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Main operating base

A main operating base (MOB) is a secure established outside the and its territories, characterized by permanently stationed operating forces, robust for sustainment, and capabilities for , staging, and logistical support of deployed units. These bases serve as enduring strategic assets in friendly or allied territory, typically hosting a wing-sized or larger population—often exceeding 550 personnel—and providing protected environments for long-term operations, including airfields, maintenance depots, and supply buffers that enable force projection and sustainment. In and expeditionary doctrine, MOBs function as hubs that integrate rear-area support with forward operations, distinguishing them from smaller, more transient forward operating bases (FOBs) or cooperative security locations by their scale, permanence, and defensive fortifications. They facilitate the rapid assembly and deployment of joint forces, as demonstrated in exercises like Ready Tiger, where MOBs anchor operations alongside forward sites for training in contested environments. This structure supports broader strategic mobility, enabling sustained combat power through prepositioned resources and resilient supply chains, though vulnerabilities to long-term basing in hostile regions have prompted doctrinal shifts toward more agile, distributed footprints.

Definition and Classification

Official Definition

A main operating base (MOB) is defined by the as a facility outside the and its territories with permanently stationed operating forces and a permanent civilian support structure, used to support combat operations other than those that are transient in nature. Such bases feature robust infrastructure to enable sustained military presence and activities. They are classified as enduring locations within the DoD's contingency basing framework, alongside forward operating sites and cooperative security locations, to facilitate long-term strategic positioning. Main operating bases incorporate dedicated elements, family housing and support services for personnel, and enhanced defensive measures to ensure operational continuity. This distinguishes them from temporary or expeditionary sites, emphasizing permanence and comprehensive sustainment capabilities for joint force operations. The term originated in post-Cold War basing policies to categorize overseas installations supporting persistent U.S. commitments, as outlined in directives on global posture.

Distinction from Other Base Types

A main operating base (MOB) differs from forward operating bases (FOBs) primarily in its scale, permanence, and strategic orientation; MOBs serve as enduring hubs in secure, friendly territory for sustaining large-scale operations with permanent or rotational forces, robust , and command elements, whereas FOBs are smaller, expeditionary positions advanced closer to combat zones to enable tactical maneuvers and temporary force projection without the same level of fixed assets. FOBs typically support or battalion-level activities with limited sustainment capabilities, often lacking the extensive depots, medical facilities, and airfields found at MOBs, and are designed for shorter durations amid higher threat environments. In contrast to combat outposts (COPs) and patrol bases (PBs), which are tactical, low-profile sites manned by platoon- or company-sized elements for localized security, , or direct , MOBs function as rear-area anchors emphasizing long-term base camp development, , and force regeneration rather than immediate frontline . COPs and PBs, often improvised from existing structures or minimal fortifications, prioritize rapid deployment and withdrawal to minimize vulnerability, hosting fewer than 150 personnel with , unlike the multi-thousand-troop capacity and engineered defensibility of MOBs. MOBs also stand apart from cooperative security locations (CSLs) or forward operating sites (), which involve host-nation partnerships for prepositioned equipment or limited access rather than full-spectrum U.S. control and permanent garrisoning; CSLs focus on shared for responses, while MOBs integrate comprehensive sustainment functions like fuel storage and hangars under unilateral command. This reflects doctrinal classifications where MOBs enable theater-level sustainment, bridging permanent installations back home with transient forward nodes.

Key Characteristics

Infrastructure and Capabilities

Main operating bases (MOBs) are equipped with robust, enduring designed for long-term sustainment of large-scale operations, including airfields with paved runways capable of supporting strategic and combat , extensive fuel storage and distribution networks, and maintenance facilities for vehicle and equipment repair. These bases typically feature modular housing units, administrative buildings, and systems such as potable plants and electrical generation capacities to accommodate populations exceeding 550 personnel, often equivalent to a wing or larger unit. Utility emphasizes redundancy and resilience, with backup power sources and wastewater management to enable semi-autonomous operations in austere environments. Key capabilities of MOBs include integration, where centralized facilities house joint operations centers for real-time decision-making and coordination across theater assets. Logistical functions are prioritized, with prepositioned stocks of , spare parts, and medical supplies to facilitate rapid force projection and resupply to subordinate sites like forward operating bases. Security infrastructure supports these roles through layered defenses, including perimeter fencing, surveillance systems, and units for internal and convoy support. Unlike smaller forward sites, MOBs provide scalable sustainment, allowing for extended deployment without full reliance on host-nation or external pipelines.

Security and Defensive Features

Main operating bases (MOBs) employ layered defensive architectures to counter diverse threats, including ground incursions, , and vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices, as outlined in emphasizing integration of sensors, barriers, and response forces. These bases delineate security zones, with an inner defended area protecting core and an outer perimeter serving as a patrolled to detect and delay adversaries, typically manned by or . Physical fortifications form the foundational defensive layer, incorporating HESCO bastions, concrete T-walls, , and earthen revetments to impede vehicular penetration and funnel potential attackers into engagement areas. Elevated observation towers, often staffed by security personnel or augmented by private contractors, provide 360-degree overwatch, while entry control points utilize imaging, for explosive detection, and biometric scanners to screen personnel and vehicles. Advanced surveillance integrates the Enhanced Tactical Automated Security System (eTASS), deploying over 500 ground sensors and thermal imagers along perimeters exceeding 20 kilometers, enabling real-time intrusion detection and alerting. Against — a primary threat in asymmetric conflicts—MOBs field batteries, which use radar-guided interceptors and autocannons to achieve detection-to-warn rates above 90% and neutralize incoming rounds, as evidenced by a 164% increase in intercepts at Joint Base Balad in 2009. Active countermeasures extend beyond the perimeter through quick reaction forces, overwatch via persistent unmanned aerial systems, and outside-the-wire patrols informed by intelligence fusion cells, disrupting enemy preparations and reducing attack frequency by up to 75% at operational hubs like Balad. Passive protections, including asset dispersal, blast-resistant bunkers, and graduated conditions, mitigate residual risks, with doctrine mandating contractor adherence to these standards in medium- to high-threat environments. Integrated operations centers consolidate data from these elements into a unified view, facilitating rapid command decisions and minimizing vulnerabilities in sustained overseas deployments.

Strategic and Operational Role

Logistics and Sustainment Functions

Main operating bases (MOBs) function as central nodes in the theater logistics network, receiving strategic-level supplies via air, sea, or ground lines of communication and aggregating them for redistribution to forward operating bases (FOBs) and tactical units. This role enables the sustainment of prolonged operations by maintaining stockpiles of Class I (subsistence), Class III (petroleum), Class IV (construction materials), and Class V (ammunition) supplies, with facilities designed to handle high-volume throughput, such as centralized warehousing and multimodal transfer points. Sustainment at MOBs encompasses and repair operations for equipment, including , ground vehicles, and weapons systems, often supported by dedicated units like expeditionary sustainment commands or support squadrons that perform intermediate-level repairs to reduce for deployed forces. These bases typically host robust health service support, including field hospitals and preventive medicine detachments, to manage personnel casualties and ensure force readiness, with capacities scaled for wing-sized or larger populations exceeding 550 personnel. Transportation and distribution functions are integral, with MOBs operating convoy support centers and airlift hubs to push logistics packages forward while adhering to principles of economy and survivability in contested environments. For instance, MOBs provide backup sustainment to FOBs, including resupply convoys and aerial delivery, mitigating risks from disrupted forward lines by leveraging semi-permanent infrastructure like fuel depots and ammunition storage bunkers. This layered approach ensures continuity of operations, as evidenced in doctrine emphasizing MOBs' role in enabling force projection without over-reliance on vulnerable tactical echelons. Personnel sustainment services at MOBs include , postal operations, and facilities, such as dining halls serving multiple daily meals and 24-hour services, which sustain large troop concentrations and reduce administrative burdens on units. These functions align with , prioritizing and to operational across theaters.

Command, Control, and Force Projection

Main operating bases (MOBs) serve as central hubs for (C2) in sustained military operations, hosting secure facilities for joint or theater-level that integrate , , and communications systems to enable commanders to direct forces across theaters. These bases feature robust, redundant networks, including and tactical data links, allowing real-time and coordination between forward elements and higher command echelons, often providing backup C2 support to more vulnerable forward operating bases. In force projection, MOBs function as primary nodes for reception, staging, onward movement, and integration (RSO&I), receiving deploying units via air or sea and rapidly transitioning them into operational readiness through established infrastructure like aerial ports of debarkation (APODs) and prepositioned supplies. This capability supports the projection of combat power from continental (CONUS) or allied territories, with MOBs maintaining pipelines to sustain extended operations and enable surges of maneuver units to tactical areas. For instance, U.S. Air Force doctrine emphasizes MOBs as hubs where intratheater redistributes forces after initial deployment, ensuring efficient in contested environments. The integration of and force projection at MOBs enhances operational by centralizing reach-back capabilities to national assets while decentralizing execution, though challenges such as contested communications can increase reliance on hardened base defenses and alternative networks. Doctrine underscores that effective MOB utilization in projection operations requires pre-positioned equipment and mature support organizations to minimize deployment timelines, as seen in updates to force projection processes emphasizing rapid mobilization from CONUS-based units.

Historical Context

Origins in Military Doctrine

The concept of a main operating base (MOB) emerged in U.S. as a for secure, rear-area installations designed to provide sustained logistical, , and command for air and joint operations, particularly in high-threat environments. Rooted in air basing strategies, MOBs were differentiated from forward or dispersal sites to concentrate and personnel in defended locations, enabling the generation of sorties and operational tempo without exposing core capabilities to immediate enemy interdiction. This doctrinal framework addressed the causal vulnerabilities of basing in peer conflicts, such as potential Soviet advances in , by prioritizing robust defenses and self-sufficiency at MOBs to underpin force projection. Early articulations of the MOB role appeared in Air Force planning documents by the late 1970s and early 1980s, where they served as primary hubs for unit operations, with temporary detachments rotating to forward positions for tactical execution. For instance, in discussions of NATO airpower employment, MOBs were essential for maintaining aircraft readiness and backup support, reflecting first-principles reasoning on logistics as the enabler of combat effectiveness over extended campaigns. This structure mitigated risks from base attacks, a lesson drawn from World War II experiences but adapted to nuclear-era threats, where base survivability directly influenced overall mission success rates. In doctrine, the MOB concept formalized around providing material and personnel sustainment for task forces, as outlined in pamphlets by the early , though its foundational logic predated this in force planning. Joint publications, such as those governing planning and prepositioning, integrated MOBs into layered basing models—contrasting them with less permanent sites—to optimize global posture amid shifting threats. Empirical data from simulations and exercises underscored their role, with analyses showing that MOB-centric operations could sustain up to 70-80% higher rates compared to fully forward-deployed models under contested conditions.

Evolution in Post-Cold War Operations

The end of the in 1991 prompted a reevaluation of U.S. military basing, shifting from expansive permanent infrastructure designed for peer deterrence to a leaner network supporting expeditionary and regional crisis response. The Department of Defense's (BRAC) commissions in 1991, 1993, and 1995 closed or realigned over 350 major domestic bases and reduced overseas footprints, eliminating redundancies while retaining key hubs like in and in as anchors for forward-deployed forces. This restructuring aligned with the 1993 Bottom-Up Review, which planned for two nearly simultaneous major theater wars, emphasizing bases with prepositioned equipment and logistics to enable rapid surge capabilities rather than massive static garrisons. In early post-Cold War operations, such as Operation Desert Storm in 1991, facilities in —including in and —served as primary operating hubs, accommodating over 100,000 U.S. personnel, extensive air sorties (more than 100,000 total), and ground force buildup for the coalition's 42-day campaign to expel Iraqi forces from . These sites demonstrated the viability of host-nation-supported bases for sustained and command functions in permissive environments, influencing doctrine toward integrating allied infrastructure for temporary scaling during contingencies like the interventions in the mid-1990s. The 2004 Global Defense Posture Review marked a doctrinal pivot, formalizing main operating bases (MOBs) as facilities with permanent combat forces, robust sustainment infrastructure, and family support, while introducing complementary forward operating sites and cooperative security locations for dispersed, lower-profile operations. This framework reduced large-scale permanent deployments in and —consolidating, for instance, U.S. forces in from 42,000 to around 28,000 by 2005—favoring rotational presence and prepositioning at select MOBs like in to counter asymmetric threats and enable agile global engagement. The approach mitigated risks of fixed targets vulnerable to precision strikes, though it required enhanced host-nation agreements and investments in mobility assets like strategic .

Deployment in Major Conflicts

Use in the Global War on Terror

Main operating bases (MOBs) played a pivotal role in the U.S.-led Global War on Terror (GWOT), initiated after the , 2001, attacks, by serving as fortified hubs for , troop sustainment, aerial operations, and command functions in hostile environments. These bases, defined by the Department of Defense as overseas facilities with permanently or semi-permanently stationed forces and robust infrastructure, supported the rapid deployment and prolonged operations of militaries in Operations Enduring Freedom (OEF) in and Iraqi Freedom (OIF) in . Unlike smaller forward operating bases (FOBs), MOBs emphasized enduring presence, enabling the rotation of up to division-sized forces and the processing of thousands of cargo flights annually to maintain combat effectiveness against and insurgent networks. In , emerged as the preeminent MOB, established shortly after the October 2001 U.S. invasion to dismantle and strongholds. By , had expanded to accommodate over 10,000 personnel, featuring a 3,600-meter runway for heavy-lift aircraft like the C-17 Globemaster III, which delivered critical supplies amid rugged terrain that limited ground convoys. The base hosted U.S. operations, including launches for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance () missions, and served as the headquarters for NATO's (ISAF) Regional Command East, coordinating efforts across eastern provinces. At its peak in 2012, Bagram supported approximately 40,000 troops and processed over 300,000 passengers and 100,000 tons of cargo monthly, underscoring its centrality to sustaining coalition maneuvers against resurgence. In , MOBs such as Joint Base Balad (formerly ) functioned analogously from 2003 onward, acting as a nerve center dubbed the "Balad Special" for its scale and self-sufficiency. Balad, spanning 13 square miles, housed up to 30,000 personnel by 2007 and managed 70 percent of U.S. fixed-wing sorties in theater, including F-16 fighter operations and air refueling for against insurgent attacks. Equipped with ammunition depots, maintenance hangars, and medical facilities, it mitigated supply line vulnerabilities exposed by improvised explosive devices (IEDs) on roads, facilitating of 20,000 additional troops in 2007 under General David Petraeus's strategy to stabilize and Anbar Province. These bases also integrated contractor support, with firms like KBR providing life sustainment for forces combating . MOBs in GWOT theaters faced persistent threats, including and vehicle-borne IEDs, prompting layered defenses such as systems and perimeter patrols, which reduced successful attacks but highlighted the trade-offs of concentrating assets in fixed locations. Their strategic value persisted through drawdowns, with remaining operational until July 2021, when U.S. forces withdrew amid advances, leaving behind infrastructure valued at billions that was rapidly looted.

Specific Implementations in Iraq and Afghanistan

In , Joint Base Balad (formerly ) exemplified a Main Operating Base during Operation Iraqi Freedom, serving as a central hub for air operations, logistics, and sustainment from 2003 to 2011. Located 68 kilometers north of near the Tigris River, it supported the , which conducted thousands of combat sorties annually, including and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions. The base housed up to 20,000 personnel at its peak, featuring extensive infrastructure such as multiple runways capable of handling C-130 and larger aircraft, a 50-bed , fuel storage for over 2 million gallons, and defensive systems like counter-rocket, artillery, and mortar () batteries to mitigate threats that occurred nearly daily in 2007-2008. This implementation emphasized enduring capabilities, with integrated U.S. Army and defenses partnering with for joint patrols, contributing to a decline in attacks on the base from over 100 monthly in 2007 to fewer than 10 by , as evidenced by operational data. Balad's role extended to force projection, enabling rapid resupply convoys and medical evacuations, though it faced persistent rocket attacks, with over 5,000 incidents recorded between 2004 and 2009, underscoring vulnerabilities in large, fixed installations. In , functioned as the primary Main Operating Base for U.S. and coalition forces throughout (2001-2014) and subsequent missions, established shortly after the October 2001 invasion to support initial and expanding to a full-spectrum sustainment node. Spanning 5,000 acres with two runways, it accommodated up to 40,000 troops and contractors by 2012, hosting headquarters for Regional Command East, a 100-bed treating over 1.5 million patients cumulatively, and airlift operations handling 80% of U.S. cargo inflows via C-17 and C-130 aircraft. Bagram's implementation involved phased expansions, including hardened aircraft shelters, detention facilities (Parwan), and logistics pipelines from and , enabling for operations across eastern . It processed over 2 million passengers annually at peak and served as a launch point for helicopter assaults, but sustained rocket attacks, with more than 200 incidents in 2016 alone, highlighting the challenges of maintaining persistent bases in hostile terrain despite layered defenses like watchtowers and systems.

Examples of MOBs

European and NATO MOBs

Ramstein Air Base in serves as a primary main operating base (MOB) for and U.S. forces in , hosting the headquarters of the United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces (USAFE-AFAFRICA) and 's . Established in 1951, it supports air mobility operations, including strategic airlift and refueling, with facilities for over 35,000 personnel and extensive logistics infrastructure capable of handling C-17 Globemaster and C-130 Hercules aircraft for rapid deployment across the continent. Geilenkirchen NATO Air Base, also in , functions as the main operating base for 's E-3A Component, comprising (AWACS) aircraft operated by multinational crews from 16 member states. Operational since 1982, it provides real-time surveillance and command capabilities, flying over 200 missions annually to support 's integrated air defense and crisis response, with runways and hangars designed for sustained E-3 Sentry operations. Aviano Air Base in Italy acts as a key NATO MOB for southern European operations, home to the U.S. 31st Fighter Wing equipped with F-16 Fighting Falcons for air-to-ground missions. Activated for NATO use in 1955, it has supported interventions such as Operation Allied Force in 1999, with munitions storage and forward deployment pads enabling rapid sortie generation rates exceeding 100 per day during heightened alerts. Naval Station Rota in Spain provides logistical sustainment as a NATO MOB, accommodating U.S. destroyers equipped with Aegis ballistic missile defense systems since 2014, alongside fuel depots and pier facilities handling over 1 million tons of cargo annually. Its strategic Atlantic position facilitates NATO maritime prepositioning and rapid reinforcement to the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. In , Air Base in is undergoing expansion to become 's largest base by area, projected to exceed Ramstein's footprint by 50% upon completion in the late 2020s, serving as a and air operations hub for the alliance's enhanced forward presence amid regional tensions. in has emerged as a critical interim MOB for , processing billions in shipments since , though U.S. forces relocated elements in 2025 while maintaining oversight.

Middle Eastern and Asian MOBs

Al Udeid Air Base in exemplifies a main operating base in the , defined by the U.S. Department of Defense as a facility outside the and its territories featuring permanently stationed operating forces and robust . Established in 1996 through U.S.- agreements, it expanded significantly post-2001 to host the forward headquarters of U.S. Central Command, directing operations across the region. The base supports air expeditionary wings, including the 379th Air Expeditionary Wing, with for heavy , fuel storage, and command facilities, accommodating thousands of U.S. personnel alongside allied forces. It functions as the largest U.S. military installation in the , enabling sustained air operations and projection. Naval Support Activity Bahrain serves as another critical Middle Eastern MOB, primarily supporting U.S. naval forces in the Persian Gulf and beyond. Renamed in 1999 to reflect its expanded role, the base houses U.S. Naval Forces Central Command and the Fifth Fleet headquarters, overseeing maritime security in the CENTCOM area of responsibility. It provides pier facilities, administrative support, and logistics for carrier strike groups and coalition vessels, with permanent staffing including fleet commanders and support personnel. In Kuwait, Camp Arifjan operates as a logistics-focused MOB, central to U.S. Army sustainment in Southwest Asia. Hosting approximately 13,500 U.S. forces alongside Ali al-Salem Air Base, it features warehousing, maintenance depots, and training areas essential for regional force projection. Construction enhancements, including unaccompanied officers' quarters completed in 2024, underscore its enduring infrastructure for long-term operations. In Asia, Kadena Air Base on Okinawa, Japan, stands as a premier MOB for U.S. Air Force power projection in the . Home to the , it maintains permanent fighter, tanker, and squadrons with runways, hangars, and radar systems supporting rapid deployment. The base's strategic location enables surveillance and strike missions, housing thousands of personnel and contributing to U.S. deterrence against regional threats. in represents the Army's largest overseas installation, spanning 3,454 acres with over 500 buildings developed at a cost exceeding $11 billion. Relocated and expanded in the , it supports U.S. Forces Korea with permanent ground forces, command centers, and sustainment hubs approximately 40 miles south of , facilitating alliance defense operations. These bases align with MOB criteria by sustaining continuous U.S. presence amid evolving geopolitical demands.

Operational Effectiveness and Challenges

Achievements in Enabling Missions

Main operating bases (MOBs) have excelled in providing logistical sustainment, force projection, and operational support, allowing coalition forces to maintain persistent presence and execute missions with reduced vulnerability to supply disruptions. In , functioned as a central node, processing vast quantities of materiel and personnel to underpin efforts. Aerial port operations at routinely managed 1,300 passengers and 600 tons of cargo per day, ensuring timely resupply for forward units engaged in combat and stability tasks. This throughput supported the rapid reinforcement of operations, such as the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit's deployment during in March 2002, where timely airlift from bolstered coalition defenses against and forces. Bagram's infrastructure enabled continuous air domain dominance, serving as the launch point for 24/7 , , and missions that degraded insurgent capabilities across theater. It also integrated command-and-control, medical treatment, and engineering sustainment, with facilities handling casualty evacuations and equipment repairs that preserved combat effectiveness for over two decades of operations from 2001 to 2021. These capabilities contributed to the overall sustainment of more than 1.9 million U.S. tours in , facilitating transitions from combat to train-advise-assist roles. In , Al Asad Air Base exemplified MOB utility during Operation Iraqi Freedom and subsequent phases, acting as a hub for , , and intelligence, surveillance, and flights that directly enabled ground maneuvers against insurgent networks. As the second-largest U.S. airbase in by 2003, it supported the II Expeditionary Force's sustainment, processing equipment transfers worth millions—such as 60 pallets of supplies and valued at nearly $1 million in a single week—to bolster under advise-and-assist missions. The base's robust pipelines, including fuel and distribution, sustained operations amid contested environments, allowing forces to focus on kinetic and stability tasks rather than self-sustainment. Overall, MOBs like and Al Asad minimized operational pauses by centralizing resources, enabling scalable responses to threats and contributing to milestones such as the degradation of high-value targets through integrated air-ground logistics chains.

Vulnerabilities, Attacks, and Criticisms

Main Operating Bases (MOBs), by virtue of their permanent infrastructure and concentration of personnel and assets, exhibit inherent vulnerabilities to asymmetric and precision-guided threats. Fixed basing structures facilitate sustained operations but create predictable high-value targets susceptible to , such as mortars and unguided rockets, which exploited extensively in and to impose psychological and operational costs without risking direct engagement. A 1996 RAND Corporation analysis underscored the risks to U.S. airbases—often integral to MOBs—from conventional cruise missiles and ballistic missiles with improved accuracy, estimating that even limited salvos could crater runways and destroy parked aircraft absent robust dispersal or hardening. More recent assessments highlight emerging threats like low-cost drones, which can evade traditional defenses and target vulnerabilities in perimeter surveillance or parked equipment. Notable attacks illustrate these weaknesses. On September 14, 2012, a coordinated raid on Camp Bastion in — a joint U.S.- MOB—saw 15 insurgents breach the perimeter, killing two U.S. Marines from Marine Attack Squadron 211, wounding nine others, and destroying six AV-8B Harrier jets while damaging two more, with total damages exceeding $200 million. The assault exploited gaps in lighting, watchtower staffing, and aircraft protection, as detailed in subsequent U.S. Central Command and British inquiries. In , , designated as a MOB, endured a barrage of 11 Iranian short-range ballistic missiles on , 2020, in Operation Martyr Soleimani, retaliating for the U.S. strike on ; while no fatalities occurred due to personnel sheltering in bunkers, over 110 U.S. troops suffered traumatic brain injuries from blast effects, with some hangars and equipment damaged. Since October 2023, Iran-backed militias have launched over 170 attacks on U.S. bases in and , including MOBs like Al Asad, primarily using rockets and drones, resulting in dozens of casualties and underscoring persistent exposure in hybrid conflict environments. Criticisms of MOBs center on their strategic rigidity and resource intensity, which can undermine force mobility and invite sustained harassment in irregular warfare. Post-mortems of the Camp Bastion raid attributed the breach to "high-level complacency" and inadequate force protection, including unpatrolled areas and insufficient countermeasures against infiltration, prompting calls for reevaluating static defense postures. Defense planners have faulted fixed basing for amplifying anti-access/area-denial risks from peer adversaries, arguing that concentrations of assets at MOBs facilitate preemptive strikes and necessitate costly mitigations like rapid runway repair, with recommendations favoring dispersed, agile operations over permanent hubs. Environmentally, MOBs have faced scrutiny for health hazards; at Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti, U.S. Navy oversight failed to enforce air quality standards, exposing personnel to toxic pollutants from nearby industry and waste burning, elevating risks of respiratory issues despite available monitoring data. Broader analyses contend that large-scale basing sustains local resentments, politicizes host-nation support, and diverts resources from expeditionary capabilities, particularly as fiscal constraints limit infrastructure maintenance.

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