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MSD

Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD), the international operating name of , , is an American multinational company headquartered in , specializing in the discovery, development, manufacturing, and marketing of medicines, vaccines, and animal health products. Founded on January 1, 1891, by George Merck as a distributor of fine chemicals, it has evolved into a research-intensive entity aspiring to lead in innovative health solutions globally. MSD's portfolio includes blockbuster products such as Keytruda (), an anti-PD-1 approved for multiple cancer indications and generating substantial revenue, and , a recombinant preventing infections from human papillomavirus types associated with and other diseases. The company has contributed to advancements in areas like , infectious diseases, and cardiovascular health through rigorous , with a of pioneering vaccines and therapies that address unmet medical needs. Despite these accomplishments, MSD has encountered major controversies, notably the 2004 voluntary withdrawal of Vioxx (), a COX-2 inhibitor pain reliever, following post-marketing data indicating an elevated risk of and compared to , which prompted extensive litigation and a 2007 settlement of approximately $4.85 billion for the majority of claimant suits. Additional scrutiny has arisen from allegations of inadequate disclosure of risks in products like Fosamax (alendronate), linked to rare cases of , leading to regulatory warnings and further legal actions. These events underscore challenges in balancing innovation with in pharmaceutical development.

Companies

Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Companies

Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD), the international arm of Merck & Co., Inc., operates as a leading research-driven pharmaceutical company focused on human health pharmaceuticals, vaccines, and animal health products outside the United States and Canada. The company traces its origins to Merck & Co., founded on January 1, 1891, in New York by George Merck to distribute fine chemicals from the German Merck Group, which itself dates to 1668 but separated due to World War I asset seizures. A pivotal 1953 merger with Sharp & Dohme, established in 1845 as a Baltimore apothecary and known for early sulfa drugs and marketing prowess, formed the modern entity, enhancing Merck's research capabilities with commercial distribution. Over 130 years, MSD has developed treatments addressing oncology, infectious diseases, cardiovascular conditions, and immunology, alongside vaccines and livestock therapeutics. In recent years, MSD's revenue has been dominated by drugs, with (Keytruda), a PD-1 approved for multiple cancers including and , generating $29.5 billion in 2024 sales, comprising 46% of total revenue. The company's full-year 2025 sales guidance projects $64.3 billion to $65.3 billion, driven by growth, vaccine contributions like the , and animal health segments, despite foreign exchange headwinds; second-quarter 2025 results showed strength in these areas, with Keytruda and newer launches like WELIREG (belzutifan) for advancing uptake. Under CEO Robert M. Davis since 2021, whose 2024 compensation rose 14% to $23.2 million amid sustained performance, MSD maintains a global workforce emphasizing innovation in areas like and cardiometabolic diseases. MSD's pipeline includes over 70 programs in clinical development as of 2025, targeting unmet needs in , , and hospital-acquired infections, supported by acquisitions and partnerships to bolster biologics and precision medicine. Notable milestones include early contributions to penicillin production during and the 1987 launch of for parasitic diseases, earning a 2015 for discoverers affiliated with Merck entities. The company has faced significant controversies, particularly surrounding (Vioxx), a COX-2 launched in 1999 and withdrawn in 2004 after studies linked it to increased and risks, affecting tens of thousands; internal documents later revealed allegations of data suppression, culminating in a 2011 $950 million U.S. for improper and kickbacks. Alendronate (Fosamax), a for approved in 1995, prompted thousands of lawsuits over atypical femoral fractures and , with Merck settling 1,140 cases for $27.7 million in 2013 and prevailing in rulings on failure-to-warn claims. These events highlight tensions between rapid drug commercialization and post-market safety surveillance, though MSD maintains that regulatory approvals and clinical data supported initial launches.

Technology and Other Commercial Entities

MSD maintains involvement in technology through dedicated innovation arms and investments aimed at advancing solutions. The Merck Digital Sciences Studio (MDSS), launched in June 2022, functions as an accelerator program supporting early-stage biomedical startups by offering direct , access to resources, mentorship, and opportunities to pilot technologies within MSD's ecosystem. Similarly, the MSD Global Health Innovation Fund (MGHIF), established as a growth-stage investor, partners with and firms to accelerate therapies and diagnostics, emphasizing scalable in healthcare delivery. In applications, MSD has deployed internal generative AI platforms to streamline clinical study documentation, reducing production time for critical-path materials as of June 2025. External collaborations include a 2025 partnership with Longenesis to launch an online tool for , leveraging algorithms for patient screening. Another initiative involves teaming with firm Axana in 2023 to develop a optimizing care pathways across European clinics. Within animal health, MSD operates specialized technology subsidiaries and has pursued targeted acquisitions to enhance monitoring and automation. MSD (Ningbo) Animal Health Technology Co., Ltd., based in China, focuses on veterinary technology development. In 2021, MSD Animal Health acquired assets from LIC Automation Ltd., integrating advanced milking and herd management automation systems for dairy operations. Additional acquisitions include Allflex Livestock Intelligence, Sure Petcare, and Biomark, which provide digital tracking, traceability, and monitoring solutions for livestock and pets. The Animal Health Intelligence division incorporates IdentiGEN, specializing in DNA-based animal identification and analytics technologies operational in multiple countries. Earlier efforts include the 2006 acquisition of , aimed at bolstering diagnostic and therapeutic technology capabilities. These entities and partnerships reflect MSD's strategy to integrate technology for precision in human and health, though outcomes depend on empirical validation of in real-world applications.

People

Notable Individuals

Mahendra Singh Dhoni, commonly known by his initials MSD, is an Indian professional cricketer who plays as a right-handed wicket-keeper batter. Born on July 7, 1981, in (then , now ), he rose to prominence in domestic cricket before debuting internationally in 2004. Dhoni captained the national team in limited-overs formats from 2007 to 2016 and in from 2008 to 2014, leading to victories in the , the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup, and the —the only captain to win all three major ICC limited-overs tournaments. His tactical acumen, particularly in finishing innings and managing bowling resources, earned him recognition as one of cricket's most successful leaders, with achieving the number one ranking during his tenure. In the Indian Premier League, Dhoni has captained Chennai Super Kings to five titles (2010, 2011, 2018, 2021, 2023), appearing in ten finals across the franchise's first 14 seasons. He retired from international cricket on August 15, 2020, but continues to compete in the IPL, amassing over 17,000 international runs and effecting more than 600 dismissals as a wicket-keeper.

Computing and Technology

Hardware and Devices

In computing, devices (MSDs) utilizing the USB Mass Storage Class provide hardware peripherals that emulate block storage interfaces, enabling host systems to access via standardized command sets transported over USB bulk transfers. The class specification outlines support for protocols like Bulk-Only Transport (BOT), which uses pairs for command, , and exchanges, ensuring broad without host-specific drivers. Core hardware components in USB MSD implementations include a USB or controller for handling, non-volatile media such as chips or HDD platters, a or ASIC to manage SCSI-to- bridging, and a for precise timing of USB packets and data operations. USB drives, a prevalent MSD form, integrate these elements compactly: the controller processes USB requests and wear-leveling for endurance, while the connector adheres to USB 2.0 or higher standards for plug-and-play detection. External HDDs and SSD enclosures extend this by incorporating SATA-to-USB bridges, allowing legacy to interface via MSD while supporting capacities up to terabytes. Embedded MSD hardware appears in microcontrollers and development boards, where internal flash or SD card slots are exposed as virtual drives for simplified file I/O. For example, Nordic Semiconductor's nRF52840 DK uses an interface MCU to present firmware storage as a host-accessible drive, aiding drag-and-drop programming. Similarly, Microchip's Harmony framework enables PIC32 devices to implement MSD over internal memory, with hardware requiring minimal external parts beyond USB pull-up resistors and decoupling capacitors. These setups leverage on-chip USB peripherals compliant with USB 2.0 full-speed (12 Mbps) or high-speed (480 Mbps) modes, prioritizing low-latency bulk transfers for read/write efficiency. MSD hardware must handle per USB specifications, drawing up to 500 mA at 5 V for bus-powered operation, with suspend/resume signaling to conserve energy during idle states. Limitations include potential risks from improper ejection, as the class lacks mandatory checks, relying on OS safeguards like Windows' removal policy.

Software and Protocols

The USB Mass Storage Device (MSD) class constitutes a device class protocol in the Universal Serial Bus (USB) specifications, enabling peripheral devices to present themselves to hosts as logical block storage units compatible with commands via bulk transfers. Defined by the , the protocol supports transport mechanisms such as Bulk-Only Transport (BOT), which handles data movement over endpoint pipes without interrupt endpoints for status, and is integral to devices like USB flash drives, external hard disk drives, and optical media readers. The specification, version 1.4 released in 2010, ensures by wrapping standard storage command sets, allowing hosts to perform read/write operations, inquiry commands, and mode selections without proprietary drivers in compliant operating systems. In sorting algorithms, MSD denotes Most Significant Digit , a non-comparative method that recursively partitions keys—typically strings or multi-digit integers—starting from the highest-place-value digit to distribute elements into buckets, followed by stable sorting within subgroups for lower digits. This top-down approach contrasts with least-significant-digit variants by enabling early termination for prefixes and suiting variable-length data, with averaging O(N + K * d) where N is the number of keys, K the , and d the maximum key length. Analyses highlight its efficacy in parallel environments and string-heavy applications, such as construction, where it leverages digital structures for efficiency.

Organizations

Educational Institutions and Districts

In the United States, the MSD frequently designates Metropolitan School District, a common organizational structure for public K-12 school systems, particularly in where state law authorizes such districts to consolidate services across townships for efficiency in suburban and urban areas. These MSDs typically oversee multiple elementary, middle, and high schools, managing enrollments ranging from several thousand to over 15,000 students, with funding derived from local property taxes, state aid, and federal grants. hosts dozens of MSDs, concentrated in counties like , serving diverse student populations including significant minority and economically disadvantaged subgroups. The Metropolitan of Washington in , , exemplifies a large MSD, operating 14 schools and enrolling 10,512 students as of 2023 data, with a minority enrollment of 70% and 41.1% of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch. Similarly, the Metropolitan of serves over 16,000 students across 21 facilities in a suburban area of northeastern , emphasizing early learning centers alongside traditional K-12 programming. The Metropolitan of Warren , also in , educates more than 11,300 students from PreK through grade 12, supported by over 700 full-time staff and tracing its origins to 1826. Beyond Indiana's MSD framework, other educational entities adopt the MSD abbreviation. The School for the Deaf, founded in 1868 and operating tuition-free campuses in and , enrolls over 450 deaf and hard-of-hearing students aged birth to 21, delivering a bilingual in and English with specialized support for users and diverse linguistic backgrounds. In , the Massapequa Union Free School District, serving County, manages 9 schools for 6,536 students in grades K-12, with a low 5.8% economically disadvantaged rate and strong performance metrics including 78% math proficiency on state assessments. These districts highlight MSD's application to both general and specialized public models, often prioritizing local governance and resource allocation amid varying demographic needs.

Professional and Civic Organizations

The United MSD Foundation, founded in 2016 as a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, supports an international community affected by multiple sulfatase deficiency (MSD), a rare lysosomal storage disorder characterized by deficiencies leading to neurological and skeletal impairments. The organization funds research, facilitates access, and provides resources such as educational materials and support networks for families and medical professionals treating MSD patients. It collaborates with partner groups including the MSD Action Foundation, Fundación Cure MSD, Cura MSD, Grant Us Grace, and strEngTHAN to amplify advocacy and awareness efforts globally. The Technical Committee on Musculoskeletal Disorders (TC MSD) functions as a specialized scientific body within the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), established to advance and standards on MSDs—conditions involving muscle, , and injuries often linked to repetitive tasks. Comprising experts, the committee develops guidelines for hazard assessment, intervention strategies, and prevention protocols, contributing to occupational policies that reduce incidence rates, which affect over 30% of workers in high-risk sectors per global ergonomic studies. MSD for Mothers, launched as a nonprofit initiative in 2010, targets a 50% reduction in preventable maternal deaths by 2030 through evidence-based innovations, health worker training, and systems strengthening in underserved regions. It has invested over $100 million in grants and partnerships across more than 20 countries, emphasizing scalable solutions like quality improvement collaboratives that have documented decreases in maternal mortality ratios in pilot programs. While initially supported by pharmaceutical philanthropy, it operates independently to foster multisectoral collaborations with governments and NGOs. The MSD Pledge, inaugurated in June 2022 by the National Safety Council's MSD Solutions Lab, unites employers and safety professionals in committing to proactive prevention, addressing the leading cause of workplace injuries and disabilities in the U.S., which result in approximately 1 million cases annually. Participants implement risk-reduction frameworks, including and , with charter members reporting measurable declines in injury rates through data-driven audits.

Science and Medicine

Medical Conditions and Disorders

Multiple sulfatase deficiency (MSD) is an ultra-rare, autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder characterized by the impaired function of multiple sulfatase enzymes due to mutations in the SUMF1 gene, which encodes a formylglycine-generating enzyme essential for sulfatase activation. This leads to the accumulation of sulfated substrates in lysosomes, affecting multiple organ systems including the , skin, and skeleton. The condition combines features of (due to arylsulfatase A deficiency) and multiple (due to deficiencies in other sulfatases like iduronate-2-sulfatase and heparan N-sulfatase). Clinically, MSD presents with a spectrum of severity, typically manifesting in infancy or , though late-onset forms exist. Common symptoms include progressive neurological deterioration with developmental regression, progressing to , seizures, and ; (dry, scaly skin) resembling ; and skeletal abnormalities such as dysostosis multiplex with and joint contractures. Other features may involve , corneal clouding, cardiac valve abnormalities, and recurrent respiratory . The disease course is relentlessly progressive, often leading to death in childhood or from neurological complications or , with beyond early adulthood rare in severe cases. Diagnosis is confirmed through enzymatic assays showing reduced activity across multiple sulfatases, identifying biallelic SUMF1 variants (over 50 reported mutations, mostly missense), and supportive findings like metachromatic granules in leukocytes or accumulation in fibroblasts. Prenatal is possible via molecular analysis in families with known mutations. Differential diagnoses include isolated , , or Austin disease, but the multisulfatase pattern distinguishes MSD. No curative treatment exists; management is supportive, including for motor function, antiseizure medications, for ichthyosis, and in select early cases, though evidence is limited and risks high due to underlying enzyme defects. Experimental approaches like or chaperone molecules are under preclinical investigation, but as of 2023, none have reached clinical use. Incidence is estimated at less than 1 in 1,000,000 births, with around 40-50 cases documented worldwide, primarily in populations without founder effects. In occupational and public health contexts, MSD also denotes musculoskeletal disorders, a broad category of injuries and conditions affecting muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and joints, often resulting from repetitive strain, awkward postures, or forceful exertions in work environments. These include carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, and low back pain, with U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics data reporting over 1 million nonfatal MSD cases involving days away from work in 2018, predominantly among workers aged 45-64. Prevention emphasizes ergonomic interventions, though MSDs here refer to a heterogeneous group rather than a singular disorder.

Scientific Concepts and Methods

The (MSD), denoted as \langle \Delta r^2(t) \rangle, quantifies the average squared traveled by particles or molecules from their starting positions over a time interval t. It serves as a fundamental metric in and for characterizing diffusive processes, where the angular brackets indicate an ensemble average or time average over multiple trajectories. For in d dimensions under normal , the MSD follows the Einstein relation \langle \Delta r^2(t) \rangle = 2dDt, with D representing the diffusion coefficient, enabling direct extraction of D via linear fitting of MSD versus t. In simulations and single-particle tracking experiments, MSD analysis distinguishes diffusion regimes: normal yields a linear MSD-time plot (exponent \alpha = 1), subdiffusion (e.g., in crowded cellular environments) shows \alpha < 1, and superdiffusion (e.g., active transport) exhibits \alpha > 1, where the exponent \alpha is derived from \langle \Delta r^2(t) \rangle \propto t^\alpha. This method relies on tracking particle coordinates over time, computing displacements for various lag times \tau, and averaging to mitigate noise, often using software like for atomic-scale simulations or custom algorithms for experimental data. For instance, in protein studies within membranes, variable-order fractional MSD models capture evolving lateral mobility influenced by interactions. Computationally, MSD is evaluated by selecting reference times, calculating \Delta r^2(\tau) for each lag \tau, and averaging across origins to ensure in stationary processes; unwrap trajectories to handle periodic boundaries in simulations. Experimental applications, such as , retrieve MSD from functions under specific conditions like low particle densities. Limitations include sensitivity to length and sampling , requiring at least 100-1000 steps for reliable \alpha estimation, and assumptions of for simple interpretations. In viscoelastic media, MSD plateaus at long times reflect caged , as quantified in for gelation monitoring.

Other Uses

Engineering and Technical Applications

The mass-spring-damper (MSD) system models the dynamic response of mechanical structures subject to oscillatory forces, representing via mass m, restoring force via stiffness k, and energy dissipation via coefficient c. This linear time-invariant model, governed by the m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = f(t), underpins analysis in , , and stability. In , MSD models simulate vehicle systems to optimize ride quality and road handling; for example, quarter-car models approximate wheel-mass interactions with road inputs, enabling parameter tuning for ratios that minimize at typical driving frequencies around 1-2 Hz. Such applications extend to multi-degree-of-freedom variants for full-vehicle , informing designs that balance comfort and safety under loads up to 5g in crash scenarios. Structural engineering employs MSD principles in tuned mass dampers (TMDs), auxiliary oscillators attached to primary structures to reduce during wind or seismic events; TMDs achieve up to 40% suppression by natural frequencies to match the host structure's , as in systems with masses comprising 0.5-2% of the primary mass. Long-span bridges, such as cable-stayed designs, integrate TMDs to counter pedestrian-induced lateral sway at frequencies near 1 Hz, preventing fatigue accumulation over service lives exceeding 100 years. In applications, MSD frameworks analyze suppression and ; for instance, equivalent MSD reductions of aeroelastic systems predict critical speeds where ratios drop below 0.01, guiding active implementations with piezoelectric actuators to maintain margins. Manufacturing system design (MSD) methodologies, distinct but leveraging similar dynamic modeling, optimize layouts for throughput, incorporating analogs to buffer variability in cycle times reduced by up to 20% through simulation-driven reconfiguration.

Miscellaneous Acronyms and Terms

Marine Sanitation Device refers to an onboard system designed for vessels, required by regulations such as those from the U.S. for boats longer than 65 feet to manage waste and minimize environmental discharge. These devices typically employ , chlorination, or to process before overboard release. Most Significant Digit designates the leftmost digit in a numerical value, carrying the highest place value and influencing precision in calculations, rounding, and data representation in fields like and . For instance, in the number 1234, 1 is the MSD, determining the . Mean Square Deviation is a statistical measure of variability, computed as the average of squared differences between observed values and the , often used to quantify or in datasets. It forms the basis for variance calculations, with the \sigma^2 = \frac{1}{n} \sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2. Multi-Site Damage, in the context of structural integrity, describes the concurrent occurrence of multiple cracks within a single component, such as aircraft lap joints, which can lead to rapid crack propagation and failure if undetected. This condition arises from prolonged cyclic loading and is addressed through non-destructive testing protocols. Magnetic Stripe Data pertains to the encoded information on the magnetic strip of payment cards, including account numbers and expiration dates, read by terminals for transaction authorization under standards like ISO/IEC 7811. Security concerns have prompted shifts toward chip-based alternatives since the .