Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Lono

Lono is a major deity in the traditional Hawaiian pantheon, primarily associated with agriculture, fertility, rainfall, peace, music, and natural phenomena such as clouds, thunder, lightning, and rainbows.^[1]^[2]^[3] As one of the four principal gods—alongside Kāne, Kū, and Kanaloa—Lono governs aspects of prosperity and the seasonal cycle, with worship focused on invoking rain for crops, ensuring bountiful harvests, and promoting health.^[1]^[4] His cult centers on the Makahiki festival, an annual four-month period of tribute collection, athletic games, and enforced peace during which warfare was prohibited and offerings were made to wooden images representing Lono as he symbolically circumnavigated the islands.^[1] Representations of Lono include staff gods (kiʻi lono) with human or gourd-like forms, often carried in processions, and he manifests in diverse aspects such as Lono-makua (progenitor Lono) for healing and Lono-i-ka-makahiki for the festival rite.^[2]^[1] In Polynesian comparative mythology, Lono corresponds to Rongo, the god of cultivated food, underscoring a shared ancestral emphasis on agricultural abundance across the Pacific.^[1] Scholarly accounts, drawing from 19th-century ethnographic records like those compiled by Martha Beckwith, portray Lono's role as rooted in empirical observations of seasonal weather patterns and crop yields rather than abstract cosmogony.^[1]

Role in Hawaiian Religion

Attributes and Domains

In Hawaiian religion, Lono holds primary domains over agriculture, fertility, and rainfall, embodying the life-sustaining forces of the land and weather.^[5] ^[6] He is invoked for bountiful harvests and the replenishment of soil through seasonal rains, particularly during the wet hoʻoilo period when clouds and storms signal his presence.^[5] ^[1] These associations position Lono as a deity of prosperity and renewal, contrasting with more combative gods like Kū.^[4] Lono's attributes extend to peace and music, fostering communal harmony and celebratory arts tied to agricultural cycles.^[6] ^[2] He manifests through heavenly signs such as thunder, lightning, rainbows, and winds, which ancient Hawaiians interpreted as omens for planting and growth.^[1] ^[7] In healing aspects, forms like Lono-pūhā address ailments through restorative powers linked to his fertile essence.^[4] Scholarly analyses, drawing from oral traditions documented in early 20th-century ethnographies, emphasize Lono's role in maintaining ecological balance via predictable wet-season patterns that supported taro and other staple crops.^[8]

Kinolau and Manifestations

In Hawaiian cosmology, kinolau—literally "many bodies" or multiple forms—represent the diverse physical embodiments of a deity, allowing gods to manifest as elements of the natural world aligned with their attributes. For Lono, the god of agriculture, fertility, rainfall, and seasonal peace, these manifestations emphasize productive and regenerative aspects of the environment, such as weather patterns essential for crop growth and specific cultivated or wild plants symbolizing abundance. This polymorphic nature underscores the interconnectedness of divine influence and ecological processes in traditional Hawaiian worldview.^[9]^[10] Lono's meteorological kinolau primarily include rain clouds, heavy rainfall, thunder, and winter storms, which deliver moisture to the land during the wet season (hoʻoilo), enabling planting and harvest. These forms arrive from the Kona (leeward) direction, nourishing taro patches and other gardens, and are invoked in chants for bountiful yields. Thunder, in particular, signals Lono's active presence, resonating with his domain over atmospheric fertility rather than destructive force.^[5]^[11]^[12] Among vegetal kinolau, Lono embodies key agricultural staples and trees: the sweet potato ('uala, Ipomoea batatas), valued for its reliability in dry soils; the gourd (ipu, Lagenaria siceraria), used for containers and instruments; the hala tree (Pandanus tectorius), providing thatching and mats; and the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccanus), whose nuts yield light and oil. These plant forms reflect Lono's patronage of cultivation, where offerings of their products during rituals like Makahiki honored his life-giving essence. Priests and farmers recognized these as direct extensions of the deity, guiding sustainable practices tied to seasonal cycles.^[10]

Key Myths and Legends

In Hawaiian mythology, one of the central legends involving Lono recounts his marriage to the goddess Ka-iki-lani (also known as Kaikilani-mai-Panio), whom he selects after his brothers search the islands for a suitable consort.^[1] Lono descends to Earth on a rainbow, wedding her at Ke-ala-ke-akua and establishing a period of prosperity marked by fertility and abundance.^[1] This union symbolizes Lono's domain over rainfall and agriculture, with their life together evoking the rainy season's bounty.^[1] The narrative culminates in conflict when Lono, overcome by jealousy, accuses Ka-iki-lani of infidelity—prompted by her wearing a feathered cloak gifted by a rival—and strikes her down, resulting in her death.^[1] ^[13] In remorse, Lono institutes the Makahiki festival, a four-month period of games, tribute collection, and abstinence from war, held from roughly October to February to honor her memory and appease the gods.^[1] He then departs for Kahiki (the mythical southern homeland), vowing to return as a floating island laden with coconuts and swine, an event tied to the festival's close and the promise of renewed fertility.^[1] This legend provides an etiological explanation for the seasonal cycle in Hawaiian cosmology: Lono's exile corresponds to the dry summer months of scarcity and conflict under Kū's influence, while his anticipated return heralds the wet winter season of peace, growth, and abundance.^[1] ^[14] Variants emphasize Lono's thunderous voice during storms as calls for reconciliation, reinforcing his identity with cloud formations and atmospheric phenomena.^[1] Additional narratives link Lono to other deities, such as his association with Laka, the hula god, through shared symbols of the ʻōhiʻa lehua tree and fertility rites, though these lack the detailed quarrel motif.^[1] The hero Lono-i-ka-makahiki, a semi-divine chief of the 14th century, embodies Lono's attributes in epic cycles, including exploits during Makahiki-like travels, but these blend historical and mythical elements rather than forming discrete origin tales.^[1] These stories, preserved in oral chants and 19th-century collections, underscore Lono's role in balancing productivity with ritual cessation, distinct from the warlike pursuits of sibling gods like Kū.^[1]

Worship and Rituals

The Makahiki Festival

The Makahiki festival constituted the primary seasonal observance dedicated to Lono in ancient Hawaiian religion, spanning roughly four lunar months and emphasizing themes of peace, fertility, and harvest thanksgiving.^[6]^[15] This period, often regarded as the Hawaiian New Year, suspended normal societal activities such as warfare and intensive labor, redirecting communal efforts toward recreation, tribute gathering, and rituals honoring Lono's domains of agriculture, rainfall, and abundance.^[16] Primary accounts from Hawaiian scholars like David Malo describe it as a time when "men, women and chiefs rested and abstained from all work, either on the farm or elsewhere," underscoring its role in societal renewal.^[17] The festival's commencement was determined astronomically by the heliacal rising of the Pleiades star cluster (Makali'i) at sunset, signaling the onset around late October or early November in the Gregorian calendar, though aligned with the Hawaiian lunar months of Welehu or Ikuā.^[6]^[18] It extended through the wet season into late January or February, concluding with rites to dispatch Lono's spirit back to Kahiki (the mythical homeland).^[15] During this interval, a kapu (taboo) prohibited conflict and certain fishing practices, fostering a statewide truce enforced through Lono's authority.^[16] Central rituals featured processions of Lono's akua loa, elongated poles approximately 16 feet tall topped with a carved human head, crossarms supporting white kapa cloth sails, and sometimes a jawbone rattle, symbolizing the god's manifestation.^[19] These images, tended by olohe ma'i (athletic ritual specialists), were carried circuitously around each island's districts by canoe or on foot, visiting heiau (temples) to collect ho'okupu—tributes of first fruits, woven goods, feathers, and livestock such as pigs, dogs, and fowl—deposited as offerings to Lono.^[18]^[16] Malo notes that these collections supported chiefly sustenance and temple maintenance, reflecting Lono's association with prosperity rather than conquest.^[20] Amid the tributes, Makahiki emphasized communal leisure through athletic contests and arts, including ulu maika (disc bowling), 'ūlua (bone-breaking arts), moa pahe'e (dart sliding), haka moa (chicken fighting), and hula performances with chants invoking Lono.^[21]^[19] These activities, per Kamakau's accounts, honored Lono as patron of games and music, promoting physical prowess and social cohesion without competitive violence.^[19] The season's closure involved purifying rites, such as shaking a large-meshed net filled with produce to prognosticate the coming year's yield, followed by the ritual launching of Lono's image seaward on a mast-like structure.^[22] This cycle reinforced causal links between ritual observance, agricultural success, and Lono's benevolence, as empirically tied to seasonal rains essential for taro and other crops.^[15]

Agricultural and Seasonal Practices

Lono was invoked through prayers and offerings during planting and cultivation to ensure rainfall, soil fertility, and bountiful harvests, reflecting his domain over rain and food plants.^[5] Farmers addressed Lono alongside other deities like Kāne to request aid in agricultural tasks, such as tilling fields and irrigating taro patches, often using chants that personified natural phenomena like rain clouds and thunder as manifestations of the god.^[10] These invocations emphasized empirical dependence on seasonal rains for non-irrigated crops, with ancestors observing heavenly signs—such as rainbows and storms—as indicators of Lono's favor for garden productivity.^[2]^[11] Ceremonial use of taro elements symbolized Lono in farming rituals; young taro leaves (lūʻau) and the cup-shaped leaves of the ipuolono taro variety represented the god during offerings to promote crop growth and land renewal.^[5] Such practices extended to broader fertility rites, where Lono's association with the wet season (hoʻoilo) prompted petitions for abundant precipitation to sustain wetland agriculture, particularly in valleys like Mānoa where spiritual protocols integrated with tools like the digging stick (‘Ō‘ō).^[10] Historical accounts, including those from native scholars like Samuel Kamakau, document these rituals as mechanisms to maintain the land's fruitfulness through structured prayers rather than sporadic appeals.^[23] Seasonal transitions beyond the Makahiki involved ceremonies shifting from Lono's agricultural phase to Kū's drier period, marking the end of intensive wet-season farming around April or May with rituals honoring Lono's role in harvest completion and soil rest.^[24] These included communal prayers for sustained fertility into the leaner months, underscoring causal links between divine invocation and observable cycles of rainfall and crop yield, as verified in ethnographic records of pre-contact Hawaiian systems.^[23] Offerings of first fruits or plants propagated by Lono, such as those legendarily introduced by him, reinforced these practices, prioritizing empirical agricultural success over abstract symbolism.^[4]

Encounter with Europeans

Captain Cook's Arrival

Captain James Cook, commanding HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, sighted the island of Oʻahu on January 18, 1778, during his third voyage of Pacific exploration, marking the first recorded European contact with the Hawaiian archipelago.^[25] ^[26] Two days later, on January 20, the expedition anchored off Waimea on Kauaʻi, where Cook and a party went ashore amid initial curiosity from local inhabitants who approached in canoes.^[27] ^[28] The landing at Waimea encountered a mix of caution and exchange; Hawaiians offered provisions such as hogs, yams, and salt in return for iron nails and other metal items from the ships, facilitating trade despite early instances of theft and minor hostilities like rock-throwing.^[29] ^[25] Over the following weeks, the vessels circumnavigated parts of the islands, visiting Niʻihau, Maui, and Hawaiʻi Island, where similar bartering occurred and the crew replenished water and food stocks, with an estimated population of around 300,000 inhabitants observed across the chain.^[30] Cook named the group the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of the Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty.^[31] Departing in late February 1778 for the North American coast, the expedition returned to Hawaiian waters on January 17, 1779, anchoring in Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawaiʻi after masts on the Resolution required repair.^[26] The reception here differed markedly in scale, with hundreds of canoes converging on the ships, their occupants delivering abundant supplies of fish, taro, coconuts, and hogs without immediate expectation of barter, as documented in crew accounts.^[32] ^[33] On January 26, 1779, the ruling chief Kalaniʻōpuʻu boarded the Resolution with a large entourage, presenting ceremonial gifts including feathers, cloth, and hogs in exchange for metal tools and medals, an event witnessed by Cook's officers as indicative of high regard.^[33] This phase of interaction lasted until early February, when the ships departed amid ongoing provisioning, though tensions arose from cultural misunderstandings and resource strains on the isolated community.^[32]

The Lono Identification Theory

The Lono Identification Theory asserts that Native Hawaiians perceived Captain James Cook as a manifestation of the god Lono upon his arrival at Kealakekua Bay on January 17, 1778, due to alignments between the explorer's circumstances and Lono's ritual attributes during the Makahiki festival.^[34] This interpretation, structurally analyzed by anthropologist Marshall Sahlins in his 1981 work Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities, frames Cook's voyage as fitting into Hawaiian mythic expectations rather than mere coincidence.^[34] Sahlins argues that the theory emerges from the intersection of historical events with cultural structures, where empirical details of Cook's ships and itinerary resonated with Lono's iconography and seasonal rites.^[34] Central to the theory are symbolic correspondences: the white sails of HMS Resolution and Discovery paralleled the kapa banners carried in Lono processions, while the ships' masts evoked the akua loa, a tall staff emblematic of the god.^[34] Cook's anchoring occurred amid Makahiki observances, a four-month period from approximately October to February dedicated to Lono, featuring kapu on warfare, agricultural tribute, and a ritual circuit of the island bearing Lono's image counterclockwise—mirroring the path Cook's ships took around Hawaii Island.^[34] These parallels, per the theory, prompted behaviors such as widespread prostrations, offerings of food and mats, and chants invoking Lono, interpreting the foreigners as divine returnees from Kahiki, the mythic homeland.^[34] Proponents emphasize that Lono's mythology includes earthly avatars and seasonal returns, allowing flexible identification of auspicious figures as the god without literal deification.^[35] The theory posits causal realism in how pre-contact Hawaiian cosmology predisposed islanders to map novel European phenomena onto established mythic templates, evidenced by consistent ritual responses across multiple sites during Cook's visit.^[34] This framework contrasts with views of Hawaiian agency as passive, instead highlighting active cultural synthesis of the event.^[36]

Primary Accounts and Empirical Evidence

James Cook anchored Resolution and Discovery at Kealakekua Bay, Hawaiʻi Island, on January 17, 1779, during the Makahiki festival period honoring Lono, which typically spanned from late October or early November to late January or February.^[37] Lieutenant James King, in his journal, described Hawaiian priests approaching the shore party with wands tipped in white dog's hair—similar to Lono's akua loa ritual staffs—and chanting phrases repeatedly invoking "Orono" (a variant of Lono) as they addressed Cook.^[38] The assembled crowd prostrated themselves repeatedly, laying cloaks and mats at Cook's feet without demanding trade, which King interpreted as signs of veneration akin to religious adoration.^[38] Cook was then conducted to a nearby heiau (temple), where high priest Koah (also recorded as Puou) and assistants performed rituals including recitations from the Kumulipo creation chant, pig sacrifices, and alternating hymns with responses explicitly naming Cook as Lono.^[38] Crew observations noted the ships' white sails, when furled, resembling the kapa banners carried in Lono processions, and later, during mast repairs, the cloth-wrapped foremast of Resolution evoked the anthropomorphic image of Lono borne aloft in Makahiki rites.^[39] On February 14, 1779, amid escalating tensions over a stolen cutter, a crew member's log recounts urging aliʻi nui Kalaniʻōpuʻu aboard by informing him that "the Lono was there," referring directly to Cook, prompting the chief's compliance until violence erupted.^[40] These accounts, drawn from voyage logs and the published narrative completed by King after Cook's death, provide the core empirical observations: ritual behaviors, nomenclature, and seasonal alignment aligning with Lono's domains, though Hawaiian motivations—deific belief versus chiefly honor—remain interpretive.^[40]^[38]

Scholarly Debates and Criticisms

A central scholarly controversy surrounding Lono concerns the interpretation of Captain James Cook's 1779 arrival in Hawaii and whether native observers identified him with the deity, as argued by anthropologist Marshall Sahlins in works such as Islands of History (1985). Sahlins maintained that Cook's ships entered Kealakekua Bay on January 17, 1779—aligning with the Makahiki festival's sea procession for Lono—and that Hawaiian responses, including mass prostrations, taboo-breaking offerings of food and women, and ritual circuits around the bay mirroring Lono's akua processions, reflected a structural incorporation of Cook into the god's mythic template of arrival, provision, and seasonal departure.^[41] This view drew on primary accounts from Cook's voyage journals, Hawaiian oral traditions recorded in the 19th century, and the festival's empirical timing from October to February, during which Lono's peace aspect suspended warfare and emphasized fertility rites.^[35] Challenging this, cultural anthropologist Gananath Obeyesekere contended in The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (1992) that the Lono identification was not a native perception but a post-hoc European narrative imposed to romanticize imperial encounters and portray Pacific peoples as irrational myth-makers. Obeyesekere, drawing on comparative ethnography from Sri Lanka and other non-Western contexts, asserted that Hawaiians likely viewed Cook as a high-status ali'i (chief) or mana-endowed visitor rather than a literal akua, citing the absence of unambiguous deification rituals in eyewitness logs and arguing that Sahlins' functionalist approach overlooked native agency and universal human pragmatism in interpreting foreigners.^[42] He further critiqued structural anthropology for essentializing cultures, positioning his own non-European background as enabling a less biased "practical" reading of events.^[43] Sahlins responded in How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook, for Example (1995), reaffirming the evidence from Cook's third voyage logs—such as the placement of white tapa flags on his mast evoking Lono's symbols and the subsequent violence upon his untimely return in late February, post-Makahiki— as demonstrating causal alignment with Lono's cycle of benevolence turning to conflict when the god's departure is violated. He accused Obeyesekere of selective reading and projecting Enlightenment rationality onto 18th-century Hawaiians, ignoring testimonies like those from voyage surgeon William Anderson noting divine honors reserved for akua, and contended that denying native mythic cognition perpetuated a different form of condescension by assuming Polynesians thought like modern skeptics.^[41] The exchange, facilitated by forums like the 1992 CA* on Theory in Anthropology edited by Robert Borofsky, highlighted tensions between structural determinism and postcolonial skepticism, with empirical primary sources—voyage narratives cross-verified against Hawaiian chants like the Kumulipo—favoring interpretive flexibility over outright rejection of the Lono fit.^[36] Archaeologist Patrick Kirch has supported Sahlins' framework, citing temple alignments at Kealakekua and oral histories equating Cook's bones' treatment with Lono's relics, as evidence of genuine identification rooted in seasonal cosmology rather than fabricated apotheosis.^[44] More recent analyses, such as Lilikalā Kame'eleihiwa's 2024 rethinking, propose that Lono priests at Kealakekua deified Cook politically to bolster their order's influence amid chiefly rivalries, using Hawaiian-language sources to argue the akua's invocation served instrumental ends without implying naive theophany.^[45] Criticisms of Lono's depiction as an unalloyed peace deity note mythic episodes, like his jealous pursuit of the goddess Hina leading to exile and thunderous quarrels, which parallel storm aspects and suggest a dual nature balancing fertility with disruptive forces, contrasting the war god Kū but not excluding tension.^[46] These debates underscore interpretive challenges in reconstructing pre-contact cosmology from fragmented ethnohistoric data, where source credibility varies: European logs provide contemporaneous details but potential cultural misprision, while later Hawaiian accounts risk mission-influenced reframing.^[41]

Comparative Mythology

Equivalents in Polynesian Cultures

In Māori mythology of New Zealand, the god Rongo (or Rongo-mā-Tāne) serves as the primary equivalent to Lono, presiding over cultivated plants such as kūmara (sweet potato), agriculture, peace, and fertility.^[47]^[46] Rongo embodies attributes of growth and harvest, mirroring Lono's role in Hawaiian seasonal cycles and rainfall provision for crops.^[48] In Tahitian and Society Islands traditions, Ro'o functions as a counterpart, associated with agriculture, weather phenomena, and as a messenger deity linked to fertility and natural abundance.^[49] Ro'o's invocation for curing ailments and guiding prosperity parallels Lono's healing and peaceful domains.^[48] Southeastern Polynesian variants, including Roʻo, extend these traits, emphasizing cultivated foods and harvested seafood.^[50] In the Marquesas Islands, Ono represents a localized form, retaining connections to fertility and agricultural bounty akin to Lono's manifestations.^[50] These equivalences reflect a shared Proto-Polynesian pantheon, where the quartet of major deities—variously Tāne/Kāne, Tū/Kū, Rongo/Lono, and Tangaroa/Kanaloa—underwent cultural adaptations while preserving core functions related to sustenance and environmental harmony.^[46] Linguistic cognates and ritual parallels, such as harvest observances, substantiate these correspondences across archipelagoes.^[48]

Broader Cross-Cultural Parallels

Lono's depiction as a deity tied to seasonal renewal and agricultural abundance aligns with the archetype of harvest gods in various global mythologies, who cyclically depart and return to symbolize vegetation's dormancy and regrowth. In Hawaiian lore, Lono's annual procession during the Makahiki festival, marking the wet season's onset, evokes this motif, with his absence linked to dry periods and his return heralding rains and fertility.^[1]^[14] This functional similarity underscores convergent patterns in agrarian societies, where such figures ensure communal peace and bounty amid environmental rhythms, independent of direct cultural transmission.^[46] Scholars have drawn parallels to the "dying and rising god" pattern in comparative mythology, as outlined by James Frazer, wherein deities undergo symbolic death and resurrection mirroring crop cycles. Lono's exile and homecoming narratives, intertwined with Makahiki rituals, fit this framework, much like Osiris's dismemberment and revival in Egyptian myth, tied to the Nile's inundation, or Dionysus's dismemberment and rebirth in Greek traditions, reflecting wine's dormant-to-fruitful transformation.^[51]^[35] These resemblances highlight shared causal responses to agricultural imperatives—ritualizing uncertainty in rainfall and yields—rather than historical diffusion, given Polynesia's isolation from Old World pantheons until European contact.^[46] Such archetypes emphasize empirical adaptation to ecological realities over speculative syncretism.

Modern Interpretations and Legacy

Cultural Revivals and Practices

In the late 20th century, the Makahiki festival honoring Lono was revived as part of the broader Hawaiian Renaissance, a cultural movement sparked by events like the 1976 Hokule'a voyaging canoe's successful Polynesian navigation, which rekindled interest in pre-contact traditions after the festival's discontinuation following the 1819 abolition of the kapu system.^[52]^[53] This revival emphasized Lono's attributes of fertility, peace, and agriculture through community-led adaptations of ancient rites, including processions with akua loa staffs symbolizing Lono and ho'okupu offerings of first fruits.^[6]^[54] Contemporary Makahiki practices, observed roughly from mid-October to January aligning with the Pleiades' heliacal rising, incorporate athletic competitions such as 'ulumaika (stone bowling), kimo (dart throwing), and wrestling, alongside hula, chanting, and feasting to invoke Lono's blessings for abundance and non-violence.^[55]^[56] Organized events, like the annual Makahiki Festival at Waimea Valley on O'ahu scheduled for November 11, 2025, feature demonstrations of these games, lei-making workshops, and educational talks on Lono's role in seasonal cycles, drawing hundreds of participants to foster cultural continuity.^[57] In rural areas such as Hāna on Maui, community gatherings in 2025 included tug-of-war matches, shared meals of traditional foods like poi and fish, and prayers for rain and harvest, reflecting localized emphases on Lono's wet-season domain.^[56] Transitional rites, such as the Lono-to-Kū ceremony documented in 2021, mark the shift from Lono's peaceful, fertile era to the war god Kū's domain, involving offerings and chants to balance agricultural rest with productivity, often led by cultural practitioners in settings like community heiau sites.^[24] These revivals, supported by institutions like the National Park Service at Haleakalā, prioritize empirical reconstruction from oral histories and archaeological evidence over speculative interpretations, though participation remains voluntary and integrated with modern Hawaiian identity rather than formal worship.^[6]^[52]

Representations in Art, Media, and Tourism

![Wooden figure representing Lono]float-right In traditional Hawaiian art, Lono is primarily depicted through wooden kiʻi (carved images), which embody aspects of the deity associated with agriculture, fertility, and peace. These sculptures, often featuring elongated bodies and simple facial features, were placed at sacred sites such as the Hale o Keawe temple complex within Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park, where they represent multiple manifestations of Lono alongside other akua.^[58] Feathered basketry forms also served as ritual representations of Lono, contrasting with more rigid wooden figures used for Kū.^[59] Modern artistic interpretations of Lono appear in tiki carvings and paintings, emphasizing his role as a god of prosperity and natural abundance. Commercial tiki artisans craft Lono figures with motifs of rainfall and vegetation, drawing from mythological attributes to symbolize luck and harmony.^[60] Such works, while stylized for contemporary audiences, maintain core elements like headdress-like features denoting divine authority.^[61] Representations in media remain sparse, with Lono featuring mainly in educational documentaries and literary retellings of Polynesian myths rather than commercial films or television. For instance, discussions of Lono's agricultural domain appear in cultural programs exploring Hawaiian cosmology, but the deity lacks prominent roles in mainstream popular culture productions.^[62] In tourism, Lono's imagery promotes Hawaiian heritage at sites like Hale o Lono Heiau on Oʻahu's North Shore, a preserved temple dedicated to the god that attracts visitors interested in ancient practices.^[63] Cultural festivals reenacting Makahiki rituals, which honor Lono through processions and offerings, are staged for tourists, incorporating carved images and symbols of rainfall and harvest to highlight pre-contact traditions.^[64] Resorts and tiki-themed establishments further utilize Lono motifs in decor to evoke themes of fertility and tranquility, blending mythological reverence with visitor experiences.^[65]

References

[1]
Hawaiian Mythology - III. The God Lono - Sacred Texts
Lono is a Hawaiian god associated with cloud signs, storms, and phenomena like thunder and lightning. He is also linked to the rolling thunder and the ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[2]
Lono | Kahoʻiwai - University of Hawaii System
Lono is a great god associated with agriculture, whose signs are seen in the heavens, and is worshiped for rain, harvest, and health. His forms include gourd, ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[3]
Lono | British Museum
Lono is a Hawaiian male deity, a god of fertility, rainfall, agriculture, music, and peace, and one of four gods in Hawaiian mythology.Missing: sources | Show results with:sources<|separator|>
[4]
https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-1139
[5]
Lono | Explore Lessons - Kumukahi
Lono is the Hawaiian god of agriculture and rain, appearing as rain clouds and winter storms, and is associated with the Makahiki celebration.Missing: attributes domains scholarly
[6]
Makahiki - Haleakalā National Park (U.S. National Park Service)
Jul 28, 2023 · He brings prosperity to the land and is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music, and peace. Hawaiian tradition tells that Lono ...Missing: associations | Show results with:associations
[7]
Hawaiian mythology — Ka ʻAoʻao 31 The God Lono - Ulukau.org
Lono in Hawaii is associated with cloud signs and the phenomena of storms. According to some old Hawaiians, the god “with head hidden in the dark clouds above”Missing: primary sources
[8]
[PDF] 'J... c·" .r--.. - ScholarSpace
(Handy et ai, 1972, 16) Lono's place in Hawaiian mythology would indicate that he was the last of the major deities to arrive in the islands, and possibly ...
[9]
Meet the Kiʻi Introduction (U.S. National Park Service)
Oct 24, 2024 · ... Hawaiian gods, deities, and venerated ancestors. While kiʻi most ... Each akua has a number of physical manifestations called kinolau.
[10]
Farming in Mānoa - Manoa Heritage Center
The following are a tiny representation of the many kinolau of the gods. Lono was seen in thunder and in the rain clouds, in the ipu and 'uala, the hala, kukui ...
[11]
The many blessings of Lono - Ka Wai Ola
Oct 8, 2019 · Rain clouds, heavy rain and thunder represent Lono, the god of plants and planting. Our ancestors depended on rain to water the māla (gardens).
[12]
Makahiki - Protect Kaho'olawe 'Ohana
Lono is the rain that falls from the Kona direction. He is the god of fertility and the god of agriculture. He reestablishes the vitality of the land and ...Missing: associations | Show results with:associations
[13]
Ka ʻAoʻao 393 — Hawaiian mythology — Ulukau books
Lono and Kaikilani (or Kaikilani-mai-panio, another wife of Lono) quarrel. Lono accuses her of infidelity and strikes her down (or kills her).
[14]
Lono's Season - Maui Magazine
Nov 1, 2012 · Lono is the only deity who departs and returns with the seasons, a characteristic he shares with harvest gods of other religions.<|separator|>
[15]
Makahiki: An Overview - Ka'iwakīloumoku - Hawaiian Cultural Center
Makahiki usally begins mid-November and ends in late January or February, aligning with the rainy season. It is a time set aside for tribute, harvest, sport, ...Missing: primary sources
[16]
[PDF] david malo - hawaiian antiquities
... Makahiki, during which time the ordinary religious cere- monies were omitted, the only ones that were observed being those connected with the Alakahiki festival ...
[17]
Lonoikamakahiki! - Hui o Ko'olaupoko
Nov 4, 2020 · According David Malo,[1] “The Makahiki was a time when men, women and chiefs rested and abstained from all work, either on the farm or elsewhere ...
[18]
[PDF] Ka Makahiki
The festival of the makahiki was one the happiest ceremonies of the year. Its beginning was announced each year by the kāhuna when they first observed the ...
[19]
Some details of the Makahiki - Ka Wai Ola
Nov 1, 2021 · Lono would be happy, perhaps, to travel around the island wearing a malo and not go naked. Yet another detail concerns the God of Games. This ...
[20]
the makahiki tradition - Island Scene
Dec 28, 2022 · ... David Malo's recording of Makahiki rituals and traditions. According to the kaulana mahina that Malo uses, the month of Ikuwa runs from late ...
[21]
Makahiki: Building bonds through the celebration of culture
Dec 1, 2023 · Makahiki is also celebrated with traditional games enjoyed by participants of all ages which include the ulu maika, haka moa, maka ihe, and moa ...Missing: rituals | Show results with:rituals
[22]
Makahiki – The Hawaiian New Year - Kaʻahele Hawaiʻi
Other ceremonies which closed the Makahiki festival included filling a net with large meshes with various foods. The net was shaken and watched to see how much ...
[23]
Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites (Chapter 1)
Nov 15, 2001 · ... Lono, god of rain and agriculture and hence of fertility, the most benevolent of the four. The general welfare of the land, its occupants ...
[24]
Lono to Kū Ceremony | Kapulei Flores
Mar 13, 2021 · Lono is connected to the wet season, agricultural practices, fertility of the land, and the period called Makahiki. Whereas, Kū is associated ...
[25]
Captain Cook reaches Hawaii | January 18, 1778 - History.com
Feb 9, 2010 · On January 18, 1778, the English explorer Captain James Cook becomes the first European to travel to the Hawaiian Islands when he sails past the island of Oahu.
[26]
Captain Cook in Hawaii - The National Archives
In January 1778, Cook and his crew became likely the first British people to visit the Hawaiian islands. They went on to explore the west coast of North ...
[27]
Where Did Cook Land on the Island of Kaua`i? - Captain Cook Society
According to the best evidence currently available, the beach at Waimea was the spot where Captain James Cook made his initial landing upon island soil.Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[28]
Arrival in Waimea, Kauai | Images of Old Hawaiʻi
Jan 18, 2023 · On the afternoon of January 19, native Hawaiians in canoes paddled out to meet Cook's ships, and so began Hawai'i's contact with Westerners. The ...
[29]
captain cook hawaii history: 1778 encounter
Apr 24, 2025 · Captain Cook's initial encounter with the Hawaiian Islands began with sighting O'ahu on January 18, 1778. Two days later, he landed on Kaua'i.
[30]
James Cook – First European to Visit Hawaii
Rating 4.8 (56) Cook made the first European landfall in Hawaii on January 18, 1778, and engaged in friendly trade. It's estimated that about 300,000 people lived in Hawaii at ...
[31]
Captain Cook Discovers Hawaii | Research Starters - EBSCO
He sighted the island of Oahu on January 18, 1778, and landed at the village of Waimea on the island of Kauai two days later. Cook named the archipelago the ...
[32]
January - March 1779 | Captain Cook Society
Arrival at Kealakekua Bay. On the 17th Cook wrote "In the Evening Mr Bligh ... " The ships had visited Kauai, one of the western islands in the Hawaiian Group in ...
[33]
Arrival of Foreigners - Punahou Bulletin
On January 18, 1778, the ships sighted O'ahu and Ni'ihau, and set anchor at Waimea, Kaua'i. On land, “chiefs and commoners saw the wonderful sight and marveled ...
[34]
[PDF] Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities - IS MUNI
Nor was Cook the only legen- dary figure Hawaiians identified as Lono. He had ... Such was the fate of Captain Cook, according to contemporary ac- counts.
[35]
[PDF] Captain Cook's Third Voyage, the Lono Question ... - Clemson OPEN
The implications of the Lono question are great. Along with helping us better understand Hawaiian mythology and Hawaiian mythological practice in the eighteenth.
[36]
[PDF] Cook, Lono, Obeyesekere, and Sahlins CA* Forum on Theory in ...
When he uses other Polynesian chiefs to make deductions the gaps and silences that exist in various historical ac- counts, modern scholars need to give new ...
[37]
Captain Cook Monument on the Big Island | Snorkeling and Tours
Nearly a year later, on January 17, 1779, Cook arrived at Kealakekua Bay on the Big Island during the Hawaiian Makahiki Festival, a celebration honoring the ...
[38]
Captain Cook as Lono | Sacred Texts Archive
We also found that it was a title belonging to a person of great rank and power in the island, who resembles pretty much the Delai Lama of the Tartars, and the ...
[39]
Puhina o Lono Heiau | Images of Old Hawaiʻi
Sep 29, 2018 · Puhina o Lono Heiau for traditional Hawaiian rites that included cooking and cleaning flesh from his bones, an honor afforded to only the highest and most ...
[40]
[PDF] Captain Cook in Hawaii - The National Archives
In January 1778, Cook and his crew became likely the first British people to visit the Hawaiian islands. They went on to explore the west coast of North America ...<|separator|>
[41]
Cook, Lono, Obeyesekere, and Sahlins1 - jstor
by Robert Borofsky with the Hawaiian akua Lono and his subsequent mur- der attracted much attention from others interested in understanding these well-known ...
[42]
[PDF] Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook
the identification of Cook with Lono, the Hawaiian god of fertility. The unquestioned acceptance of Cooks deification in life has become accepted wisdom and ...
[43]
Obeyesekere versus Sahlins and Captain Cook - jstor
present century. UDeyesekere's key strand ot argument versus Sahlins is that Cook was not considered by Hawaiians to be god Lono, and, if anything ...
[44]
Did the Hawaiians actually believe that Captain Cook was the god ...
Jul 22, 2017 · Cook arrived during the Makahiki festival, when the god Lono was believed to circumnavigate the islands to collect sacrifices and offerings, ...Missing: deity | Show results with:deity
[45]
Rethinking Lono, Cook, and the Kumulipo - Equinox Publishing
Jul 19, 2024 · Since Captain Cook's demise at Kealakekua Bay, Hawai'i in 1779, his alleged deification by Hawaiians as their god Lono has been the subject of ...
[46]
Hawaiian Mythology in History, with a Special Eye on the Akua Lono
For Hawaiians, Lono is primarily the god of the sky. He is represented most often with images of weather: the clouds, thunder, lightning, the rainbow, rain and ...
[47]
The Gods Who Brought the Plants | Images of Old Hawaiʻi
Jan 7, 2018 · “The only one of the four major deities in Hawaii who was traditionally a human being is Lono. ... Rongo (Lono).” “The hog was not taken to New ...
[48]
Hawaiian Mythology - The Gods: IV. The Kane Worship - Sacred Texts
1 The worship of Tane (Kane), Ro'o (Lono), and Tu (Ku) by the manahune in Tahiti, to whose mythology belong the Polynesian figures also of Atea (Wakea), Ti ...<|separator|>
[49]
Hawaiian Mythology - VIII. Sorcery Gods - Sacred Texts
The god invoked to cure those afflicted by sorcery is Ro'o (Lono)-te-roro'o. ... " 10 In Tahiti, Ave-aitu (Tailed god) is a god with a long tail who guides ...
[50]
Hawaiian Gods and Goddesses – A List | Sea Paradise
Mar 1, 2022 · Lono. The Hawaiian god of agriculture, Lono was associated with fertility and the heavenly manifestations of clouds, storms, rain and thunder.
[51]
[PDF] RELIGION - The Eye
... Lono-i-ka-makahiki. High chiefs once intoned this ... name, like the sacred child's, was Lono-i-ka-makahiki. ... Frazerian pattern of the “dying and rising god,” ...
[52]
The Return of Lono - Ka Wai Ola
Dec 1, 2021 · When the kapu system was abolished in 1819, Makahiki ceremonies ceased. But in the emerging political awakening and cultural renaissance of the ...
[53]
Waikiki Beach Walk Celebrates Hawaiian Culture In A Very Special ...
Jul 3, 2022 · But the Makahiki Games were revived as part of the Hawaiian cultural renaissance that began in the 1970s and are now presented throughout the ...Missing: 21st | Show results with:21st
[54]
Makahiki: The Sacred Season of Ancient Hawaii
Dec 17, 2023 · To honor Lono, ancient Hawaiians held various rituals, offering tributes of the harvest's first fruits and other goods to the local chiefs or ...
[55]
What You Should Know About Makahiki Season - Maui Magazine
Nov 18, 2024 · Makahiki, a sacred Hawaiian festival, marked the New Year, a time of rest, celebration, and honoring Lono, with war forbidden and games and ...
[56]
Makahiki in Hāna, Maui - Ka Wai Ola
Feb 1, 2025 · Makahiki is a season to honor Lono, a time of peace and games. In Hāna, it includes ceremonies, food, and games like tug-of-war.
[57]
Makahiki Festival - Waimea Valley - Where Hawaiʻi Comes Alive
Tuesday, November 11, 2025 | 8:00 AM - 4:30 PM. The Makahiki Festival is a day of ceremony, celebration, friendly competition, and culture.Missing: primary sources
[58]
Kiʻi - Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park (U.S. ...
May 2, 2020 · Lono is associated with agriculture, growth, fertility, natural weather phenomena, wisdom, enlightenment, healing, music and peace. Symbols: ipu ...
[59]
How Lono And Kū Are Represented In Hawaiian Art - IPL.org
Lono and Kū are two Hawaiian gods that are most often represented through feathered basketry and wooden sculptures. Lono is the god of agriculture, plants,.
[60]
https://makanahut.com/blogs/news/hawaiian-tiki-god-lono-1
[61]
Lono carvings represent the Hawaiian god Lono, one of ... - Instagram
Apr 2, 2025 · Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, peace, music, and rain. Carvings of Lono often depict him with a tall, helmet-like headdress, ...
[62]
Lono : The God of Agriculture - Mythlok
In Hawaiian mythology, Lono is the god of fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music, and peace. He is often depicted as a benevolent figure with a strong and ...Listen · Lono · Introduction · Powers and Abilities
[63]
Hale O Lono Heiau, Oahu - To-Hawaii.com
The Hale O Lono Heiau on Oahu's North Shore is a Hawaiian heiau located in Waimea Valley and dedicated to the god of Lono.
[64]
Hawaiian god lono hi-res stock photography and images - Alamy
Makahiki is an ancient Hawaiian celebration dedicated to Lono, the god of welfare, agriculture and health; to give thanks for nature's gifts received from land ...
[65]
https://www.tikimaster.com/tikimaster-blog/hawaiian-tiki-gods-meanings-mythology-symbolism/