, and securing the modular body to approximate native anatomy, often under fluoroscopic guidance.^[46]^[47]^[40] Clinical outcomes demonstrate implant survival rates of 70-80% at 10 years, with limb salvage exceeding 90% in most series, though pediatric expandable designs show lower failure-free survival around 60% due to growth-related complications. Common issues include aseptic loosening (10-20% incidence), infection (5-15%), and mechanical failure, often managed through revisions such as stem exchanges or conversion to cemented fixation. These prostheses can be combined with allografts in composite reconstructions for enhanced biological integration in complex cases.^[48]^[49]^[43]^[40]

Autografts

Autografts in limb-sparing techniques utilize the patient's own bone or tissue for reconstruction, providing a biological option that integrates naturally with the host site. These grafts are categorized into vascularized and non-vascularized types, with vascularized autografts maintaining blood supply to promote viability and healing, while non-vascularized ones rely on creeping substitution for incorporation.^[50]^[51] Vascularized fibular grafts represent a primary type, often employed for reconstructing tibial defects following trauma or tumor resection, where a segment of the fibula is harvested along with its peroneal artery and vein. Non-vascularized cortical struts, typically sourced from the fibula or iliac crest, serve as structural supports for smaller segmental defects. In children, autografts are particularly favored due to their capacity to remodel and support longitudinal bone growth, making them suitable for post-traumatic or infectious defects without compromising skeletal development.^[52]^[53]^[54] The technique for harvesting involves isolating the graft from the iliac crest for cancellous or corticocancellous bone or from the fibula for longer segments, with careful preservation of the vascular pedicle in vascularized cases to enable microvascular anastomosis to recipient vessels upon inset. For non-vascularized grafts, the strut is secured using internal fixation, such as plates or intramedullary nails, to bridge the defect. Vascularized autografts demonstrate union rates of approximately 90%, significantly higher than non-vascularized options, due to preserved osteocyte viability and enhanced perfusion at the recipient site.^[55]^[56]^[57] Key advantages of autografts include the absence of immunological rejection, as the tissue is autologous, and the potential for graft hypertrophy over time through mechanical loading and biological remodeling, which strengthens the reconstruction long-term. Recent applications, as of 2025, extend to diabetic osteomyelitis cases, where vascularized or non-vascularized fibular autografts facilitate defect filling after debridement, promoting healing in compromised hosts. Autografts may also integrate briefly with endoprostheses in composite reconstructions for enhanced stability, though detailed mechanics are addressed elsewhere.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Allografts

Allografts involve the transplantation of cadaveric bone tissue to reconstruct large skeletal defects in limb-sparing procedures, providing structural support while preserving limb function. These grafts are particularly valuable in orthopedic oncology and trauma surgery, where they replace resected bone segments without relying on the patient's own tissue. The process leverages donor bone to bridge gaps, allowing for biological integration over time, though it carries unique immunological and infectious risks compared to autologous options.^[2] Structural allografts, commonly used for diaphyseal replacement, include fresh-frozen and irradiated variants. Fresh-frozen allografts are harvested and preserved at low temperatures to maintain biomechanical properties and osteoinductive potential, making them suitable for intercalary reconstructions in long bones such as the femur or tibia. Irradiated allografts undergo gamma radiation processing to reduce immunogenicity and infection risk, though this may slightly compromise mechanical strength; they are often employed when sterility is paramount. These types are selected based on defect location and size, with fresh-frozen preferred for better long-term incorporation in non-contaminated fields.^[61]^[62]^[63] Indications for allograft use center on large segmental defects exceeding 6 cm, particularly in low-grade bone tumors like parosteal osteosarcoma or low-grade chondrosarcoma, where wide resection leaves substantial voids. They are also applied in trauma cases involving massive bone loss, such as Gustilo-Anderson type III fractures, and for pelvic reconstruction following tumor excision in regions like the ilium or acetabulum to restore stability and prevent limb shortening. Allografts are favored when preserving joint motion is critical, as they can form osteoarticular or intercalary constructs without prosthetic components.^[64]^[65]^[66] The technique begins with sterile procurement of donor bone in the operating room post-organ donation, followed by processing in tissue banks to ensure compatibility and safety through screening for pathogens. The graft is then sized intraoperatively to match the defect, contoured if needed, and secured using plates, screws, or intramedullary nails for rigid fixation to promote stability during healing. Incorporation occurs via creeping substitution, where host bone gradually resorbs and replaces the allograft matrix through osteoclastic activity followed by osteoblastic remodeling, a process that can take 1-2 years for full integration.^[67]^[68]^[67] Key risks include non-union at the host-graft junction, occurring in 10-20% of cases due to poor vascularization and mechanical stress, often necessitating revision surgery. Disease transmission, such as HIV or hepatitis, is rare (less than 1 in 1 million) but mitigated through rigorous donor screening, serological testing, and processing methods like freeze-drying or irradiation. Infection rates hover around 10-16%, exacerbated by chemotherapy in tumor patients. Recent advancements, including antibiotic-soaked allografts impregnated with agents like vancomycin and tobramycin, have emerged by 2025 to address periprosthetic infections, delivering high local concentrations while supporting reconstruction in contaminated fields.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]

Alloprosthetic Composites

Alloprosthetic composites (APCs) represent a hybrid reconstructive approach in limb-sparing surgery, integrating structural allografts with prosthetic components to restore bone stock and provide immediate mechanical stability following tumor resection. In this design, the allograft segment is used to cap the ends of the prosthesis, effectively augmenting the host bone and allowing for soft tissue reattachment while the metallic implant handles load-bearing demands. This combination leverages the biologic potential of the allograft for eventual incorporation into the host bone, contrasting with standalone endoprostheses by preserving natural bone architecture and reducing stress shielding.^[73]^[74] Indications for APC primarily include revision surgeries for failed prior reconstructions and primary resections of tumors in the proximal humerus or femur, particularly where joint preservation is essential to maintain function in young or active patients. These cases often involve significant bone loss from sarcomas or aggressive benign tumors, where pure prosthetic replacement may not suffice due to inadequate soft tissue coverage or long-term durability concerns. APC is favored in orthopedic oncology for skeletally mature individuals expecting extended survival, avoiding the limitations of chemotherapy-impacted healing seen in some allograft-only methods.^[75]^[76]^[77] The surgical technique begins with procurement of a size-matched allograft from a certified bone bank, typically deep-frozen and sterilized, followed by precise tumor resection to achieve negative margins. The prosthesis—often a modular, rotating-hinge design—is then cemented into the medullary canal of the allograft and the host bone to ensure initial fixation, with additional compression plating or cerclage wiring at the host-allograft junction to promote stability. Over time, this setup facilitates biologic fixation through creeping substitution, where the allograft revascularizes and integrates with the host, potentially allowing load-sharing and reducing prosthesis dependence. Postoperative protocols include immobilization for 4-6 weeks and progressive weight-bearing after radiographic confirmation of union, typically at 3 months.^[73]^[78]^[79] Outcomes of APC demonstrate improved longevity compared to isolated endoprosthetic reconstructions, with prosthesis survival rates reaching 94% at 10 years and allograft incorporation in over 90% of cases, supporting functional scores like the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) rating of 24-25 points in long-term follow-up. Median survival extends to 11-14 years in proximal femur and humerus applications, with some patients maintaining reconstruction beyond 20 years due to enhanced bone stock preservation and lower revision rates for loosening (around 5-10%). Recent 2025 advancements incorporate patient-specific 3D-printed prosthetic components within APC designs, which improve fit and porosity to minimize allograft resorption, as evidenced in pilot studies showing stable integration at 12 months. Complications such as infection (up to 24%) or fracture (10-15%) occur but are manageable, with overall revision-free survival at 75-92% over 5-10 years.^[80]^[79]^[73]^[81]

Soft Tissue Reconstruction

Local Flaps

Local flaps involve the transfer of adjacent tissue on a pedicled blood supply to cover soft tissue defects in limb-sparing procedures, providing reliable coverage for smaller defects without the need for microvascular anastomosis. These flaps are particularly suited for scenarios where local tissue is viable and abundant, preserving the vascular integrity through the pedicle while minimizing donor site morbidity. In limb salvage, they facilitate wound closure over exposed bone, tendons, or hardware, promoting healing and functional recovery.^[82] Key types of local flaps include advancement flaps, such as the V-Y flap, which slides tissue linearly into the defect after a V-shaped incision is closed as a Y, ideal for small, linear wounds like fingertip or post-resection defects up to 3 cm. Rotation flaps, exemplified by the gastrocnemius muscle flap for knee coverage, pivot semicircularly around a fixed point to fill proximal leg or knee defects, offering robust, bulky tissue for areas with exposed prostheses. Fasciocutaneous flaps, classified by perforator patterns (e.g., Type A with multiple basal perforators), provide thin, pliable coverage for lower extremity defects, such as the sural flap, which can extend up to 22 cm.^[83] These types are selected based on defect size, location, and available donor tissue to ensure optimal aesthetic and functional outcomes.^[84]^[85]^[82] Indications for local flaps encompass post-resection coverage following trauma or oncologic surgery, such as soft tissue sarcomas, where adjacent healthy tissue is available to avoid amputation and support limb function. They are also employed for diabetic foot wound closure, achieving successful healing in approximately 75% of cases with follow-up exceeding two years, particularly for smaller ulcers with adequate vascularity. In oncology, pedicled local flaps reconstruct defects after sarcoma excision, contributing to limb salvage rates when combined with orthoplastic approaches.^[86]^[87]^[88] The technique entails precise mobilization of the flap on its vascular pedicle—preserving perforators or named vessels—followed by tension-free inset into the defect, often with debridement and primary closure of the donor site. For instance, the gastrocnemius flap is elevated subfascially and rotated anteriorly without vessel division, while fasciocutaneous flaps require Doppler confirmation of perforators prior to dissection. Survival rates exceed 95% when tension is minimized and perfusion is maintained, with pedicled flaps showing 95.8% immediate success in foot and ankle reconstructions. Advantages include single-stage procedures that obviate microsurgery, reducing operative time and complexity, while recent 2025 applications incorporate antibiotic impregnation of adjunct materials like bone cement beneath flaps for infected sites, enhancing infection control in contaminated wounds. For larger defects requiring distant tissue, free flaps may be necessary.^[89]^[85]^[82]^[90]

Free Flaps

Free flaps represent a cornerstone of microsurgical soft tissue reconstruction in limb-sparing techniques, involving the transfer of vascularized tissue from a distant donor site to cover extensive defects while preserving limb function. This approach is particularly valuable when local tissue is insufficient or compromised, enabling reliable coverage of critical structures such as exposed bone, tendons, and neurovascular bundles. By reestablishing blood flow through microvascular anastomosis, free flaps facilitate wound healing and reduce the need for amputation in complex cases.^[91] Various types of free flaps are employed based on defect characteristics, with muscle-based flaps providing robust volume for filling dead space, perforator flaps offering thin, pliable coverage, and composite flaps delivering combined soft tissue and bone when skeletal support is required. Muscle flaps, such as the latissimus dorsi and gracilis, are favored for their large surface area and reliable vascular pedicles, making them suitable for bulky defects in the lower extremity. Perforator flaps, exemplified by the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap, allow for thin, sensate coverage without sacrificing underlying muscle, ideal for weight-bearing areas like the foot. Composite flaps, such as the fibular osteocutaneous flap, integrate bone with soft tissue to address compound defects, enhancing overall reconstruction stability.^[91]^[92]^[93] Indications for free flaps primarily include large soft tissue defects following oncologic resections, high-energy trauma, or chronic ischemic wounds associated with peripheral vascular disease and diabetes. In oncologic limb salvage, they cover post-resection voids to prevent infection and support adjuvant therapies, achieving high viability in comorbid patients. For traumatic injuries, free flaps reconstruct zones of injury where local options fail, restoring contour and durability. In vascular disease, particularly diabetic foot ulcers, they salvage limbs threatened by necrosis, with success enhanced by multidisciplinary optimization of perfusion.^[94]^[95]^[96] The technique begins with meticulous preoperative planning, including imaging to map donor and recipient vessels, followed by simultaneous harvest of the flap and preparation of the defect site. The flap is elevated with its arterial and venous pedicles intact, transferred to the recipient area, and revascularized via end-to-end or end-to-side microvascular anastomosis under microscopic magnification to vessels like the anterior or posterior tibial arteries. Inset involves shaping and suturing the flap to match the defect, with immediate or delayed skin grafting if needed; postoperative monitoring with Doppler ultrasound or implantable devices ensures early detection of thrombosis. With experienced teams, flap failure rates are typically 5–10%, contributing to limb salvage rates exceeding 90% in suitable candidates.^[93]^[97]^[98]^[99] Recent advances as of 2025 emphasize prefabricated flaps enhanced with growth factors to improve outcomes in diabetic limb salvage, where neovascularization is challenging. Prefabrication involves pre-implanting vascular carriers in the donor site, followed by incorporation of angiogenic factors like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) delivered via extracellular vesicles or concentrated growth factor gels to promote flap vascularity and survival. These innovations have demonstrated accelerated healing and reduced ischemia-reperfusion injury in preclinical and early clinical models, expanding salvage options for recalcitrant wounds.^[100]^[101]^[102]

Vascular Reconstruction

Bypass Grafting

Bypass grafting is an open surgical revascularization technique that restores arterial blood flow to ischemic limbs by bypassing occluded or damaged vessel segments using a vascular conduit. This procedure is essential in limb-sparing strategies, particularly for patients with advanced peripheral artery disease (PAD) where endovascular options are inadequate or have failed. The goal is to achieve adequate perfusion to prevent tissue loss and amputation, with autogenous conduits generally preferred over prosthetic ones due to better biocompatibility and durability.^[103] Grafts used in bypass procedures fall into two main categories: autogenous and prosthetic. Autogenous grafts, such as the greater saphenous vein harvested in reversed, in situ, or non-reversed configurations, are the gold standard for infrainguinal bypasses, especially to infrapopliteal targets, owing to their resistance to thrombosis and adaptability to arterial pressures. Prosthetic grafts, typically expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or Dacron, are employed for suprainguinal or above-knee femoropopliteal reconstructions where suitable veins are unavailable, as they provide a reliable lumen for higher-flow aortoiliac disease.^[103]^[104] Indications for bypass grafting include chronic arterial occlusions causing critical limb ischemia (CLI) in PAD, such as rest pain, nonhealing ulcers, or gangrene; diabetic foot ischemia with multilevel infrapopliteal involvement; and traumatic vascular injuries leading to limb-threatening hypoperfusion. It is particularly indicated when preoperative imaging confirms suitable inflow and outflow vessels, and in cases where tissue viability depends on durable revascularization. The surgical technique involves general anesthesia, exposure of proximal and distal arterial sites via longitudinal incisions, graft harvesting or preparation, end-to-side or end-to-end anastomoses using continuous monofilament sutures, and subcutaneous or subfascial tunneling to optimize flow dynamics and minimize infection risk. Common configurations for lower limbs include femoropopliteal or femorotibial bypasses, with intraoperative angiography ensuring patency. Primary patency rates for autogenous vein grafts reach 70-80% at 5 years in above-knee positions, outperforming prosthetic grafts at 60-70%, though overall limb salvage exceeds 80% in selected CLI cohorts.^[105]^[106]^[107]^[103]^[104] As of 2025, hybrid revascularization integrating open bypass grafting with endovascular interventions has emerged as a preferred approach for multilevel PAD, allowing staged or simultaneous treatment of aortoiliac and femoropopliteal lesions to enhance patency and reduce operative morbidity in complex limb ischemia.^[108]

Endovascular Procedures

Endovascular procedures represent a cornerstone of minimally invasive limb-sparing techniques, primarily aimed at restoring blood flow in peripheral artery disease (PAD) to prevent amputation in patients with chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI). These catheter-based interventions, such as angioplasty and stenting, target arterial stenoses or occlusions without the need for open surgical exposure, offering reduced perioperative risks compared to traditional bypass grafting.^[109]^[110] The primary types of endovascular procedures include balloon angioplasty, stenting, and atherectomy. Balloon angioplasty, or percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA), involves inflating a balloon to dilate narrowed vessels, serving as the foundational technique for many interventions.^[109] Stenting follows angioplasty when residual stenosis or dissection occurs, with drug-eluting stents (DES) preferred to prevent restenosis by releasing antiproliferative agents like paclitaxel or sirolimus directly into the vessel wall.^[109]^[111] Atherectomy devices, including rotational, directional, or laser variants, debulk atherosclerotic plaque to facilitate subsequent angioplasty or stenting, particularly in calcified lesions common in below-the-knee disease.^[109]^[110] Indications for these procedures focus on focal arterial stenoses or short-segment occlusions arising from atherosclerotic vascular disease or post-traumatic injuries, where restoring perfusion can salvage ischemic limbs. They are especially favored in diabetic patients with CLTI due to lower procedural morbidity, shorter recovery times, and suitability for high-risk comorbidities compared to open surgery.^[111]^[112]^[113] The standard technique begins with percutaneous femoral artery access under local anesthesia, followed by guidewire advancement across the lesion under fluoroscopic guidance. For angioplasty, a balloon catheter is deployed and inflated to compress plaque against the vessel wall; atherectomy may precede this for heavy calcification. Stents are then placed if needed to maintain patency, with post-dilation ensuring optimal expansion. These procedures can serve as adjuncts to bypass grafting in complex cases involving multilevel disease.^[109]^[110] Clinical outcomes demonstrate high technical success rates, with limb salvage approaching 85-86% at one year following PTA in CLTI patients, though patency rates vary from 58-69% due to restenosis risks.^[109] DES and atherectomy improve long-term vessel patency, reducing reintervention needs, while overall amputation rates are lower with endovascular approaches in select cohorts.^[111]^[112] By 2025, advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have enhanced procedural precision through robotic-assisted navigation, enabling AI-driven guidance for catheter traversal in tortuous vessels and reducing contrast agent use by up to 30% via predictive imaging algorithms. These innovations, integrated with digital twin modeling, minimize radiation exposure and improve outcomes in PAD interventions.^[114]

Combined Revascularization and Tissue Transfer

Combined revascularization and tissue transfer represents an integrated surgical strategy in limb-sparing techniques, where vascular restoration is paired with soft tissue reconstruction to address both perfusion deficits and tissue defects in compromised limbs. This approach is particularly valuable for patients with critical limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) accompanied by extensive wounds, enabling comprehensive salvage by first reestablishing blood flow and then providing durable coverage.^[115] Indications for this combined method primarily include ischemic wounds in patients with diabetes or peripheral vascular disease following aggressive debridement, as well as traumatic injuries involving concomitant vessel and soft tissue loss. In diabetic cases, it targets complex foot ulcers with exposed bone or tendon, often after initial wound excision to remove necrotic tissue. For trauma, it applies to high-energy injuries like crush or blast wounds that disrupt major arteries and create large soft tissue gaps, where isolated vascular repair alone cannot achieve closure.^[116]^[117] Techniques typically involve a sequential approach, where revascularization—via bypass grafting or endovascular means—is performed first to optimize distal perfusion, followed by microvascular anastomosis of a free flap to the newly restored vessels for inflow. Alternatively, simultaneous procedures can be employed, utilizing flow-through free flaps such as the anterolateral thigh or latissimus dorsi, where the flap's vascular pedicle incorporates a vein conduit to bridge arterial defects and supply both the flap and distal limb. In these cases, the flap is interposed between the proximal artery and distal runoff, ensuring dual functionality for coverage and revascularization in a single stage. Common flaps include muscle or myocutaneous types like the rectus abdominis, selected for their robust blood supply and ability to fill volumetric defects.^[116]^[118]^[119] Success rates for these combined interventions in multidisciplinary settings range from 80% to 90% for limb salvage at 1 to 3 years, with meta-analyses reporting 86% at 1 year and 81% at 3 years among patients with CLTI and complex wounds. Flap survival exceeds 90% in most series, though complications like vascular thrombosis (13%) or reoperation (37%) necessitate vigilant postoperative monitoring. Amputation rates remain low at 4% short-term, underscoring the approach's efficacy in extending salvage to otherwise nonviable limbs.^[115]^[120] As of 2025, advancements in single-stage protocols have incorporated local antibiotic delivery, such as intraosseous or bio-composite bone void fillers, to mitigate infection risks in diabetic foot reconstructions following combined procedures. These techniques, often using resorbable calcium sulfate beads loaded with targeted antibiotics, have demonstrated superior infection clearance rates and reduced need for prolonged systemic therapy, enhancing overall limb preservation in osteomyelitis-associated cases.^[121]^[122]

Functional Reconstruction

Arthrodesis

Arthrodesis, or surgical joint fusion, serves as a key technique in limb-sparing surgery to achieve stability following tumor resection involving major joints, particularly in cases of bone sarcomas such as osteosarcoma. This procedure eliminates joint motion to create a solid bony bridge, enabling weight-bearing and functional ambulation while preserving limb length. It is especially relevant when tumor involvement extends to the joint surface, precluding motion-preserving reconstructions, or in scenarios of post-resection instability.^[123]^[124] Indications for arthrodesis in limb salvage primarily include juxta-articular sarcomas around the knee or ankle, where wide resection margins necessitate joint sacrifice to ensure oncologic safety. For the knee, it is suitable for distal femoral or proximal tibial tumors in young, active patients, offering durability without reliance on mechanical implants prone to failure. Ankle arthrodesis is indicated for distal tibial sarcomas, often combined with bone grafting to bridge defects after resection. Post-traumatic instability following initial limb-sparing attempts, such as failed allografts, also warrants arthrodesis as a salvage option. The knee and ankle are the most common sites due to their load-bearing roles and the prevalence of sarcomas in these regions.^[124]^[125]^[123] The technique involves en bloc resection of the tumor with adequate margins, followed by precise alignment of the bone ends in a functional position—typically 0-5° of valgus and 10-15° of flexion for the knee, or neutral for the ankle. Fixation is achieved using intramedullary nails, plates, or external fixators, often supplemented with autografts or allografts to promote union. For knee arthrodesis, intramedullary nailing provides stable compression, while ankle fusions may incorporate vascularized fibular grafts for enhanced healing in contaminated fields post-resection. Fusion rates range from 85% to 95%, with union typically occurring within 6-9 months, though higher complication risks exist in irradiated or infected tissues.^[124]^[125]^[126] Outcomes emphasize mechanical stability for prosthetic-assisted ambulation, though at the cost of joint motion, resulting in altered gait and potential adjacent joint stress. Functional scores, such as the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society rating, average 75-85% in long-term survivors, with low local recurrence rates (around 11%) when margins are achieved. Arthrodesis is employed in select lower limb salvages, particularly when endoprosthetic options are unsuitable, supporting ambulation in approximately 80-90% of cases without secondary amputation. By 2025, patient-specific 3D-printed titanium implants have improved precision in fusion alignment and defect bridging, reducing nonunion risks in complex ankle and knee reconstructions during limb salvage.^[123]^[124]^[127]

Arthroplasty

Arthroplasty in limb-sparing techniques involves the replacement of resected joint surfaces with prosthetic components to preserve mobility and function following tumor excision or severe trauma. This approach is particularly valuable in oncologic surgery, where wide resection margins are required to achieve local control while avoiding amputation. Modular megaprostheses, such as the MUTARS system, are commonly employed for reconstructions around the knee, including distal femoral, proximal tibial, or total femoral replacements.^[128] These devices feature rotating hinge mechanisms to enhance stability and mimic natural joint kinematics.^[129] Indications for arthroplasty in limb salvage include malignant bone tumors like osteosarcoma and chondrosarcoma, where distal resections can preserve the joint capsule and surrounding soft tissues. It is suitable for patients with good responses to neoadjuvant chemotherapy and adequate soft tissue coverage post-resection. In pediatric cases, expandable megaprostheses are preferred to accommodate skeletal growth, addressing limb length discrepancies in skeletally immature patients under 14 years with sarcomas such as osteosarcoma or Ewing's sarcoma. As of 2025, non-invasive expandable designs, such as magnetic distraction systems, have reduced infection risks in pediatric applications to 18-38%.^[130]^[131]^[132] The surgical technique begins with wide extra-articular tumor resection to ensure oncologic margins, followed by implantation of the megaprosthesis using cemented stems for immediate fixation. Soft tissue balancing is critical, involving reattachment of muscles and tendons to the prosthetic body via screws, plates, or synthetic meshes to optimize joint stability and prevent contractures. For knee reconstructions, a rotating hinge design allows for a postoperative range of motion typically achieving 90-120 degrees of flexion. In expandable pediatric implants, noninvasive elongation procedures, such as magnetic distraction, are performed periodically under imaging guidance to extend the prosthesis by up to 2 cm per session.^[129]^[128]^[133] Outcomes demonstrate reasonable long-term implant survival, with approximately 60-70% of megaprostheses remaining functional at 10 years in limb-sparing procedures for bone tumors.^[134] Functional scores, such as the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) rating, average around 67-83%, with satisfactory quality of life in most survivors. Complications occur in up to 55% of cases, including infections (24%), aseptic loosening (9%), and dislocations, which are often managed with constrained hinge components or revision surgery. In pediatrics, expandable designs yield 71% satisfactory function among survivors, though infection rates reach 47%.^[135]^[128]^[131]

Rotationplasty

Rotationplasty is a specialized limb-sparing surgical procedure primarily utilized in pediatric oncology to reconstruct the lower extremity after tumor resection, transforming the ankle joint into a functional neo-knee that facilitates prosthetic fitting and end-weight bearing. This technique, also known as the Borggrève-Van Nes rotationplasty, involves a 180-degree rotation of the distal limb, allowing the foot to face backward and the ankle to articulate as the new knee joint, which enables a more energy-efficient gait compared to traditional above-knee amputation prosthetics. It is particularly advantageous for growing children, as it avoids the need for repeated revisions associated with expandable implants and preserves biological reconstruction without growth disturbances.^[136] The primary indications for rotationplasty include proximal tibial or distal femoral sarcomas in skeletally immature children, where tumor resection would otherwise necessitate knee disarticulation or extensive bone loss incompatible with standard joint replacements. It is also indicated for proximal femoral sarcomas in very young patients under 5 years, where options like modular prostheses are less feasible due to growth demands. This approach allows for an end-bearing prosthesis at a below-knee level, improving mobility and function while salvaging the limb. Rotationplasty is selected in approximately 5-10% of pediatric lower extremity sarcoma cases, often when vascular involvement is manageable or when prior limb salvage attempts have failed.^[137]^[138]^[136] The surgical technique begins with en bloc resection of the tumor, including the affected bone segment, while preserving critical neurovascular structures. The distal limb is then rotated 180 degrees externally, repositioning the ankle joint to align with the remaining proximal stump—typically the mid-femur for knee-level tumors or the acetabulum for proximal femoral resections—followed by stable fixation using plate osteosynthesis. The sciatic nerve is meticulously preserved to maintain sensation and motor function in the foot, which becomes the primary weight-bearing surface; vascular continuity is ensured through preservation, coiling, or anastomosis of femoral and popliteal vessels. Adjunctive tendon transfers, such as the rectus femoris to the Achilles tendon, may be performed to optimize biomechanics. Postoperatively, patients are fitted with a customized transtibial prosthesis that leverages the rotated ankle's dorsiflexion and plantarflexion for knee-like motion.^[136]^[139]^[137] Outcomes of rotationplasty demonstrate high patient satisfaction and superior functional results, with musculoskeletal tumor society scores often exceeding or comparable to those of amputation, with functional outcomes generally favorable relative to other reconstructions. Patients achieve an energy-efficient gait, with 85% participating in high-level sports and no significant reduction in quality of life or psychosocial adaptation compared to peers. Long-term limb survival rates reach 91% at 10 years, though complications like vascular compromise (leading to 12% amputation rate) or delayed union occur in a minority. Rotationplasty contrasts with in situ joint salvage options like arthrodesis or arthroplasty by reorienting anatomy specifically for prosthetic compatibility.^[140]^[141]^[142]^[143]

Complications and Outcomes

Surgical Complications

Surgical complications in limb-sparing techniques encompass a range of immediate and early postoperative risks that can compromise reconstruction outcomes, particularly in procedures involving tumor resection, endoprosthetic replacement, vascular repair, and soft tissue coverage. Infection remains one of the most prevalent issues, with periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) occurring in approximately 10-15% of cases following endoprosthetic reconstruction for bone sarcomas.^[144] Wound dehiscence, often linked to soft tissue tension or impaired healing, affects up to 5-10% of patients and may necessitate revision surgery.^[142] Prophylactic measures, such as intraoperative application of vancomycin powder, have demonstrated efficacy in reducing these rates by up to 50% in high-risk orthopedic reconstructions, including limb salvage, by providing localized antibiotic delivery without systemic toxicity.^[145] Hardware failure in endoprostheses, including aseptic loosening and implant fracture, arises in 10-15% of early postoperative cases, often due to mechanical stress or suboptimal fixation in the tumor resection bed.^[146] These failures can lead to instability and require prompt reoperation; early detection through serial X-rays or advanced imaging is essential for timely intervention and preservation of limb function.^[2] Vascular complications, such as thrombosis following bypass grafting, occur in about 5% of limb-sparing vascular reconstructions and can result in graft occlusion or hematoma formation, threatening tissue viability.^[147] Anticoagulation protocols, including intraoperative heparin administration and postoperative low-molecular-weight heparin, mitigate these risks by improving patency rates and limb salvage, particularly in trauma-related procedures.^[148] Other notable risks include non-union in bone grafts, reported at around 15% in vascularized fibular reconstructions used for segmental defects, which may delay weight-bearing and require additional grafting.^[50] Flap necrosis in free tissue transfers affects 3-5% of cases, often due to microvascular thrombosis, leading to partial or total loss of coverage and potential exposure of vital structures.^[149] Emerging antibiotic delivery systems, such as calcium sulfate beads, are improving infection control in diabetic limb salvage through sustained local release, enhancing overall procedural success in high-risk populations.^[150]

Long-term Outcomes

Long-term outcomes of limb-sparing techniques in soft tissue sarcoma patients demonstrate substantial functional preservation, with 70-90% achieving independent ambulation, often with assistive devices in complex reconstructions. The Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) scoring system, which evaluates pain, function, emotional acceptance, walking ability, gait, and support, yields average scores of approximately 24/30 (80%) in lower extremity cases around the knee, indicating good to excellent function in the majority. These results reflect sustained mobility and daily activity levels, though gait abnormalities such as stiffness may persist in up to 90% of patients due to joint involvement or reconstruction type.^[151] Oncologically, limb-sparing surgery achieves local recurrence rates of 7-15% at 5 years when combined with adjuvant radiotherapy, comparable to historical benchmarks with modern multidisciplinary protocols. Overall and disease-free survival rates mirror those of earlier eras, with 5-year overall survival around 80% and no detriment from preservation efforts. Recent data indicate 5-year limb retention rates of 77-90%, with over 85% in select cohorts managed with vascular reconstruction, underscoring the durability of these approaches in preventing secondary amputation.^[152]^[153]^[154]^[155] Quality-of-life assessments, such as the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS), average 76-93%, signifying mild to moderate disability but high patient satisfaction with preserved limb utility. Patients avoid phantom limb pain entirely, contributing to better psychological adjustment compared to scenarios involving limb loss. However, revision surgeries occur in 30-58% of cases by 10 years, primarily for implant loosening or infection in endoprosthetic reconstructions, necessitating ongoing surveillance.^[151]^[156] Multidisciplinary care, integrating vascular surgery, oncology, and rehabilitation, enhances outcomes in vascular-compromised or diabetic cases by 15-70%, through reduced major amputation rates and improved amputation-free survival via coordinated revascularization and wound management.^[157]^[158]

Comparison to Amputation

Limb-sparing techniques and amputation yield comparable overall survival rates in patients with extremity sarcomas. A propensity score-matched analysis of the National Cancer Database for pelvic chondrosarcoma patients demonstrated no significant difference in 5-year survivorship, with both approaches achieving 70% (95% CI, 62%-79%).^[159] Similar equivalence has been observed in broader sarcoma cohorts, where limb-sparing avoids the immediate morbidity associated with amputation, such as phantom limb pain and higher perioperative risks, while maintaining oncologic control.^[159] Functionally, limb-sparing surgery provides superior cosmesis and body image compared to amputation, as evidenced by significantly lower Amputee Body Image Scale scores in salvage patients (mean 42.9) versus those undergoing amputation (mean 48.8 to 66.3).^[160] However, it carries a higher risk of reoperations, with complication rates reaching 46% and 31% requiring revision surgery in pediatric sarcoma cases, contrasted against 12% complications and 6% reoperations for amputation.^[161] Amputation often enables quicker rehabilitation through prosthetic fitting, leading to equivalent long-term functional scores like the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (approximately 78 for both) but with faster initial return to mobility.^[160] Psychosocially, limb preservation is associated with higher patient satisfaction and quality of life. In a 2025 five-year follow-up study of osteosarcoma patients, those undergoing limb salvage reported significantly superior EORTC QLQ-C30 scores (78.3 ± 5.6) compared to amputation recipients (65.4 ± 7.2), indicating better overall well-being and reduced depressive symptoms.^[18] This preference for preservation aligns with lower rates of body image dissatisfaction and improved psychosocial adjustment in salvage survivors.^[160] Amputation remains preferred in 5-10% of cases due to contraindications such as extensive neurovascular involvement, polytrauma, or critical physiological instability, where salvage would prolong recovery or increase infection risk.^[162] In these scenarios, amputation facilitates a faster return to work, particularly for patients in demanding occupations, by bypassing the extended rehabilitation often required for complex reconstructions.^[162]

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Oct 6, 2017 · Fresh frozen allograft reconstruction has been used for a long time in massive bone loss in orthopedic surgery. Allografts have the ...
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Bone Grafting - Basic Science - Orthobullets
Dec 24, 2023 · Types of Allograft ; Fresh. Highest risk of disease transmission and immunogenicity. BMP preserved and therefore osteoinductive ; Fresh frozen.Missing: diaphyseal limb salvage
[62]
Intercalary allograft reconstruction following femoral tumour resection
Jun 13, 2022 · It appears to be safer to use a fresh-frozen allograft, as an irradiated allograft may have impeded the long-term allograft structural ...<|separator|>
[63]
Do Massive Allograft Reconstructions for Tumors of the Femur and ...
During the period in question, our general indications for using allografts (354 patients) included patients with benign or low-grade sarcomas and patients with ...
[64]
Strategies for large bone defect reconstruction after trauma ... - NIH
Oct 2, 2021 · The present study investigated the current reconstructive strategies for large bone defect after trauma, infections, or tumour excision.
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Pelvic massive allograft reconstruction after bone tumour resection
Pelvic massive allografts provide restoration of the anatomical architecture of the pelvis, preserving bone stock and limb length and, when coupled with a hip ...
[66]
Bone allografts - The Bone & Joint Journal
May 1, 2007 · Substitution of the old necrotic bone by living new bone as a result of creeping substitution. A bone graft is considered to be incorporated ...
[67]
Bone Replacement Materials and Techniques Used for Achieving ...
The latter phase of incorporation is characterized by osteoconduction and a process known as creeping substitution [39]. Osteoconduction is a function of a bone ...
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Factors Affecting Nonunion of the Allograft-Host Junction
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Bone allografts: A review of safety and efficacy
The major concerns associated with these materials are antigenicity and risk of disease transmission from donor to recipient. To minimize this risk, the ...Missing: union mitigation
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Survival of massive allografts in segmental oncological bone defect ...
The total fracture rate was 13% with a total infection rate of 16%. We found a low union rate of 25%. The total survival of the allografts was 80.8% (± 18.7%) ...
[71]
(PDF) Bone allograft impregnated with tobramycin and vancomycin ...
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Allograft-Prosthetic Composite in the Proximal Tibia After Bone ... - NIH
The use of an APC might be the best available solution because it combines the advantages of a homoplastic osteoarticular graft, biologic insertion of the soft ...Missing: alloprosthetic sparing
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Reconstruction after Resection Surgical Options for Bone and Soft ...
Allograft-Prosthetic Composite (APC): This method combines a donor bone (allograft) with a prosthetic implant. The implant provides immediate strength and ...
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Allograft Prosthesis Composite (APC) for Proximal Humeral Bone Loss
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Allograft-prosthesis composite after proximal femur bone tumor ...
Sep 17, 2024 · Allograft-prosthesis composites with short stem and compression plate represents an effective reconstructive option after proximal femur resection for primary ...Missing: alloprosthetic sparing
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Long-term results of uncemented allograft prosthesis composite ...
This study aimed to evaluate long-term outcomes of uncemented APC. Methods. Eighteen patients who received uncemented APC reconstruction in the proximal femur ...<|separator|>
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Allograft-Prosthetic Composite Reconstruction for Massive Proximal ...
Surgical technique for reconstruction of the shoulder using a reverse allograft-prosthetic composite (APC). Step 1: Exposure. Expose the shoulder and humeral ...
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Long-term results of uncemented allograft prosthesis composite ...
Feb 1, 2021 · Uncemented allograft prosthesis composite (APC) has been applied for tumorous bone defect reconstruction in the proximal femur.Missing: alloprosthetic sparing
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Mid- to long-term results of allograft-prosthesis composite ... - PubMed
Aug 21, 2018 · Conclusions: Allograft-prosthesis composite is an effective procedure for distal femur tumors related to the graft, prosthesis survival, and ...Missing: alloprosthetic longevity
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Oct 16, 2025 · Between January 2018 and November 2024, a total of 7 patients with large osteoarticular metacarpal defect underwent patient-specific 3D-printed ...
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Fasciocutaneous Flaps - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Mar 20, 2024 · Fasciocutaneous flaps are widely used in reconstructive surgery, offering reliable coverage for soft tissue defects that cannot be closed primarily.
[82]
Advancement Flaps - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 29, 2024 · Local flaps are further classified into transposition, rotation, advancement, and interpolation, with the latter sometimes categorized as a ...
[83]
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May 10, 2017 · The pedicled medial gastrocnemius flap provides a robust coverage option for most soft-tissue deficiencies over the distal anterior aspect of the knee.
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Use of Local Flaps for Soft-Tissue Closure in Diabetic Foot Wounds
Average follow-up for the flaps was approximately >2 years, and successful wound closure at last follow-up was demonstrated in 75.5% of the studied population.
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Orthoplastic approach to limb salvage surgery in oncology
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Optimizing Pedicled vs. Random Local Flaps in Foot & Ankle
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[91]
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An Institutional Review Examining 300 Lower Extremity Free Flaps
May 1, 2025 · Conclusion: The adoption of a vasculoplastic approach allows LE FTT to remain successful and achieve long-term limb salvage despite a highly ...
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Reconstruction of traumatic and non-traumatic lower extremity ...
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Free-Flap Reconstruction for Diabetic Lower Extremity Limb Salvage
The use of microvascular free flaps can be used successfully to cover lower-extremity diabetic wounds. EE arterial anastomosis should be avoided if possible.
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Long-Term Outcome after Successful Lower Extremity Free Flap ...
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Free Flap Monitoring, Salvage, and Failure Timing - Thieme Connect
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Oct 31, 2025 · 2.6 VEGF-EVs@TA-Gel Inhibits Bacterial Growth in Prefabricated Flap Wounds. As the third secondary outcome, 16S rRNA sequencing was performed ...2.2 Vegf-Evs Exhibit... · 2.4 Vegf-Evs@ta-Gel Elevates... · 2.5 Vegf-Evs@ta-Gel...
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Clinical Studies on the Application of Concentrated Growth Factors ...
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Research advances on the application of free flaps in limb salvage ...
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Sep 6, 2022 · The objective of this study was to compare patency rates of the ASV and a prosthetic graft in femoropopliteal bypass surgery in patients with IC.
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Surgical treatment of lower limb ischemia in diabetic patients - NIH
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Endovascular Revascularization 2025-09-20
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Amputation and limb salvage following endovascular and open ...
Nowadays, endovascular surgery (ES), open surgery (OS), and combination operations are the three main vascular surgical methods used to treat PAD. ES have been ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Surgery or Endovascular Therapy for Chronic Limb-Threatening ...
Patients with chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) require revascularization to improve limb perfusion and thereby limit the risk of amputation.
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Combined revascularization and microvascular free tissue transfer ...
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Flow-through, functioning, free musculocutaneous flap transfer for ...
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[116]
Free flow-through anterolateral thigh flap for complex knee defect ...
Free flow-through ALT flap enables simultaneous leg revascularization and soft-tissue coverage with a single free flap. The lateral circumflex femoral ...
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The combined approach for limb salvage in CLI patients is associated with excellent results in limb salvage and functional outcome in patients who would ...
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a favourable protocol for limb-sparing surgery of diabetic foot ... - NIH
Jun 16, 2025 · This study evaluates a single-stage limb-sparing surgical approach incorporating primary closure and local intraosseous antibiotic therapy.Missing: salvage indications
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Clinical outcome of various limb salvage surgeries in osteosarcoma ...
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Resection arthrodesis of the knee in the treatment of tumours – a long-term follow-up - International Orthopaedics
### Summary of Resection Arthrodesis of the Knee for Bone Tumors
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Ankle arthrodesis has proven to be an effective treatment in primary and post-traumatic joint arthritis, but few papers have addressed the feasibility and ...
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Fusion rate of 89% after knee arthrodesis using an intramedullary nail
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Reconstructive Arthroplasty for Malignant Bone Tumors of the Knee ...
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[PDF] 25 Review of Endoprosthetic Reconstruction in Limb-sparing Surgery
OVERVIEW. Endoprosthetic replacement of segmental skeletal defects is the preferred technique of reconstruction after resection of bone sarcomas.
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Outcomes of Megaprosthesis ‎Reconstruction for the Salvage ... - NIH
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(PDF) Outcome of Limb-sparing Surgery with Custom Mega ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The 10-year prosthetic survival of the 62 implants was 73.9 ± 11.7%. Prostheses were removed in 16 (25.8%) patients for infection and 3 of ...
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Rotationplasty: Beauty is in the Eye of the Beholder - PMC - NIH
Rotationplasty remains an attractive limb-salvage option in the setting of lower-extremity sarcoma in the growing child. Rotationplasty can be a single surgery ...
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An algorithm for surgical treatment of children with bone sarcomas of ...
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Indications for and surgical complications of rotationplasty
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Functional rehabilitation and long‑term efficacy of rotationplasty in ...
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The long-term risks of infection and amputation with limb salvage ...
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Local Vancomycin Application Reduces Periprosthetic Joint ... - MDPI
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[PDF] Endoprosthetic Reconstruction in Limb Salvage for Malignant Bone ...
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The objective of this review was to explore non-oncological outcomes in patients diagnosed with sarcoma around the knee following limb salvage surgery.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Local recurrence management of extremity soft tissue sarcoma
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Clinical Outcomes of Limb-sparing Tumor Surgery With Vascular ...
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What Is the Long-term Survivorship of Primary and Revision ... - NIH
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Are Limb-sparing Surgical Resections Comparable to Amputation ...
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A Comparison of Limb-Salvage Surgery and Amputation - PMC - NIH
Traditionally, physicians have believed that limb-salvage surgery has functional and cosmetic advantages over amputation, yet the literature is equivocal.
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Aug 28, 2020 · In the case of polytrauma patients and in those who are in a critical condition physiologically, limb salvage may be contraindicated, as the ...Missing: sparing | Show results with:sparing