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Methysergide

Methysergide is a semisynthetic ergot alkaloid derived from ergometrine, with the chemical formula C₂₁H₂₇N₃O₂ and a molecular weight of 353.458 g/mol, structurally related to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).^[1]^[2] It functions as a potent antagonist at serotonin (5-HT) receptors, particularly 5-HT_2B, 5-HT_2C, 5-HT_2A, and 5-HT₇ subtypes, while also acting as an agonist at 5-HT_1A receptors and binding to others like 5-HT_1B, 5-HT_1D, 5-HT_1E, and 5-HT_1F; this profile enables it to inhibit adenylate cyclase activity and stimulate smooth muscle contraction, leading to vasoconstriction.^[2]^[3] Introduced in pharmacotherapy in the late 1950s as a specific serotonin receptor modulator, methysergide was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1962 under the brand name Sansert for the prophylactic treatment of severe, frequent migraine and other vascular headaches, including cluster headaches, where it demonstrates efficacy in reducing attack frequency, especially in treatment-resistant cases.^[3]^[2] It has also been used to antagonize serotonin effects in carcinoid syndrome and occasionally in combination with ergotamine or dihydroergotamine for breakthrough attacks due to synergistic effects.^[3]^[1] Despite its effectiveness, methysergide carries significant risks, including rare but serious fibrotic disorders such as retroperitoneal fibrosis, pleural fibrosis, and cardiac valvular fibrosis, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 5,000 patients on long-term therapy; other adverse effects include peripheral vasospasm, tachycardia, dizziness, euphoria, and hyperactivity.^[3]^[2] It is contraindicated in conditions like pregnancy (FDA category X), peripheral vascular disease, severe hypertension, coronary artery disease, peptic ulcer, fibrotic disorders, lung or collagen diseases, hepatic or renal impairment, valvular heart disease, and serious infections.^[3] Due to these fibrotic risks, which were first reported in the 1960s and linked to chronic use, methysergide requires periodic "drug holidays" (e.g., one month off every six months) when prescribed, and it is reserved for severe cases unresponsive to other prophylactics.^[3]^[4] Regulatory status varies globally: while approved in some countries with monitoring protocols, Novartis voluntarily withdrew it from the U.S. and Canadian markets in 2002 owing to the fibrosis risks and declining demand, making it unavailable there without special access programs.^[4]^[2]

Medical uses

Migraine and cluster headache prophylaxis

Methysergide serves as a prophylactic agent for both episodic and chronic migraines, particularly in cases refractory to first-line therapies. Clinical trials from the 1960s to 1990s demonstrated its efficacy in reducing migraine frequency, with approximately 57% of patients achieving a greater than 50% reduction in attack frequency compared to baseline.^[5] In these studies, response rates ranged from 50% to 78% across various cohorts, establishing methysergide as an effective option for severe, frequent migraines unresponsive to standard treatments.^[5] Its use is positioned as a fourth-line therapy in guidelines, recommended only after failure of beta-blockers, anticonvulsants, and other agents, due to its potential for superior efficacy in select refractory patients over beta-blockers like propranolol, though direct comparisons showed equivalence in some trials.^[6] Following 2014 MHRA guidance, methysergide is restricted to specialist-supervised treatment for severe, intractable migraines unresponsive to other therapies.^[7] For cluster headache prevention, methysergide is particularly indicated for chronic forms, where it can suppress attack cycles effectively. Typical dosing involves 2 mg orally twice to three times daily, titrated up to 4-8 mg per day in divided doses with meals, administered for no more than 6 months continuously, followed by a mandatory 3-4 week drug-free interval to reduce fibrosis risk.^[8]^[9] Long-term clinical experience over 50 years confirms its efficacy, with response rates of up to 75% achieving more than 50% reduction in attack frequency in open-label studies for episodic and chronic cluster headache patients.^[10] As an older alternative to newer therapies like CGRP inhibitors (e.g., erenumab), methysergide remains relevant for cases unresponsive to targeted CGRP blockade, operating through vasoconstrictive serotonin receptor antagonism rather than direct CGRP pathway inhibition.^[6] Its prophylactic role necessitates close monitoring for rare but serious fibrotic complications, as detailed in adverse effects sections.^[6]

Other indications

Methysergide has been used historically to manage symptoms of carcinoid syndrome, particularly diarrhea and flushing, by antagonizing the effects of excess serotonin released by the tumor. In a 1965 clinical study, methysergide effectively controlled malabsorption and diarrhea in 2 out of 7 patients and diarrhea alone in 4 out of 5 additional patients with carcinoid syndrome. Doses typically ranged from 3 to 6 mg daily, similar to those used for headache prophylaxis, and administration required oversight by an endocrine specialist due to the risk of fibrotic complications. However, following a 2014 European Medicines Agency review, methysergide is no longer recommended for carcinoid syndrome treatment owing to the potential for serious adverse effects like retroperitoneal fibrosis. Methysergide has an investigational and historical role in alleviating symptoms of serotonin syndrome as a serotonin receptor antagonist, though its use is rare due to the availability of safer alternatives like cyproheptadine and the inherent risks of ergot-derived medications. A 1995 review indicated that methysergide could serve as a useful adjunct in managing serotonin syndrome symptoms such as agitation and autonomic instability by blocking serotonergic activity. Despite this, its application remains limited, with potential for exacerbation of vasoconstrictive effects in severe cases, necessitating cautious, specialist-supervised administration. Occasional reports from the 1960s and 1970s describe methysergide's application in post-traumatic headaches or vascular headaches unresponsive to standard treatments, often in refractory cases. In a 1962 series by Stowell, methysergide was administered to 108 patients with refractory headaches, including post-traumatic variants, at doses of 8 mg daily for 3 to 7 months, yielding symptom improvement in a subset unresponsive to other therapies. Evidence for such uses is primarily anecdotal from case reports, with limited broader efficacy data, and current guidelines do not endorse it due to safety concerns.

Adverse effects

Common adverse effects

Methysergide commonly causes dose-related gastrointestinal effects, including nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, which occur in approximately 10-30% of patients depending on the study and are often mitigated by gradual dose titration or administration with meals.^[5]^[11] These symptoms typically resolve upon dose adjustment or discontinuation and reflect the drug's serotonergic antagonism on gastrointestinal motility.^[12] Vasoconstrictive effects linked to its ergot alkaloid structure manifest as peripheral edema, weight gain, and leg cramps, affecting around 20-35% of users in clinical trials; these are generally managed through blood pressure monitoring and lifestyle measures like salt restriction.^[5]^[13] Weight gain, in particular, arises from fluid retention and has been noted in multiple prophylaxis studies as a frequent but reversible complaint.^[14] Central nervous system effects, such as drowsiness, dizziness, and insomnia, are reported in up to 15-36% of patients and are usually mild and transient, often diminishing with continued use.^[5] Dizziness, for instance, appeared in 36% of participants in one key trial, while insomnia and drowsiness each contributed to acute discontinuation in about 10% of cases across reviews.^[9] Psychiatric effects, including nervousness, restlessness, anxiety, depression, and confusion, occur in more than 5% of patients according to some reviews, with rare instances of hallucinations reported at higher doses or in sensitive individuals.^[9] Musculoskeletal complaints, including muscle weakness and arthralgia, have a prevalence of 5-20% in treated populations, with leg cramps being particularly common due to vasoconstriction and resolving promptly after drug withdrawal.^[5]^[12] Overall, these effects lead to treatment cessation in 10-15% of patients but underscore the need for close monitoring during prophylactic use.^[18]

Serious adverse effects

Methysergide is associated with rare but severe fibrotic reactions, particularly retroperitoneal fibrosis, which occurs in approximately 1 in 5,000 patients after prolonged continuous use, typically 6-12 months or longer.^[3]^[19] This condition involves the proliferation of fibrous tissue in the retroperitoneal space, potentially encasing the ureters and leading to obstruction, hydronephrosis, and renal failure if untreated.^[20] Early symptoms often include dull, persistent low back or abdominal pain, which may progress to flank pain or systemic malaise, necessitating prompt discontinuation of the drug and diagnostic imaging such as CT or MRI to confirm the diagnosis.^[21]^[22] Pulmonary and cardiac fibrosis represent additional serious risks, including pleuropulmonary disease characterized by pleural thickening and restrictive lung function, as well as endocardial and valvular heart lesions that can cause regurgitation or stenosis.^[23] These fibrotic changes are linked to cumulative exposure exceeding one year and are often asymptomatic in early stages but may manifest as dyspnea, chest pain, or heart failure symptoms upon progression.^[24] Detection typically involves baseline and periodic echocardiography to assess valvular function, along with pulmonary function tests, as these abnormalities can be irreversible and require lifelong monitoring even after drug cessation.^[25]^[26] Ergotism-like vascular complications, stemming from methysergide's potent vasoconstrictive properties, include Raynaud's phenomenon with episodic digital ischemia, pallor, and pain exacerbated by cold exposure. In severe cases, particularly with overdose or in patients with underlying vascular risk factors, this can progress to critical limb ischemia or gangrene, as documented in case reports of peripheral tissue necrosis requiring surgical intervention.^[27]^[28] To mitigate these risks, guidelines recommend mandatory drug-free intervals of at least 3-4 weeks every 6 months of continuous therapy, alongside baseline and semiannual assessments including echocardiography, pulmonary function tests, and abdominal imaging to detect subclinical fibrosis early.^[26] These preventive measures, informed by surveillance data from the 1960s through the 2000s, have reduced incidence in monitored patients, though any suspicion of fibrosis warrants immediate discontinuation and specialist evaluation.^[23]^[20]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Methysergide is a semi-synthetic ergot alkaloid that functions as a non-selective ligand at serotonin (5-HT) receptors, exhibiting antagonist activity at 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2B, and 5-HT_2C receptors and partial agonist activity at 5-HT_1A receptors, while acting as an antagonist at 5-HT_1B and 5-HT_1D receptors.^[29] Its therapeutic effects in migraine prophylaxis are primarily attributed to partial agonism and antagonism at 5-HT_1B/1D receptors, which promote vasoconstriction of cranial blood vessels, thereby reducing the vasodilation associated with headache attacks.^[30] Additionally, antagonism at 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2B, and 5-HT₇ receptors contributes to its antimigraine properties by modulating serotonin-mediated inflammation and vascular tone, though these interactions also underlie certain risks.^[2]^[31] Methysergide serves as a prodrug, undergoing rapid N-demethylation to its active metabolite methylergometrine (also known as methylergonovine), which circulates at concentrations approximately 10-fold higher and exhibits greater potency at 5-HT receptors, including up to 40-fold higher antagonistic potency in some vascular assays.^[32]^[33] Methylergometrine acts as a potent agonist at 5-HT_2B receptors (Ki ≈ 0.5 nM), while methysergide shows lower affinity (Ki ≈ 9 nM), mediating both central and peripheral effects such as enhanced vasoconstriction and potential hallucinogenic activity.^[34] This metabolite's agonism at 5-HT_2B is particularly implicated in adverse fibrotic effects, as it stimulates myofibroblast proliferation and excessive extracellular matrix deposition in cardiac valves, retroperitoneal tissues, and pleura.^[35] At high doses (3.5–7.5 mg), methysergide induces psychedelic effects resembling those of LSD, including hallucinations and altered perception, primarily through 5-HT_2A receptor activation, with a duration of 4–6 hours.^[36] Methysergide also demonstrates antagonist activity at dopamine D₂ receptors (pK_i ≈ 6.6).^[29] Furthermore, it exhibits weak antagonism at alpha-adrenergic receptors, including α_2A (pK_i ≈ 6.2) and α_2B (pK_i ≈ 5.7).^[29] These multifaceted interactions underscore methysergide's complex pharmacodynamic profile, balancing therapeutic benefits against significant risks.^[2]

Pharmacokinetics

Methysergide is administered orally and is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations typically achieved within 1 to 2 hours after dosing.^[37] The oral bioavailability of the parent drug is low, approximately 13%, primarily attributable to extensive first-pass metabolism in the liver.^[32] Following oral administration, plasma levels of the metabolite methylergometrine exceed those of methysergide, reflecting its role as the primary active species.^[32] The elimination half-life of methysergide is short, ranging from 45 to 62 minutes, while that of its metabolite methylergometrine is longer, approximately 3 to 4 hours (174 to 223 minutes).^[32] Methysergide undergoes rapid hepatic metabolism, predominantly via first-pass effect, to form methylergometrine, which contributes significantly to the drug's pharmacological activity and exhibits accumulation with repeated dosing due to its extended half-life.^[32] Steady-state plasma concentrations are generally achieved within 3 to 5 days of regular dosing, with minimal accumulation of the parent drug in short-term use but potential buildup of the metabolite during prolonged therapy, particularly without periodic drug holidays.^[38] Methysergide demonstrates moderate plasma protein binding of approximately 66%.^[37] Distribution occurs primarily to the liver, where metabolism takes place, and to the central nervous system, consistent with its therapeutic effects on migraine pathways.^[32] The volume of distribution at steady state is similar for both the parent drug and methylergometrine.^[1] Excretion occurs mainly via the urine as metabolites, accounting for the primary route of elimination, with some biliary and fecal clearance of unchanged drug and conjugates.^[37] In patients with renal impairment, clearance of metabolites may be prolonged, necessitating cautious use and potential dose adjustments. No significant food effects on absorption have been well-documented, though administration with meals is sometimes recommended to mitigate gastrointestinal side effects.^[39]

Chemistry

Chemical structure and properties

Methysergide is a semi-synthetic ergoline derivative derived from lysergic acid, systematically named (6aR,9R)-N-[(2S)-1-hydroxybutan-2-yl]-4,7-dimethyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide. The free base has the molecular formula C₂₁H₂₇N₃O₂ and a molecular weight of 353.46 g/mol.^[1] The core structure consists of an ergoline skeleton featuring a fused indole ring within a tetracyclic system, with modifications including a methyl group at the 1-position and a 1-(hydroxymethyl)propyl amide side chain at the 8-carboxamide, which enhance its chemical stability and enable oral bioavailability.^[2] Methysergide free base presents as a white to off-white crystalline powder with a melting point of 195 °C; it is sparingly soluble in water and exhibits pKa values in the range of 6.6–8.4 for its ionizable basic sites. The compound remains stable under neutral conditions but degrades in the presence of strong acids.^[1]^[40]^[41] It is commonly employed in pharmaceutical formulations as the maleate salt, with the formula C₂₅H₃₁N₃O₆ and molecular weight of 469.53 g/mol, to improve aqueous solubility suitable for tablet production.^[42] Structurally, methysergide resembles other ergot alkaloids such as ergotamine and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), sharing the ergoline framework and a 9,10-double bond that contributes to its receptor binding profile.^[2]

Synthesis and formulation

Methysergide is produced through a semi-synthetic process starting from ergot alkaloids derived from fungal fermentation. Historically, Sandoz Laboratories utilized submerged fermentation of the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea to generate precursor alkaloids such as ergotamine, which serve as the primary source for lysergic acid production.^[43] This biotechnological approach, developed in the early 20th century, involves cultivating the fungus in controlled bioreactors on rye-based media to yield ergotamine in quantities sufficient for industrial-scale extraction, with annual global production of lysergic acid derivatives exceeding 10 tons.^[43] The key synthetic steps begin with alkaline hydrolysis of ergotamine or ergotoxine to liberate N-methyl-D-lysergic acid, typically using potassium hydroxide in methanol or ethylene glycol at elevated temperatures (100–150°C) to cleave the peptide side chain while preserving the ergoline core.^[43] The resulting lysergic acid is then activated to form a mixed anhydride intermediate by reaction with trifluoroacetic anhydride in an inert solvent like acetonitrile at temperatures below 0°C, followed by amidation with 2-aminobutan-1-ol (five molar equivalents) at room temperature for 1–2 hours in the absence of light to prevent isomerization.^[44] This coupling yields the crude methysergide base, achieving a purity greater than 90% after workup. The D-isomer is isolated via chromatographic purification on alumina or silica gel columns, eluting with chloroform-methanol mixtures, followed by recrystallization from solvents such as chloroform or ethanol to separate it from the less active L-isomer and epimers.^[44] The final step involves salt formation by treating the purified base with maleic acid in acetone or ethanol, precipitating the maleate salt for enhanced stability and solubility.^[43] Pharmaceutical formulations of methysergide are limited to oral dosage forms, primarily as 2 mg tablets under the brand name Sansert (methysergide maleate). Each tablet contains the active ingredient along with excipients such as lactose, acacia, magnesium stearate, colloidal silicon dioxide, sucrose, and titanium dioxide to ensure tablet integrity, compressibility, and controlled disintegration, while gelatin and coloring agents (FD&C Blue #1, FD&C Yellow #5) aid in coating and appearance.^[13] No injectable or topical preparations have been developed or approved, reflecting the drug's targeted prophylactic use via oral administration.^[13] Quality control in methysergide production adheres to pharmacopeial standards, with assays ensuring the maleate salt content is not less than 97.0% and not more than 103.0% on the dried basis, as specified in the United States Pharmacopeia (USP). Impurity profiling focuses on isolysergic derivatives (C8-epimers) and other ergot-related contaminants, maintaining levels below 0.5% through rigorous chromatographic monitoring and selective crystallization to minimize pharmacological variability and ensure batch consistency.^[45]

History

Development and introduction

Methysergide, known during development as UML-491 or 1-methyl-D-lysergic acid butanolamide, was developed by Sandoz Laboratories in the 1950s as a semisynthetic derivative of ergot alkaloids, specifically modified from lysergic acid (the core structure of LSD-25) by adding a methyl group at the 1-position and a butanolamide group.^[5] This structural alteration aimed to create a potent serotonin (5-HT) antagonist without the psychomimetic effects of LSD, building on earlier ergotamine research to enhance efficacy against migraines while reducing acute vasoconstrictive side effects.^[5] Preclinical testing in animal models, such as rat uterus contractions, confirmed its selective and high-potency 5-HT antagonism, paving the way for clinical evaluation.^[5] Clinical trials commenced shortly after synthesis, with Italian neurologist Federigo Sicuteri leading the first human study in 1959 on 18 migraine and 2 cluster headache patients, reporting complete success in preventing attacks.^[5] This prompted Swiss regulatory approval in 1959 for migraine prophylaxis, marking methysergide's entry as Sansert (or Deseril in some markets).^[5] Subsequent U.S. trials from 1959 to 1966, involving 172 to 500 patients, demonstrated success rates of 33% to 78% in reducing migraine frequency, though side effects like dizziness occurred in 12% to 88% of cases.^[5] Double-blind, placebo-controlled studies in the early 1960s, including those by J.W. Lance (1963) and R.B. Shekelle (1964), further supported its prophylactic benefits, showing significant reductions in headache frequency compared to placebo.^[18] Methysergide was introduced globally in the early 1960s under brand names like Sansert and Deseril, rapidly gaining adoption for refractory migraines and cluster headaches based on key studies by researchers such as Arnold P. Friedman (1963, n=421 patients) and John R. Graham (1960).^[46] Early efficacy data from these trials indicated 60-80% reductions in headache frequency for many patients, establishing methysergide as a standard preventive therapy by the mid-1960s.^[5] Initial marketing by Sandoz highlighted its long-term safety profile and effectiveness in severe cases, positioning it as a breakthrough over prior ergot-based treatments.^[5]

Market withdrawal and regulatory actions

The risks of fibrosis associated with methysergide were first reported in case series published in 1965 and 1966, with Utz et al. documenting three cases of retroperitoneal fibrosis and Graham et al. describing 27 additional cases, estimating an incidence of approximately 1% among long-term users.^[47]^[48] These reports prompted early recommendations for close monitoring, including periodic urinalysis and renal function tests every 3–6 months for patients on therapy beyond one year, to detect early signs of fibrotic complications.^[5] In response to accumulating evidence of fibrotic risks, regulatory authorities issued warnings in the late 1960s, emphasizing the need for treatment interruptions and vigilant surveillance to mitigate potential retroperitoneal, pleural, and cardiac fibrosis.^[49] By the 1970s, guidelines advocated for structured patient monitoring protocols, though no formal mandatory registries were established by the FDA at that time; instead, prescribers were required to adhere to labeling that limited continuous use to six months followed by drug-free periods.^[7] Novartis, the successor to Sandoz, voluntarily discontinued methysergide (branded as Sansert) in the United States in 2002, citing rare but serious fibrotic adverse effects and challenges in ensuring adequate long-term safety monitoring amid declining usage.^[50] A similar withdrawal occurred in Canada the same year, rendering the drug unavailable through standard channels due to these safety concerns.^[51] In Europe, an EMA Article 31 referral review initiated in 2011 and concluded in 2014 confirmed the fibrosis risk but did not lead to full withdrawal; instead, it imposed strict restrictions, limiting use to refractory migraine or cluster headache cases after failure of other therapies, with mandatory baseline and periodic assessments (e.g., echocardiography and abdominal imaging) and no continuous treatment exceeding six months.^[52] These measures were adopted variably: the drug was withdrawn in Germany around 2008 amid heightened safety scrutiny, while it was discontinued in the United Kingdom in 2013 and in Australia in late 2013 due to manufacturing issues and safety concerns, with availability now limited to compassionate or named-patient programs in select jurisdictions.^[7]^[53] A 2016 survey by the European Headache Federation and the Italian Society for the Study of Headaches found that 71.3% of responding specialists had previously prescribed methysergide, with 79.8% indicating they would consider it for refractory cases if available under controlled conditions, underscoring its perceived value despite risks and influencing regulatory decisions to retain limited access in select European markets.^[50] Following these actions, global production for Western markets largely ceased, with supplies shifting to compassionate use or named-patient programs in jurisdictions where full withdrawal did not occur, ensuring access only for carefully selected patients under specialist oversight. As of 2025, methysergide remains unavailable through commercial channels in most countries.^[9]

Society and culture

Availability and legal status

Methysergide was withdrawn from the market in the United States in 2002 and in Canada shortly thereafter due to safety concerns related to fibrotic reactions, and it is classified as discontinued by the FDA with no generic alternatives available.^[54] In most European Union countries, including those where it was previously authorized such as Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, availability has been severely limited since the European Medicines Agency's 2014 referral procedure, which restricted its use to severe, intractable migraine or cluster headache prophylaxis only after failure of at least two other drug classes, under specialist supervision.^[26]^[9] In the United Kingdom, methysergide's marketed product (Deseril) was discontinued in 2013 due to manufacturing issues, though the marketing authorization remains active; access is possible via named-patient programs or unlicensed imports for eligible patients, subject to stringent oversight by neurologists or headache specialists.^[7] In Australia, it is classified as Schedule 4 (prescription only medication), but the Therapeutic Goods Administration cancelled the registration of Deseril tablets in 2017, rendering it unavailable through standard channels, with potential access limited to special access schemes for refractory cases.^[55]^[56] Availability in New Zealand and select European nations like Italy and Switzerland is similarly constrained, typically requiring import or compassionate use pathways under specialist prescription, with no over-the-counter access permitted anywhere globally.^[57] Methysergide is not a controlled substance under international schedules akin to LSD, lacking classification in DEA Schedules I-V in the US or equivalent narcotic controls elsewhere, but its distribution is restricted to hospital pharmacies, neurology clinics, or authorized specialists due to the need for mandatory risk monitoring.^[1] As of November 2025, no new regulatory approvals or market revivals have been reported, with access limited to rare named-patient imports in permitting regions where available, resulting in high acquisition costs often exceeding standard migraine therapies.^[26] Access is further barred by rigorous monitoring protocols akin to a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS), including baseline screening for fibrosis via echocardiography and abdominal imaging, followed by evaluations every six months during treatment, as mandated by EMA guidelines and adopted in national programs like the UK's additional monitoring scheme.^[7]^[9] These requirements, combined with the drug's niche indication for refractory cases, confine its use to a small fraction of eligible migraine or cluster headache patients under specialist care.^[57]

Controversies and modern perceptions

Methysergide's continued availability after its 2002 withdrawal from the U.S. market has sparked ethical debates regarding its risk-benefit profile, particularly due to the risk of retroperitoneal fibrosis associated with long-term use. Critics, including regulatory bodies like the European Medicines Agency (EMA), argue that the potential for severe fibrotic reactions outweighs benefits for the small subset of patients, leading to restrictions in 2014 that limited prescriptions to short-term, specialist-supervised use under strict monitoring. Proponents, however, highlight its unmatched efficacy in refractory migraine and cluster headache cases where other treatments fail, with an International Headache Society (IHS) survey indicating that 79.8% of responding headache specialists would prescribe it if available, primarily for such niche applications. This tension underscores broader concerns about balancing access to effective therapies against patient safety in pharmacotherapy. The drug's chemical derivation from lysergic acid, the same precursor as LSD, has contributed to a persistent stigma linking it to psychedelics, despite therapeutic doses being sub-hallucinogenic and lacking significant psychoactive effects. Early comparisons in clinical studies noted structural similarities but emphasized methysergide's vasoconstrictive properties over hallucinogenic ones. Reports of high-dose abuse were rare in the 1970s, typically involving misuse for euphoric effects, but such incidents reinforced perceptions of it as an "LSD derivative," complicating its acceptance in conservative medical contexts. In contemporary medicine, methysergide is largely viewed as outdated, with 2024 American Headache Society (AHS) guidelines elevating calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) inhibitors to first-line status for migraine prevention alongside traditional options like beta-blockers, while omitting ergot derivatives due to safety profiles. Headache societies, including the IHS, advocate for its niche role in refractory cases unresponsive to modern therapies, supported by expert consensus from surveys showing substantial specialist endorsement for controlled reintroduction. Recent literature reflects a shift toward safer alternatives, positioning methysergide as a historical benchmark rather than a frontline agent. Post-2020 research on methysergide or its safer analogs remains scarce, with no major clinical trials exploring revival or modifications to mitigate fibrosis risks, amid calls for investigation as non-opioid options during the ongoing crisis. This gap highlights unmet needs in developing low-toxicity serotonin modulators for severe headaches. Methysergide features prominently in medical literature as a cautionary tale of a highly effective drug undermined by latent toxicities, such as fibrosis emerging years after introduction, illustrating the challenges of long-term safety surveillance in pharmacology.

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Methylergometrine, the main metabolite of methysergide, has 40-times greater 5 HT antagonistic potency than methysergide in isolated segments of human ...Missing: receptors | Show results with:receptors
[31]
5-HT2B Receptors in Cardiac Valvulopathy From Fenfluramine
We hypothesized that fenfluramine or its metabolite norfenfluramine and other medications known to produce VHD have preferentially high affinities for a ...
[32]
Structural Determinants of 5-HT2B Receptor Activation and Biased ...
Methysergide is rapidly N-demethylated in vivo to methylergonovine, which is the major active metabolite mediating methysergide's anti-migraine actions in vivo.
[33]
Methysergide-induced psychosis: case report with long-term follow-up
Methysergide, a congener of LSD and potent serotonin (5-HT) antagonist, induced a florid transient psychosis resembling an LSD psychosis.Missing: related | Show results with:related
[34]
Methysergide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Methysergide is a serotonin 5-HT-2 receptor antagonist that is thought to block the vasoconstrictor effect of this neurotransmitter during the pre-aura and aura ...
[35]
Pharmacokinetics of methysergide and its metabolite ... - PubMed
The pharmacokinetics of methysergide (MS) and its metabolite methylergometrine (MEM) was studied in male Sprague-Dawley rats. MS was administered iv in ...Missing: bioavailability | Show results with:bioavailability
[36]
Drug Interaction Report: methysergide maleate, Aerohist Plus
Many appear to be primarily metabolized by the liver, and both parent drugs and metabolites are excreted in the urine. Patients with renal and/or liver disease ...
[37]
methysergide | 361-37-5 - ChemicalBook
May 4, 2023 · Chemical Name: methysergide ; CBNumber: CB9910759 ; Molecular Formula: C21H27N3O2 ; Molecular Weight: 353.46 ; MDL Number: MFCD00242883.
[38]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1974196/
[39]
Methysergide Maleate | C25H31N3O6 | CID 5281073 - PubChem
Methysergide maleate is an ergoline alkaloid. See also: Methysergide (has active moiety).
[40]
Methods of Lysergic Acid Synthesis—The Key Ergot Alkaloid - PMC
The common part of ergot alkaloids is lysergic acid. This review shows the importance of lysergic acid as a representative of ergot alkaloids. The subject of ...
[41]
US2736728A - Preparation of lysergic acid amides - Google Patents
A simple and convenient method of preparing lysergic acid amides, which comprises reacting lysergiciaci'd with trifluoroacetic anhydride to produce a mixed ...
[42]
Methysergide Maleate - USP-NF ABSTRACT
DEFINITION ... Methysergide Maleate contains NLT 97.0% and NMT 103.0% of methysergide maleate (C 21H 27N 3O 2·C 4H 4O 4), calculated on the dried basis.
[43]
Appraisal of Methysergide in Treatment of Vascular Headaches of ...
The data led to the conclusion that methysergide maleate has no value in treating the acute attack, but is effective in the prophylactic treatment of all forms ...
[44]
https://patents.google.com/patent/US2736728A/en
[45]
https://doi.usp.org/USPNF/USPNF_M53240_04_01.html
[46]
Fibrotic disorders associated with methysergide therapy for headache
Fibrotic disorders associated with methysergide therapy for headache. N Engl J Med. 1966 Feb 17;274(7):359-68. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196602172740701. Authors. J R ...
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Methysergide: serious fibrotic reactions - GOV.UK
Dec 11, 2014 · Methysergide should no longer be used to treat diarrhoea caused by carcinoid disease; Methysergide should only be started and supervised by ...<|separator|>
[48]
[PDF] Canadian Headache Society Guideline for Migraine Prophylaxis
Methysergide is no longer available in Canada, and was not reviewed because its side effects do not allow universal use as a migraine prophylactic. Other ...
[49]
[PDF] Methysergide Art. 31 - CHMP Opinion - EMA
Methysergide is to be used only following unsuccessful treatment with other standard classes of drugs after sufficient treatment duration (at least 4 months) at ...Missing: fourth- refractory
[50]
[PDF] australian adverse drug reactions bulletin
The prescribing information for methysergide states that continuous administration of the drug should not exceed 6 months and then methysergide should be ...Missing: limit | Show results with:limit
[51]
[PDF] center for drug evaluation and research - accessdata.fda.gov
Mar 27, 2019 · Sansert. 62. Discontinued methysergide maleate product with no generic equivalents available. 64. 62. Proposed proprietary name found ...
[52]
Methysergide maleate (Sansert) Use During Pregnancy - Drugs.com
Methysergide maleate has been assigned to pregnancy category X by the FDA. ... Drug Status. Availability Discontinued. CSA Schedule* Not a controlled drug N ...
[53]
[PDF] notice-final-decisions-not-amend-current-poisons-standard-relation ...
Oct 19, 2023 · The new entry would restrict the prescribing of methysergide for human therapeutic use during PAP to psychiatrists who had been authorised to do ...
[54]
DESERIL methysergide 1mg (as maleate) tablet blister pack ...
Jul 20, 2017 · DESERIL methysergide 1mg (as maleate) tablet blister pack Cancelled under s30(1)(c) | Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)
[55]
Union Register of medicinal products - Public health
Patients should have failed at least 2 classes of drugs before starting methysergide. The minimal duration of treatment before concluding failure is 2 months.