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Lythraceae

Lythraceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Myrtales, comprising approximately 32 genera and 620 species of primarily woody herbs, shrubs, and small trees that are distributed worldwide, with the greatest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and Africa.^[1] Members of the family are characterized by opposite, entire leaves; bisexual, actinomorphic flowers with a prominent, persistent hypanthium (a cup-shaped floral tube), 4–6 sepals and petals (the latter often crumpled in bud), and twice as many stamens as sepals; and capsular fruits containing numerous seeds.^[2] The family exhibits a range of habits from annual and perennial herbs to scrambling vines and trees up to 10 meters tall, often inhabiting wet or marshy environments such as riverbanks, swamps, and seasonal wetlands.^[3] Notable genera include Cuphea (about 275 species, primarily New World herbs and shrubs valued for ornamental flowers and potential seed oils), Lagerstroemia (crape myrtles, widely cultivated for their showy blooms), Lythrum (loosestrifes, including invasive wetland species like Lythrum salicaria), Lawsonia (source of henna dye from Lawsonia inermis), and Punica (pomegranates, Punica granatum, a tree with edible fruit).^[1] Economically, Lythraceae species hold significance in horticulture, medicine, and industry; for instance, Cuphea species are explored for vegetable oils similar to industrial crops, while Lagerstroemia is a popular ornamental in temperate gardens, and Lawsonia provides a natural dye used in cosmetics and textiles.^[1] The family is monophyletic, with molecular studies supporting the inclusion of genera like Punica and Sonneratia (mangrove trees), though some classifications historically separated these.^[1] While many species are beneficial for biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems, certain introductions, such as purple loosestrife, have become problematic invasives in North American wetlands.^[2]^[4]

Introduction

Overview

Lythraceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Myrtales, comprising 28 accepted genera and approximately 600 species.^[5] This cosmopolitan family exhibits considerable diversity in growth forms, ranging from annual and perennial herbs to shrubs and small to large trees.^[5] The majority of species are concentrated in subtropical and tropical regions across all major continents except Antarctica, reflecting an evolutionary adaptation to warmer climates.^[5] Many Lythraceae species are characteristically associated with hydrophilic habitats, such as ponds, swamps, riverbanks, and wet forests, which underscores their ecological role in aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems.^[5] The family holds significant economic and cultural value, including the pomegranate (Punica granatum), valued for its edible fruit, and henna (Lawsonia inermis), widely used for its dyeing properties in cosmetics and textiles.^[5] The name Lythraceae derives from its type genus Lythrum, which in turn originates from the Ancient Greek word lythron, meaning "gore" or "blood," in reference to the reddish-purple flower colors observed in many species of the genus.^[6]

Phylogenetic position

Lythraceae is placed within the order Myrtales in the rosid clade of angiosperms, according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV (APG IV) classification.^[7] Within Myrtales, Lythraceae forms a well-supported clade that is sister to Onagraceae, with Combretaceae positioned as sister to this combined group; other families such as Myrtaceae and Melastomataceae are more distantly related within the order.^[8] This phylogenetic arrangement is corroborated by nuclear phylogenomic analyses encompassing hundreds of genes across Myrtales families.^[8] Molecular phylogenetic studies from the 1990s and 2000s led to the expanded circumscription of Lythraceae, incorporating genera previously classified in separate families including Punicaceae (e.g., Punica), Sonneratiaceae (e.g., Sonneratia), Trapaceae (e.g., Trapa), and Duabangaceae (e.g., Duabanga).^[9] These inclusions were based on analyses of chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences, such as the rbcL gene and internal transcribed spacers, which demonstrated the monophyly of the broadened Lythraceae.^[9] Shared morphological traits, including an inferior ovary and versatile anthers, further support these relationships, though molecular data provided the decisive evidence for family delimitation.^[9] The monophyly of Lythraceae is strongly upheld in recent phylogenetic analyses, including those from the 2020s that integrate plastome sequences and expanded genomic sampling, aligning with APG IV updates.^[8] Ancestral area reconstructions indicate that the family originated in South America during the Late Cretaceous, with subsequent dispersals to other continents.^[5] The oldest verified fossils are pollen grains attributed to Lythrum elkensis and Peplis eaglensis from the early Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous (approximately 82–81 million years ago) in the Eagle Formation of North America, marking the earliest evidence of lythraceous diversification.^[10]

Description

Vegetative characteristics

Members of the Lythraceae family display diverse growth habits, ranging from annual and perennial herbs to shrubs, subshrubs, and trees, with habits that can be terrestrial, amphibious, or aquatic. Most species are unarmed, though Punica features thorns, and plants are rarely glaucous, with some capable of clonal reproduction.^[11] Stems vary in form, being erect, decumbent, lax, spreading, creeping, trailing, floating, or submerged, and young stems are often quadrangular, becoming more cylindrical with age. In wetland-adapted genera like Ammannia, Decodon, Lythrum, and Trapa, submerged stem portions develop external spongy aerenchymatous tissue to enhance oxygen diffusion to internal tissues. Nodes are typically unilacunar, and intraxylary phloem is a common anatomical feature across the family.^[11]^[12]^[13] Leaves are predominantly opposite and decussate—resulting in a four-ranked arrangement—though they can occasionally be alternate, subalternate, or whorled; they are simple, deciduous, and usually entire-margined, except for the coarsely toothed margins in Trapa. Blades are membranous to leathery, with pinnate, brochidodromous venation forming intramarginal loops, and leaves may be sessile, subsessile, or short-petiolate, with stipules absent or vestigial. Glandular dots, pellucid glands, or trichome-like structures often occur at the petiole base or in leaf axils, and some genera feature apical glands or resin-secreting multicellular trichomes. Aquatic species may show dimorphic leaves, with submerged forms differing from emergent ones.^[11]^[12]^[1]^[14] Root systems in herbaceous members are typically fibrous, often with a central taproot and extensive rhizomes supporting vegetative spread, as exemplified by Lythrum salicaria, which forms dense mats via rhizomatous growth. Aquatic and amphibious species exhibit root adaptations for saturated soils, including aerenchyma for aeration, while mangrove genera like Sonneratia demonstrate salt tolerance through features such as thickened leaves, waxy cuticles, and salt-excreting glands.^[15]^[11]^[16]

Flowers

The flowers of Lythraceae are typically bisexual and exhibit actinomorphic (radial) or zygomorphic (bilateral) symmetry, with merosity usually 4-, 6-, or 8-merous, though sometimes 3- or 5-merous.^[11]^[14] They are perigynous, featuring a prominent floral tube (hypanthium) that is persistent into fruit, often ribbed (6-12 ridges) and varying in shape from campanulate and cylindrical to urceolate or obconic; this tube is membranous to leathery and colored green, though red or yellow in some species of Cuphea and Punica.^[11]^[14] Inflorescences are bracteate and range from solitary axillary or terminal flowers to determinate or indeterminate arrangements such as racemes, spikes, cymes, or panicles.^[11]^[14] The perianth consists of 4-8 valvate sepals that are gamosepalous at the base, forming a calyx tube with deltate to subulate lobes that are persistent and shorter than or equal to the floral tube; sepals are membranous to thickly leathery. Petals, when present (0-8), are distinct, alternating with the sepals at the rim of the floral tube, often crinkled or crumpled in bud with imbricate aestivation, clawed or not, and typically caducous; they display color variation including purple, pink, lavender, white, rose-purple, or bright yellow, with red or purple common in many taxa.^[11]^[14] The androecium features (1-)4-42(+) stamens, often twice the number of petals and biseriate (in two whorls), though uniseriate or multiseriate in some genera; stamens insert near the base or rim of the floral tube, with filaments of unequal lengths and versatile, introrse, 2-locular anthers.^[11]^[14] Nectar is produced either as a distinct organ or from the floral tube wall or ovary, attracting pollinators. The gynoecium includes a superior (rarely semi-inferior or inferior) ovary with 2-6 locules, axile placentation, and numerous ovules per locule; it is topped by a simple style and a capitate, conic-peltate, lobed, or punctiform stigma that is typically dry but wet in genera like Heimia, Lagerstroemia, and Punica.^[11]^[14]

Fruits and seeds

The fruits of Lythraceae are primarily dry capsules, though variation occurs across the family's approximately 28 genera. The most prevalent type is a thin- to thick-walled, dehiscent capsule with two to five locules that opens irregularly, loculicidally, septicidally, septifragally, or circumscissally to release seeds. For example, in genera like Lythrum and Rotala, capsules are thin-walled and smooth or striate, dehiscing loculicidally or septicidally within a persistent floral tube.^[17] In contrast, woody capsules appear in Lagerstroemia, while some, such as those in Decodon, develop thick walls.^[17] Berries occur in select genera, notably the indehiscent, leathery, multi-seeded berry in Punica granatum, which is enclosed by a persistent hypanthium and crowned by sepals and stamens.^[17] Rarely, nut-like drupes form, as in Trapa, where the fruit is indurated with two to four horns.^[17] Indehiscent berry-like fruits also characterize Sonneratia and Capuronia. Seeds in Lythraceae are typically numerous per fruit, ranging from 3 to 250 (rarely up to 1400), and exhibit diverse morphologies adapted to various dispersal strategies.^[17] They are usually small, less than 1 mm long in 18 of the 28 genera, though larger examples reach 1.6 cm in Lagerstroemia and 3.5 cm in Lafoensia. Shapes vary from narrowly obovoid or fusiform to oblong, pyramidal, semiorbicular, or elliptic, often flattened or bilateral.^[17] The seed coat, or testa, features a well-developed, multi-layered integument with polygonal or rectangular cells, displaying smooth, reticulate, or scalariform surface patterns. In Cuphea, the testa shows reticulate sculpture, while some seeds bear wings for wind dispersal, as in Lagerstroemia and Lafoensia, or mucilaginous hairs that expand upon wetting, as in Lythrum. Seeds are generally brown and dry, except for the fleshy, wine-colored seeds in Punica.^[17] Dispersal mechanisms in Lythraceae fruits and seeds primarily involve explosive dehiscence in capsules, which propels seeds away from the parent plant.^[18] Aquatic genera like Decodon feature seeds with aerenchymatous float tissue for water dispersal, while berries in Punica and Sonneratia facilitate animal-mediated spread through their fleshy nature. Wings on seeds of certain tree genera enable wind dispersal, and mucilaginous coatings in herbaceous species promote adhesion to surfaces or animals upon hydration. Embryologically, Lythraceae seeds are exalbuminous, lacking endosperm, with a straight, oily embryo featuring complanate cotyledons that are sometimes auriculate or cordate.^[17] The embryo develops within a multi-layered testa derived from the integuments, showing variations in thickness and sculpture that correlate with dispersal adaptations.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Lythraceae family displays a predominantly pantropical distribution, encompassing approximately 600 species in 31 genera worldwide.^[1] This cosmopolitan family occurs across subtropical and tropical regions on all major continents except Antarctica, with significant representation in the Old World (18 genera) and New World (13 genera).^[1] The highest species diversity is concentrated in the Neotropics, particularly in Mexico and Brazil, where the genus Cuphea alone accounts for about 260 species of herbs and shrubs.^[3] Substantial diversity also exists in Asia, Africa, and Australia, reflecting the family's adaptation to varied tropical environments.^[5] Although primarily tropical, Lythraceae extends into temperate zones with limited representation, including parts of North America, Europe, and southern Africa.^[11] The family is notably absent from extreme arid areas, such as the Sahara Desert and the driest regions of Australia, owing to its strong association with wet habitats.^[11] Key centers of endemism and generic richness occur in South America, which hosts the family's highest concentration of genera, as well as in Southeast Asia, Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius.^[1] For instance, Sonneratia species, characteristic of mangrove ecosystems, are endemic to coastal regions from East Africa through Southeast Asia to northern Australia.^[19] Introduced species have further expanded the family's range; Lythrum salicaria, native to Europe, temperate Asia, and parts of Africa, has become widely naturalized in North America since its introduction in the 19th century.^[20]

Habitat types

Species of the Lythraceae family exhibit a strong preference for wet habitats, including marshes, riverbanks, and wetlands, with many taxa being semi-aquatic or fully aquatic. Genera such as Rotala and Trapa are particularly adapted to these environments, where they thrive in shallow freshwater bodies, ponds, and swamps. For instance, Rotala species often inhabit humid or submerged conditions in tropical wetlands, displaying morphological features suited to periodic flooding. Similarly, Trapa natans occupies shallow, warm-water habitats like lakes and slow-moving rivers, forming floating rosettes that facilitate nutrient uptake in nutrient-rich sediments.^[11]^[1]^[21] While predominantly hydrophilic, Lythraceae also occupy diverse terrestrial habitats, ranging from dry scrub and savannas to mangroves. In arid or semi-arid regions, certain genera like Cuphea occur in cerrados and savannas of South America, tolerating seasonally dry conditions. Mangrove species such as Sonneratia grow in coastal intertidal zones with brackish water, often on muddy substrates along tidal rivers and estuaries. The family's altitudinal distribution spans from sea level to montane elevations up to approximately 2500 m, as seen in species of Cuphea and Lagerstroemia on rocky slopes and forest edges. Some taxa, including Lythrum salicaria, act as weeds in disturbed wetland areas, rapidly colonizing altered landscapes.^[22]^[16]^[23] Key adaptations enable Lythraceae to persist in these varied conditions, including the development of aerenchymatous tissue in roots and submerged stems for oxygen transport in flood-tolerant species like Ammannia and Decodon. In mangrove habitats, Sonneratia displays halophytic traits, such as salt-excreting mechanisms and pneumatophores to cope with saline, waterlogged soils. Seeds of many aquatic genera feature float tissues or mucilage for water dispersal, enhancing survival in dynamic wetland environments.^[11]^[16] Lythraceae are most diverse in tropical and subtropical climates, where the majority of species occur in warm, humid regions across the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Australia. However, some herbaceous taxa extend into temperate zones, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, with genera like Lythrum inhabiting cooler, seasonal wetlands in North America and Europe. This distribution reflects the family's broad ecological tolerance while underscoring its hydrophilic core.^[11]^[12]

Ecology

Reproduction and pollination

Members of the Lythraceae family exhibit diverse pollination strategies, predominantly entomophily mediated by insects such as bees and butterflies, though variations occur across genera and habitats. In genera like Cuphea and Lagerstroemia, flowers attract bees (including honeybees and carpenter bees) and butterflies through nectar rewards and colorful, tubular corollas that serve as landing platforms.^[24] Nectar guides, often in the form of ultraviolet patterns on petals, and subtle scents further facilitate pollinator orientation in many species.^[25] Aquatic or semi-aquatic genera, such as Trapa and Rotala, may rely on self-pollination within closed flowers or limited anemophily and hydrochory in submerged conditions, reducing dependence on external vectors.^[26] Breeding systems in Lythraceae are primarily hermaphroditic, with perfect flowers promoting both self- and cross-fertilization, though dioecy occurs rarely in Capuronia. Most species are self-compatible, enabling autogamy, but outcrossing is favored through mechanisms like heterostyly, which is prevalent in Lythrum (tristylous or distylous morphs) and Decodon (tristylous), where reciprocal positioning of stamens and styles discourages self-pollination and intramorph mating.^[25]^[1] Cleistogamy, involving unopening, self-pollinating flowers, is documented in some Lythrum species, such as L. portula, providing reproductive assurance in unpredictable environments.^[27] Apomixis is rare, with no widespread evidence across the family, though isolated cases of non-viable seed formation in Lagerstroemia have prompted speculation without confirmation.^[28] Flowering phenology varies with latitude and habitat; temperate herbaceous species like Lythrum salicaria bloom seasonally from summer to early autumn, synchronizing with peak insect activity, while tropical woody genera such as Lagerstroemia and Woodfordia often flower year-round or in extended pulses to exploit continuous pollinator availability.^[29]^[30] Heterostyly in Lythrum enhances cross-pollination efficiency during these phenological windows by promoting legitimate pollinator visits between compatible morphs.^[25] Seed production reflects life form and breeding strategy, with high fecundity in herbaceous genera like Lythrum (producing thousands of minute seeds per capsule) contrasting lower output in arborescent species such as Lagerstroemia speciosa (approximately 175,000 viable seeds per mature tree via open pollination).^[31]^[32] Ovule number per flower ranges from few to many, supporting substantial reproductive output in self-compatible systems while heterostylous taxa prioritize quality over quantity to ensure outcrossing success.^[25]

Ecological interactions

Members of the Lythraceae family engage in various mutualistic interactions that support ecosystem dynamics. Many species, such as Lagerstroemia (crape myrtle), produce nectar and pollen that serve as essential resources for pollinators, including native bees and honey bees, fostering biodiversity in pollinator communities.^[33] Similarly, Woodfordia floribunda attracts birds, bees, and butterflies to its flowers for nectar, enhancing avian and insect mutualisms in forest understories.^[30] In mangrove ecosystems, genera like Sonneratia provide critical habitat for diverse aquatic and terrestrial species while their root systems stabilize coastlines by reducing erosion and trapping sediments, thereby protecting adjacent habitats from wave action and storm surges.^[34]^[35] Certain Lythraceae species exhibit invasiveness that disrupts wetland ecosystems. Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife), introduced to North America, forms dense monocultures in marshes and riverbanks, outcompeting native vegetation and reducing plant and animal biodiversity in affected areas.^[36] These stands alter wetland hydrology and function, leading to reduced habitat suitability for fish and amphibians.^[37] Management strategies include biological control using host-specific insects, such as leaf-feeding beetles (Galerucella spp.) and root-feeding weevils (Hylobius transversovittatus), which have suppressed populations and aided native plant recovery in treated wetlands.^[38] Lythraceae plants interact with herbivores and pathogens, integrating into broader food webs. Species like Lythrum salicaria are susceptible to aphid infestations (Aphis lythri) and fungal endophytes, which can influence plant vigor and susceptibility to further damage.^[39] These plants also serve as larval hosts for moths, including Saturniidae species such as Antheraea polyphemus, providing foliage that supports lepidopteran development and contributes to trophic interactions in wetland food webs.^[40] Conservation concerns highlight the vulnerability of some Lythraceae taxa amid habitat degradation. In Madagascar, endemics like Ammannia calcicola are classified as Endangered (as of 2018), primarily due to deforestation and agricultural expansion that have destroyed over 80% of original forest cover, fragmenting populations and limiting regeneration.^[41] Capuronia benoistii is classified as Least Concern (as of 2021).^[42] Habitat loss exacerbates these threats, but species like Sonneratia mangroves hold ecological value in restoration efforts, where replanting stabilizes eroded coastlines and rehabilitates biodiversity in degraded wetlands.^[43]

Taxonomy

Classification history

The family Lythraceae was established by Jean François Aimé Saint-Hilaire in 1805, based primarily on the genus Lythrum, with the name published as 'Lythrariae' in Exposition des Familles Naturelles and later conserved under the corrected spelling Lythraceae.^[44] Early 19th-century classifications expanded the family to include additional genera such as Lagerstroemia and Punica, reflecting morphological similarities in floral structure and habitat preferences among herbaceous and woody plants. In the 20th century, taxonomic revisions focused on relationships within Myrtales, with proposals in the 1970s and 1980s to recognize closely allied families like Trapaceae (containing Trapa), Sonneratiaceae, and Punicaceae, while debating their separation from a core Lythraceae; for instance, Takhtajan (1980) treated Sonneratiaceae and Punicaceae as distinct but sister to Lythraceae based on anatomical and reproductive traits. These changes involved expanding the family's scope through morphological analyses, incorporating Trapaceae due to shared pollen and seed features, though full consensus remained elusive until molecular data emerged.^[45] The advent of molecular phylogenetics in the 1990s and 2000s led to significant integrations, exemplified by Graham et al. (2005), whose analysis of rbcL and ndhF sequences supported merging Sonneratiaceae, Punicaceae, Trapaceae, and Duabangaceae into an expanded monophyletic Lythraceae, resolving prior morphological ambiguities.^[1] This circumscription was formalized in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) III classification of 2009, which confirmed Lythraceae in its broadened form within Myrtales, and reaffirmed with minor adjustments in APG IV (2016). The classification into five subfamilies is based on molecular phylogenetic evidence.^[46]^[47] Recent updates in the 2020s have addressed genus-level delimitations, with counts fluctuating between 28 and 32 depending on taxonomic interpretations, driven by ongoing revisions of Neotropical taxa such as Cuphea, where phylogenomic studies have resolved sectional boundaries and described new species to refine family diversity. As of 2025, estimates vary, with some sources recognizing 31 genera and 650 species.^[48]^[4]

Subfamilies and genera

The family Lythraceae is classified into five subfamilies: Lythroideae, Punicoideae, Sonneratioideae, Duabangoideae, and Trapoideae.^[49] The core subfamily Lythroideae encompasses 27 genera, primarily consisting of herbaceous plants and shrubs characterized by a superior ovary, and it accounts for the bulk of the family's diversity.^[1] Notable genera within Lythroideae include Cuphea (approximately 275 species of Neotropical herbs), Lagerstroemia (56 species of Asian trees), Nesaea (50 species), Rotala (45 species), and Lythrum (35 species of temperate herbs); additionally, Diplusodon comprises over 30 species of South American shrubs.^[49]^[5] Punicoideae is monogeneric, containing Punica (two species of trees with inferior ovaries and berry-like fruits).^[1]^[5] Sonneratioideae includes the single genus Sonneratia (mangrove trees with inferior ovaries).^[1] Duabangoideae comprises the genus Duabanga (tropical trees with inferior ovaries).^[1] Trapoideae is monotypic, represented by Trapa (aquatic herbs).^[49] Overall, Lythraceae includes 31 genera and about 620 species, with approximately 13 genera endemic to the Neotropics.^[44]^[5]

Economic and cultural importance

Food and medicinal uses

Several species within the Lythraceae family have been utilized as food sources, particularly Punica granatum (pomegranate) and Trapa natans (water caltrop). The fruit of Punica granatum consists of juicy, edible arils surrounding seeds, which are consumed fresh, juiced, or processed into products like syrups and beverages, valued for their sweet-tart flavor and nutritional profile.^[50] These arils are rich in antioxidants, including polyphenols such as punicalagins and ellagic acid, which contribute to their role in functional foods.^[51] Additionally, Trapa natans produces nut-like fruits that are harvested and eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or in salads, providing a crunchy texture and mild sweetness; in Asian cuisines, they serve as a staple snack or ingredient in desserts and confections.^[52] These nuts are nutrient-dense, containing high levels of carbohydrates (up to 70% dry weight) and proteins (around 15%), making them a valuable dietary component in regions where the plant is cultivated.^[53] Nutritionally, pomegranate arils stand out for their high vitamin C content, with a 100-gram serving providing approximately 10-15 mg, supporting immune function and acting as an antioxidant alongside vitamins K and folate.^[54] Pomegranate's inclusion in Mediterranean diets dates back to ancient times, where it held cultural significance as a symbol of fertility and abundance, often featured in rituals and daily meals across Persia, Egypt, and Greece.^[55] Similarly, water caltrop nuts have been integrated into traditional Asian diets for centuries, offering dietary fiber and minerals that aid digestion.^[52] Medicinally, Lythraceae species have been employed in traditional remedies for various ailments. Leaves of Lawsonia inermis (henna) are crushed into a paste applied topically to treat skin conditions such as boils, ulcers, and fungal infections, owing to their antifungal properties attributed to compounds like lawsone.^[56] Historical records indicate henna's use in ancient Egypt around 3000 BCE for cosmetic and therapeutic purposes, including dyeing and wound healing.^[57] Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) has been used in European folk medicine to alleviate diarrhea, leveraging its astringent tannins that exhibit antibacterial effects and promote intestinal contraction.^[58] In traditional Asian practices, leaves of Lagerstroemia speciosa (banaba) are brewed into teas to manage diabetes, with active compounds like corosolic acid showing hypoglycemic effects in clinical studies.^[59]

Ornamental and industrial uses

Several species within the Lythraceae family are valued for their ornamental qualities in horticulture and landscaping. Lagerstroemia indica, commonly known as crape myrtle, is widely planted as a deciduous tree for its vibrant summer blooms in shades of pink, red, purple, or white, and its attractive exfoliating bark, making it a popular choice for lawns, recreational areas, and urban landscapes.^[60] Cuphea hyssopifolia, or Mexican false heather, is cultivated as a low-growing shrub or ground cover for borders and containers, prized for its small, purple flowers and compact form in both tropical and temperate regions.^[61] Lythrum salicaria, garden loosestrife, has been used ornamentally in wetland gardens for its tall spikes of pink-purple flowers, though its invasive potential limits such applications today.^[62] The family also contributes to traditional dyeing and crafts through Lawsonia inermis, the henna plant, where leaves are processed to extract lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), a red-orange pigment used for temporary body art, hair coloring, and skin decoration in cultural practices across Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.^[63] Industrial applications leverage the unique biochemical properties of certain Lythraceae species. Seeds of Cuphea species yield oils rich in medium-chain fatty acids (such as caprylic, capric, lauric, and myristic acids), which serve as feedstocks for surfactants in soaps, detergents, and cosmetics, as well as biobased lubricants derived from estolides formed by reacting these acids with longer-chain fatty acids like oleic acid.^[64]^[65] These oils also show promise as biofuels, offering an alternative to imported tropical oils like coconut or palm for biodiesel production due to their high energy content and domestic cultivation potential in temperate climates.^[66] Additionally, the hardwood from Lagerstroemia species, noted for its strength and durability, is utilized in furniture construction, as well as for bridges and railway ties in native regions.^[67] Despite these benefits, the ornamental use of Lythrum salicaria has led to significant ecological and economic challenges as an invasive species in North America, with annual control efforts estimated at $45 million in the United States as of 2005 according to assessments of impacts on wetlands and biodiversity.^[68]

References

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International Biological Flora: Trapa natans† - Palm - 2024
Jul 19, 2024 · The water caltrop commonly occupies shallow water bodies that rapidly warm up, indicating that it is a thermophilic macrophyte (meaning that it ...Missing: Rotala | Show results with:Rotala
[22]
Taxonomic Revision of Cuphea sect. Euandra subsect. Oidemation ...
... dry cerrados and savannas of South America. Subsect. Oidemation has diversified particularly in these habitats in eastern Brazil and adjacent Paraguay.
[23]
Taxonomic Revision of Cuphea sect. Trispermum s.l. (Lythraceae)
... altitude range covered is wide, varying from 5 to 2,500 m, but the greatest. species richness, morphological diversity, and endemism are concentrated in ...Missing: altitudinal | Show results with:altitudinal
[24]
Cupheas | Home & Garden Information Center - Clemson HGIC
Apr 20, 2023 · Cupheas bloom continuously, attract pollinators, are self-cleaning, and are insect, disease, and deer resistant. They grow in sun to partial ...
[25]
Lythraceae | SpringerLink
Studies on the pollination biology and breeding systems of some genera with sympatric species in the Brazilian cerrado. Ph.D. Dissertation, Saint Andrews ...
[26]
[PDF] Revisiting the floral structure and ontogeny of Trapa natans L ...
These morphological features are in accordance with existing observations on reproductive biology of Trapa which is predominantly self-pollinating. ... whole ...
[27]
BSBI: Lythrum portula - Fermanagh Species Accounts
Lythrum portula (L.) ... Submerged flowers do not open and are automatically pollinated in the bud (ie they are cleistogamous) (Melderis & Bangerter 1955).
[28]
Non-viable seed set in Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae ...
Jul 13, 2021 · We discuss here the potential origins for the production of non-viable seeds in this species. keywords Seed germination · Apomixis · Cutting ...
[29]
[PDF] Phenology and floral biology of Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.)Pers ...
Jan 1, 2021 · Pollination is entomophilous. P/O ratio is 1086. High P/O ratio indicates that species in xenogamous. Pollination Biology : Observations ...
[30]
(PDF) Passerine bird pollination and seed dispersal in Woodfordia ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Hand-pollination tests indicate that this plant species sets fruit through self and cross-pollination and the same is confirmed by very high ...
[31]
Lythrum salicaria - USDA Forest Service
Fire adaptations: Purple loosestrife is an herbaceous perennial, with growing points that overwinter on the root crown about 0.8 inches (2 cm) below the soil ...
[32]
[PDF] Reproductive phenology of Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae) in ...
Jan 31, 2015 · The total seed output per tree (reproductive capacity) following open pollination was 1,75,545.82 ± 11,934.17, however regeneration potential ...
[33]
Use of Crape Myrtle, Lagerstroemia (Myrtales: Lythraceae), Cultivars ...
Mar 1, 2016 · Crape myrtle appears to provide a pollen source for several native bee species as well as for honey bees.
[34]
Mangroves as Coastal Protection for Restoring Low-Energy ... - MDPI
Mangroves offer vital ecological advantages including air and water filtration, coastal and estuarine habitat provision, sediment stabilization, and wave ...
[35]
(English) 6 types of mangroves Found in Bali!
Dec 11, 2023 · Contribution to Coastal Safety: With robust growth and spreading roots, Sonneratia helps stabilize the soil in coastal areas, reducing coastal ...
[36]
Lythrum salicaria - Global Invasive Species Database
Apr 15, 2010 · Seeds are very small and are transported by wind, water, wildlife, vehicles, construction equipment, and humans. Seed survival can be as ...
[37]
[PDF] Ecology and Management of Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.)
Purple loosestrife, also commonly referred to as lythrum, is a robust, perennial forb invasive in riparian areas and wetlands (see Figure 1).
[38]
Chapter 11 Purple Loosestrife - Biological Control of Invasive Plants ...
Purple loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria L., (Fig. 1) is a weed of natural areas and its spread across North America has degraded many prime wetlands.
[39]
Full article: Quantifying the associations between fungal endophytes ...
In this study we quantified the associations between endophyte communities and herbivory induced by a biological control in the invasive Lythrum salicaria at ...
[40]
[PDF] Introduced Purple Loosestrife as Host of Native Saturniidae ...
Many Saturniidae (silk moths) are known for the large size and bold patterns of the adults and larvae. Antheraea polyphemus (Cram.) (Polyphemus), Hyalophora ...
[41]
[PDF] The Red List of Trees of Madagascar
This is the Red List of Trees of Madagascar, published by Botanic Gardens Conservation International, the world's largest plant conservation network.
[42]
Ammannia calcicola | Vanishing Plants - The Forum about extinct ...
Hence it is assessed as Endangered. The only known collections of the species were collected more than 100 years ago, from an area that has already been ...
[43]
[PDF] Engineering With Nature: The Role of Mangroves in Coastal Protection
Nov 1, 2021 · Results indicated that mangroves reduced wave heights by 70% and that multiple habitats provided more benefits than any individual system.
[44]
Lythraceae J.St.-Hil. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Phylogenetic analysis of the Lythraceae based on four gene regions and morphology. Int. J. Plant Sci. 166: 995–1017. Verdcourt, B. (1994). Lythraceae. In: R. M. ...
[45]
Cladistic analysis of Lythraceae sensu lato based on morphological ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Most species of Lythraceae are woody shrubs or small trees, while herbs are less common (Graham et al., 1993(Graham et al., , 2005, and are ...
[46]
An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the ...
Oct 19, 2009 · ... APG III is proposed in Chase, Reveal & Fay (2009). This will allow researchers to use a subfamily name where previously they would have used ...
[47]
Taxonomic Revision of Cuphea sect. Trispermum s.l. (Lythraceae)
Mar 20, 2023 · A total of 20 species and two varieties are recognized in the section, including three new described species (C.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[48]
Comparative analyses of chloroplast genomes from 22 Lythraceae ...
Jun 26, 2019 · The flowering family is composed of five subfamilies, Lythroideae, Punicoideae, Sonneratioideae, Duabangoideae and Trapoideae, with 31 genera.Missing: list | Show results with:list
[49]
Food Applications and Potential Health Benefits of Pomegranate ...
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an ancient fruit that is particularly cultivated in west Asia, though it is also cultivated in the Mediterranean region ...
[50]
An Overview of the Health Benefits, Extraction Methods and ...
Jun 27, 2023 · Pomegranates are rich in phytoconstituents which show numerous beneficial health proprieties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, ...
[51]
Trapa bispinosa Roxb.: A Review on Nutritional and ...
Water chestnut fruits with milk are used in nervous and general debility, seminal weakness and leucorrhoea, as confection made of it is given in 2 to 4 doctor ...
[52]
Control of post-harvest storage losses in water chestnut (Trapa ... - NIH
Dec 2, 2021 · Water chestnut is considered a nutrient dense food, containing high amount of proteins and carbohydrates. The dried water chestnut samples were ...Missing: caltrop | Show results with:caltrop
[53]
Review of Pharmacological and Medicinal Uses of Punica granatum
Oct 15, 2024 · The seeds of the pomegranate are rich in vitamin C, vitamin K, and folate which helps in reducing the effects of anemia such as fatigue, ...Missing: value | Show results with:value
[54]
Pomegranate: A review of the heavenly healer's past, present, and ...
In the great Persian Empire, pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) had a wide reputation for use both as an herbal medicine and nutritious food.
[55]
Therapeutic potential of Lawsonia inermis Linn - PubMed Central
Nov 27, 2023 · The plant is been traditionally used to treat numerous conditions, including ulcers, bronchitis, lumbago, hemicrania, leukoderma, scabies, boils, ophthalmic ...Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
[56]
A review of ancient Egyptian pigments and cosmetics - jstor
Henna (Lawsonia inermis) was possibly used in ancient Egypt, much as in recent times, as a paste to colour the palms, soles of the feet, nails, and the hair. ...<|separator|>
[57]
Lythrum salicaria Ellagitannins Stimulate IPEC-J2 Cells Monolayer ...
It was used both in traditional and official medical treatment of diarrhea in humans and farm animals. Its antibacterial activities were examined in the ...
[58]
Management of Diabetes and Its Complications with Banaba ... - NIH
Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa L.) has been used as a folk medicine to treat diabetes in various parts of the world, primarily southeast Asia. The ...
[59]
Lagerstroemia indica
Another highlight is its exfoliating bark. The common crape myrtle is used as a specimen in a variety of ways including a lawn, recreational play area, and ...
[60]
Cuphea hyssopifolia - Useful Tropical Plants
The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a medicine and insecticide. It is often grown as an ornamental in the tropics - in the temperate zone ...
[61]
[PDF] Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) - King County
Requires partial to full sunlight. Sometimes cultivated as a garden ornamental. Native to Europe and Asia but introduced widely in North America. What You Can ...
[62]
Lawsone - American Chemical Society
Oct 14, 2024 · Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone; aka hennotannic acid) is a dye found in the leaves of the henna plant (Lawsonia inermis).
[63]
Full‐Press Oil Extraction of Cuphea (PSR23) Seeds - Evangelista
Oct 13, 2007 · Several Cuphea species contain saturated medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) [1–3]. MCFAs (C8:0–C12:0) are used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, ...
[64]
Biobased Lubricants and Functional Products from Cuphea Oil
Cuphea oils are being investigated as a source of biobased lubricants [136] . Estolides synthesized by the reaction of Cuphea fatty acids with oleic acid ( ...
[65]
A Cornucopia of Domestic Energy Crops - AgResearch Magazine
In addition to its industrial usefulness, Cuphea can serve as an alternative to soy, sunflower, or canola as a biofuel source. ARS scientists are working with ...
[66]
63. Crape Myrtle
The wood makes strong timber used to construct bridges, furniture and railroad ties. The beautiful bark of this species is thin and can be easily damaged ...
[67]
[PDF] Biological Control of Purple Loosestrife (<i>Lythrum salicaria</i>)
Nov 4, 2009 · Pemintel et al. (2005) estimated costs associated with purple loosestrife control efforts in the United States to be $45 million per year.