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Mesopause

The mesopause is the atmospheric boundary demarcating the top of the mesosphere from the base of the thermosphere, defined as the altitude at which temperature reaches its minimum between the stratopause and the lower thermosphere.^[1] This transition typically occurs at heights of 85 to 100 kilometers above sea level, varying with latitude, season, and solar activity.^[2] It constitutes the coldest region in Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures often plummeting to around -90°C (-130°F) or lower near its upper extent, owing to radiative cooling and limited solar heating at such altitudes.^[3] The mesopause plays a critical role in upper atmospheric dynamics, serving as the locus for phenomena such as noctilucent clouds, which form from water vapor condensation in the extreme cold, and the primary ablation zone for incoming meteors due to residual atmospheric density.^[4] Seasonal variations, including a higher and warmer mesopause during solstice periods influenced by gravity waves from lower atmospheric layers, underscore its sensitivity to global circulation patterns and trace gas distributions like atomic oxygen and water vapor.^[2] Observations from instruments such as lidars and satellites reveal a dual-structure in some regions, with secondary minima adding complexity to thermal profiles.^[5]

Definition and Location

Altitude and Seasonal Variations

The mesopause, defined as the altitude of minimum temperature in the Earth's atmosphere, generally occurs between 80 and 105 km, with a typical range of 84 to 103 km depending on location and season.^[6] Observations from satellite instruments like SABER on the TIMED mission indicate a bistable structure, where the summer mesopause descends to approximately 84 km while the winter mesopause ascends to 98–103 km.^[6] ^[7] Seasonal variations in mesopause altitude are driven primarily by atmospheric dynamics, including the migration of the cold summer mesopause associated with upwelling in the summer hemisphere and radiative cooling. In mid-latitudes (e.g., 40°N), the height shifts from about 101 km in winter to 96 km in late summer, reflecting stronger cooling below 91 km during the warmer months.^[8] Globally, summer altitudes average around 88–90 km, rising to 100–102 km in winter, with hemispheric asymmetries such as a broader 4 km range in Southern Hemisphere winter compared to 1 km in Northern Hemisphere winter.^[9] ^[10] ^[7] At high latitudes, these variations are more pronounced, with the summer polar mesopause often 1–2 km lower than subtropical counterparts due to enhanced dynamical descent and CO₂ radiative cooling. Long-term trends from 1990–2018 lidar data show slight lowering in summer heights (e.g., ~1 km cooler and lower in northern summer poles over recent decades), though seasonal cycles remain dominant.^[11] ^[12] These patterns correlate with polar mesospheric cloud occurrences, which form near the lowered summer mesopause at altitudes of ~83–86 km.^[13]

Temperature Characteristics

The mesopause marks the temperature minimum in Earth's atmosphere, with values typically ranging from 180 K to 190 K at mid-latitudes near 86–96 km altitude.^[3]^[14] Extremes as low as 130–140 K occur in polar summer regions, where the minimum altitude can descend to around 86 km at 40° latitude or 90 km at 80°S.^[15] These low temperatures result from radiative cooling by CO₂ and NO emissions combined with minimal solar heating at these altitudes.^[6] Seasonal variations are driven by the dynamics of the middle atmosphere circulation, with summer mesopause temperatures 20–50 K colder than winter values due to adiabatic cooling from upwelling air in the summer hemisphere, influenced by planetary waves and gravity wave dissipation.^[6]^[16] For instance, at 40°N, the temperature minimum shifts to a lower altitude of approximately 96 km in late summer, enhancing the cooling below 91 km.^[14] In contrast, winter mesopause altitudes rise to near 101 km with warmer temperatures from descending air and adiabatic heating.^[14] Latitudinal differences amplify these patterns, with tropical mesopauses maintaining higher altitudes (mean ~98 km) and warmer minima around 180 K, while polar regions exhibit greater seasonal asymmetry and colder summer values.^[17]^[5] Observations sometimes reveal a two-level mesopause structure, featuring distinct upper (~100 km) and lower (~86 km) minima that vary by latitude and season, reflecting complex wave-mean flow interactions.^[5] Diurnal temperature fluctuations are minor compared to these larger-scale variations, typically on the order of a few Kelvin.^[18]

Physical Properties

Atmospheric Composition

The mesopause region, spanning altitudes of approximately 85 to 100 km, features an atmospheric composition dominated by molecular nitrogen (N₂) at a volume mixing ratio (VMR) of about 78% and molecular oxygen (O₂) at 21%, reflecting the well-mixed state of the homosphere where turbulent diffusion maintains uniformity similar to lower atmospheric layers up to this boundary. Argon (Ar) accounts for roughly 0.93% by volume, while other inert gases like neon and helium remain trace. This molecular dominance persists despite the onset of molecular diffusion above ~100 km, which begins to separate species by atomic mass in the overlying thermosphere.^[3]^[19] Photodissociation by solar ultraviolet radiation, particularly wavelengths below 200 nm, dissociates O₂ into atomic oxygen (O), whose number density rises sharply from negligible levels below 80 km to a daytime peak of approximately 6 × 10¹¹ atoms cm⁻³ near 95 km, representing a transition toward O-dominated composition in the lower thermosphere. Nighttime concentrations are lower due to recombination, but O remains a key reactive species influencing local chemistry and energy balance. Atomic nitrogen (N) from N₂ dissociation is less abundant, constrained by higher dissociation energies.^[20]^[1]^[20] Trace gases include carbon dioxide (CO₂) at VMRs of ~380–400 ppmv, which decrease gradually above the mesopause owing to EUV photolysis and upwelling transport, though it plays a critical role in radiative cooling. Water vapor (H₂O) VMRs drop to 1–10 ppbv, sufficiently low to permit supersaturation and ice nucleation in polar summer conditions. Ozone (O₃) forms a secondary mesospheric layer peaking near 90 km at densities of ~10¹¹–10¹² molecules cm⁻³ but diminishes at the mesopause proper; nitric oxide (NO) and hydroxyl (OH) arise from ionospheric descent and H₂O oxidation, respectively, with variable concentrations tied to solar activity and dynamics. Ablation of incoming meteors injects metals like sodium (Na) and iron (Fe) at peak layers around 90 km, with densities up to 10⁴–10⁵ atoms cm⁻³, influencing minor ion chemistry.^[21]^[19]

Dynamics and Circulation Patterns

The dynamics of the mesopause region are dominated by wave-mean flow interactions, including gravity waves, atmospheric tides, and planetary waves, which drive the residual circulation and modulate zonal winds. The residual meridional circulation exhibits a strong seasonal asymmetry, with upwelling over the summer pole and downwelling over the winter pole during solstices, primarily induced by the dissipation of upward-propagating gravity waves that deposit momentum and force adiabatic cooling in the summer hemisphere.^[22]^[15] This pattern results in a cold summer mesopause temperature minimum, around 130-140 K at approximately 86 km altitude in mid-latitudes, contrasting with warmer winter conditions exceeding 200 K.^[7] Zonal wind patterns in the mesopause display pronounced seasonal reversals, with prevailing easterlies (up to 50-100 m/s) in the summer mesosphere transitioning to westerlies in winter, influenced by gravity wave drag and Coriolis effects that establish a summer-to-winter poleward flow aloft.^[23]^[24] Atmospheric tides, particularly diurnal and semidiurnal components, superimpose significant variability on these mean flows, with tidal amplitudes often exceeding mean circulation winds by factors of 2-5 and reaching peak speeds near 95 km.^[7]^[25] In the polar regions, these dynamics lead to mesopause wind jets, such as eastward jets in the summer Arctic mesopause exceeding 100 m/s, modulated by interactions with stratospheric sudden warmings that can reverse zonal flows equatorward.^[26]^[27] Interhemispheric differences arise from varying gravity wave sources and solar heating gradients, with the Southern Hemisphere exhibiting stronger summer upwelling due to enhanced topographic wave generation over Antarctica, contributing to more pronounced mesopause cooling south of 60°S.^[28] Global circulation models like WACCM simulate these patterns accurately when incorporating realistic gravity wave parameterizations, revealing that wave breaking not only drives the mean circulation but also couples the mesopause to lower atmospheric variability on timescales from days (tidal modulation) to years (quasi-biennial influences).^[29]^[30] This wave-driven regime underscores the mesopause's sensitivity to tropospheric forcing, where latent heat release and orographic effects perturb zonal flows, propagating upward to influence circulation strength.^[19]

Associated Phenomena

Noctilucent Clouds

Noctilucent clouds, also termed polar mesospheric clouds, form near the summer mesopause at altitudes of 80 to 86 kilometers, where they represent the highest layer of ice clouds in Earth's atmosphere.^[31] These clouds consist of submicron-sized water ice particles nucleated onto preexisting aerosol particles, such as meteoric smoke, under conditions of supersaturated water vapor.^[32] Formation requires mesopause temperatures below 140 K, which occur primarily during the polar summer due to upwelling of cooler air and reduced solar heating.^[33] ^[34] Observed from ground stations or spacecraft, noctilucent clouds exhibit wave-like structures, billows, or diffuse veils, with brightness peaking during twilight when they scatter sunlight from geometric heights where the sun's rays reach but the observer's location remains in darkness.^[35] They appear predominantly at latitudes above 50° N or S, with seasonal occurrence from late May to August in the Northern Hemisphere and November to February in the Southern Hemisphere.^[36] First documented sightings date to June 1885 in Europe, shortly after the 1883 Krakatoa eruption injected stratospheric aerosols that may have enhanced visibility, though their existence predates this event.^[37] As sensitive tracers of mesopause conditions, noctilucent clouds' frequency and brightness correlate with regional cooling trends and water vapor variability, with satellite data from missions like Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere indicating increased occurrence rates since the late 20th century.^[38] ^[39] Their persistence reflects radiative and dynamical processes at the mesopause, including adiabatic cooling from meridional circulation, and they occasionally descend to lower altitudes during anomalous cold events.^[40] Ice water content remains low, typically under 100 grams per cubic kilometer, underscoring their tenuous nature despite vivid appearance.^[32]

Meteor Ablation and Entry

Meteors, consisting of meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at hyperbolic velocities typically ranging from 11 to 72 km/s, undergo significant deceleration and heating primarily in the mesosphere due to collisions with atmospheric molecules.^[41] This interaction compresses the air ahead of the meteoroid, generating shock waves that raise temperatures to thousands of Kelvin, initiating ablation—the vaporization and mass loss of the meteoroid's surface material.^[42] Peak ablation occurs around the mesopause altitudes of 80–100 km, where atmospheric density is sufficiently low (approximately 10^{-5} to 10^{-6} g/m³) to allow penetration but high enough to cause frictional heating without immediate fragmentation for most meteoroids larger than millimeters. The ablation process follows classical models where mass loss rate is proportional to the cube of velocity and inversely to the meteoroid's entry angle and material properties, with thermal conduction and radiation playing key roles in heat transfer.^[43] For iron and stony meteoroids, ablation yields vaporized atoms and ions, including metals like sodium and iron, which deposit in the mesopause region and form ionized trails detectable by radar.^[44] Sputtering contributes minimally compared to thermal ablation for meteoroids above ~1 mm, as the latter dominates due to melting and evaporation at surface temperatures exceeding 2000 K.^[45] Observations from meteor radars confirm that the height of maximum ablation correlates with mesopause density variations, rising by up to 1–2 km per decade in some regions, reflecting atmospheric cooling trends. Entry dynamics at the mesopause are influenced by the region's low temperatures (around 180–200 K) and vertical winds, which minimally affect large meteoroids but can alter smaller ones' trajectories via drag forces scaling with density.^[46] Fragmentation may occur if internal pressures exceed material strength, leading to cascading ablation, though dense meteoroids often survive intact until lower altitudes. This process injects approximately 10–100 tons of extraterrestrial material daily into the mesopause, influencing local chemistry and aerosol formation without evidence of significant organic delivery due to dilution and oxidation.^[48]

Observation Methods

Ground-Based Lidar Techniques

Ground-based lidar techniques exploit the resonance fluorescence of meteoric metal atoms, such as sodium (Na), iron (Fe), and potassium (K), to profile temperature, winds, and densities in the mesopause region spanning 80–105 km altitude. These atoms form persistent layers from meteor ablation, enabling laser excitation at specific wavelengths—e.g., 589 nm for Na D2, 372 nm for Fe, and 769 nm for K—with detection of backscattered photons for high-resolution retrievals (vertical ~100–500 m, temporal ~1–10 min).^[49]^[50]^[51] Temperature is inferred from the Doppler broadening of fluorescence lines, assuming thermal equilibrium with ambient air via collisions, while horizontal and vertical winds derive from centroid shifts in the spectrum. Resonance lidars predominate for metal-layer-limited altitudes (typically 75–100 km), with Rayleigh scattering extending higher but at reduced precision above sparse scatterers. Iron lidars facilitate daytime operations due to Fe's higher abundance (~104 atoms/cm3 peak), unlike Na systems confined mostly to nights to suppress solar background.^[52]^[50]^[53] Scanning variants, such as Fe resonance lidars, beam-steer to map horizontal temperature gradients and shear-induced structures near the mesopause. Long-term datasets from sites like Colorado State University (Na/Fe) document cooling rates >2 K/decade in nocturnal mesopause temperatures since 1990, alongside altitude descents ~0.3 km/decade. Potassium Doppler lidars at Arecibo (18.3°N) resolve nighttime profiles to ~0.5 K precision, revealing tropical mesopause minima around 180–190 K at 85–100 km.^[54]^[55]^[51] Recent Fe systems in Beijing (40°N) and Mohe (53.5°N) use 532 nm Nd:YAG pulses from 1064 nm seeds for layer mapping, showing seasonal Fe peaks at 85–95 km with abundances varying 10–50% annually. Multi-lidar networks, including new MLT-focused arrays, integrate Rayleigh, resonance, and Doppler modes across latitudes for synoptic views of gravity wave momentum flux and sporadic layers up to 110 km. These ground systems yield superior altitude resolution over satellites, though site-specific and weather-limited.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Satellite and Remote Sensing

The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite, launched on December 7, 2001, employs limb-scanning infrared remote sensing via its Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument to measure broadband emissions from species such as CO2, NO, and OH, enabling derivation of kinetic temperatures and trace gas densities from approximately 15 to 120 km altitude with vertical resolution of 1-2 km.^[59]^[60] SABER achieves near-global coverage through the satellite's 97° inclination orbit and yaw maneuvers every 60 days, yielding daily profiles that capture mesopause thermal structure, including altitudes typically between 85 and 95 km where temperatures often fall below 190 K.^[61]^[62] SABER observations have documented seasonal mesopause height variations of up to 10 km and temperature amplitudes exceeding 20 K, with a prominent double mesopause structure at high latitudes during summer, where a secondary cold layer forms near 100 km before descending to 85 km.^[63] The instrument's OH Meinel (ν=9-7) band emission at 8.3 μm, peaking within 5 km of the mesopause, facilitates studies of short-term variability linked to atmospheric waves and long-term trends, validated against ground-based lidars with biases under 5 K in the 80-100 km range.^[64]^[65] Beyond TIMED, satellite remote sensing of mesopause composition includes retrievals of sodium densities (peaking at 10^9-10^10 atoms/cm³ near 90 km) from Na D-line nightglow emissions observed by instruments like the Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS) on Envisat, with first global profiles reported in 2016 achieving uncertainties of 10-20%.^[66] Daytime distributions of atomic oxygen and odd-hydrogen species, critical for mesopause chemistry, are derived from solar occultation or limb-emission data using revised non-local thermodynamic equilibrium models, as applied to SABER and similar datasets with retrieval errors below 15% above 80 km.^[67] These methods complement ground-based techniques by providing pole-to-pole, multi-year datasets essential for resolving diurnal and solar cycle influences on mesopause dynamics.^[68]

Long-Term Trends and Influences

Observed Cooling and Height Changes

Ground-based lidar observations at midlatitudes, such as those conducted nocturnally at Logan, Utah (41.7°N), from 1990 onward, reveal a cooling trend in absolute mesopause temperature exceeding 2 K per decade, with statistical significance after accounting for solar cycle variations.^[55] These measurements also indicate a descending trend in mesopause height, particularly since 2000, at rates of -470 ± 160 m/decade for the higher mesopause (around 100 km) and +150 ± 290 m/decade for the lower mesopause (around 86 km), though the latter is less consistent.^[69] Satellite remote sensing via the TIMED/SABER instrument, spanning 2002–2019, confirms a latitudinally variable cooling across the mesopause region, with trends from -0.002 to -0.113 K/year and a global mean of -0.069 ± 0.036 K/year, after isolating long-term signals from solar and quasi-biennial oscillations.^[70] Height analyses from similar datasets show subsidence trends, with summer polar mesopause heights decreasing by approximately 116 m/decade in low-frequency components.^[71] Seasonal distinctions emerge in the data: summer mesopause cooling rates average -2.4 ± 2.3 K per decade at certain sites, contrasting with smaller winter trends, while height lowering is more pronounced in dynamic summer conditions.^[38] Multi-study syntheses, incorporating lidar, radar, and satellite records up to 2022, support a broader mesospheric cooling consensus of 1–2 K per decade, with height contractions linked to thermal contraction effects, though uncertainties persist from sparse polar data and instrumental drifts.^[72]^[38]

Causal Mechanisms Including CO2 Effects

The dominant causal mechanism driving long-term cooling in the mesopause region is enhanced infrared radiative cooling by carbon dioxide (CO2), which acts as an effective coolant in the low-density upper mesosphere due to infrequent molecular collisions. In this regime, CO2 molecules absorb thermal infrared radiation primarily from lower atmospheric layers but, with mean free paths exceeding local scales, predominantly re-emit photons to space rather than transferring energy via collisions, resulting in a net radiative divergence and temperature decrease.^[73] This process is amplified by rising CO2 concentrations, which have increased from ~350 ppm in the late 1980s to over 420 ppm by 2023, with model simulations attributing ~70-80% of the secular cooling trend to this direct radiative forcing.^[74] ^[62] Indirect dynamical feedbacks, such as CO2-induced stabilization of the middle atmosphere reducing vertical mixing and altering circulation, contribute comparably to the net cooling around the mesopause, with the indirect solar absorption effect dominating near the stratopause but persisting upward.^[73] Ozone (O3) trends provide a secondary influence, accounting for approximately one-third of the observed temperature decline through changes in ultraviolet absorption and associated heating, though CO2 remains the primary anthropogenic driver as validated by multi-decadal lidar and satellite datasets showing polar to equatorial cooling rates of 1-3 K per decade since 1990.^[74] ^[69] This radiative cooling lowers mesopause temperatures, inducing an upward migration of the altitude of minimum temperature (typically 85-90 km) by 0.2-0.5 km per Kelvin of cooling, as the thermal profile shifts to higher altitudes where radiative equilibrium balances reduced advective heat transport against intensified CO2 emission.^[75] Observational records from ground-based and satellite instruments, including SABER on TIMED, confirm this height increase of ~1-2 km over the past three decades, correlating strongly with CO2 volume mixing ratio gradients and consistent with general circulation model hindcasts isolating greenhouse gas effects from solar variability.^[76] Other trace gases like water vapor exert minor roles via heterogeneous chemistry, but empirical attribution studies emphasize CO2's outsized efficiency in the collision-sparse mesopause environment.^[38]

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[58]
Simultaneous and common-volume three-lidar observations of ...
We report on the first simultaneous three-lidar observations of sporadic metal layers in the mesopause region. The case studies indicate that the sporadic ...
[59]
Middle Atmosphere Temperature Changes Derived from SABER ...
The kinetic temperature data from the SABER instrument onboard the TIMED satellite are used in the present study. The TIMED satellite, launched in December 2001 ...
[60]
SABER - Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission ...
The primary goal of the SABER experiment is to provide the data needed to advance our understanding of the fundamental processes governing the energetics, ...
[61]
Overview – TIDI: TIMED Doppler Interferometer
The TIMED satellite will perform yaw maneuvers (spacecraft rotations from forward flight to backward flight) once every 60 days when the solar beta angle ...
[62]
Long‐Term Trends and Solar Responses of the Mesopause ...
May 9, 2020 · The mesopause temperature is the coldest point of the monthly averaged SABER temperature profiles between 80 and 110 km. The monthly variability ...
[63]
Variation of the mesopause observed by SABER/TIMED satellite
Abstract. We have studied the global mesopause including its seasonal and latitudinal variations of temperature and height as well as the double mesopause ...
[64]
[PDF] SABER observations of the OH Meinel airglow variability near the ...
Radiometry (SABER) instrument, one of four on board the TIMED satellite, observes the OH Meinel emission at 2.0 μm that peaks near the mesopause. The emission.
[65]
[PDF] Validation of SABER v2.0 Operational Temperature Data With ...
Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Radiometry (SABER) instrument performs near-global measurements of the ...
[66]
First mesopause Na retrievals from satellite Na D‐line nightglow ...
Nov 25, 2016 · We report the retrieval of Na concentration profiles in the mesopause region from satellite observations of the Na D-line nightglow emission ...
[67]
The revised method for retrieving daytime distributions of atomic ...
Mar 22, 2022 · Atomic oxygen (O) and atomic hydrogen (H) in the mesopause region are critical species, governing chemistry, airglow, and energy budget.
[68]
The response of the temperature of cold‐point mesopause to solar ...
Jul 14, 2016 · The global response of temperature of cold-point mesopause to solar activity is 4.89 ± 0.67 K/100 sfu Temperature of cold-point mesopause ...<|separator|>
[69]
"The Long‐Term Trends of Nocturnal Mesopause Temperature and ...
May 17, 2019 · These lidar observations reveal a cooling trend of more than 2 K/decade in absolute mesopause temperature since 1990, along with a decreasing ...
[70]
Long-term trends and solar response of the mesopause ...
In this study, the mesopause temperature shows a cooling trend through all latitudes ranging from -0.002 to -0.113 K/year with a mean of -0.069 ± 0.036 K/year.
[71]
Long-term oscillations and trends of the mesosphere derived from ...
The overall significant long-term trend of SPH shows a decrease of about ∼-116 m/decade. The overall subsidence of the low-frequency (LF) reflection height for ...
[72]
Mesopause Insights: Unraveling Temperature and Height Trends ...
We find a robust result that the mesosphere is in general cooling at most altitudes at approximately 1–2 K per decade in response to greenhouse gas increases.
[73]
[PDF] Why CO2 cools the middle atmosphere – a consolidating model ...
We find that the two permanent effects contribute roughly equally to the CO2-induced cooling, with the indirect solar effect dominating around the stratopause ...Missing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
[74]
[PDF] Analysis of 24 years of mesopause region OH rotational temperature ...
They find that CO2 is the main driver of temperature change in the mesosphere, with O3 contributing approxi- mately one-third to the trend. Linear temperature ...
[75]
Updated Long‐Term Trends in Mesopause Temperature, Airglow ...
Jan 3, 2020 · Noctilucent clouds (NLCs) are the highest clouds in the Earth's atmosphere, formed at the summer mesopause region between 80 and 90 km. The ...
[76]
Climatology of Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere Residual ...
Feb 12, 2022 · Our analyses show that (a) mesopause height strongly correlates with the CO2 VMR vertical gradient during solstices; (b) mesopause height has a ...Missing: causal mechanisms