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Monte Verde

Monte Verde is a prehistoric archaeological site in south-central Chile, situated along the margins of Chinchihuapi Creek in a peat bog environment within the temperate Valdivian rainforest, providing the earliest widely accepted evidence of human occupation in the Americas at approximately 14,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP).^[1] Discovered in 1976 by local workers and systematically excavated by archaeologist Tom Dillehay and his team from 1977 to 1987, with subsequent investigations continuing into the 2010s, the site challenges traditional models of Americas peopling by demonstrating pre-Clovis human presence south of the ice-free corridor.^[2] Its two primary components—Monte Verde II (MV-II), a semi-permanent settlement dated to around 14,500 cal BP, and Monte Verde I (MV-I), an earlier, transient layer potentially as old as 18,500 cal BP—reveal a sophisticated adaptation to the local ecosystem by small groups of foragers.^[3] The exceptional organic preservation at Monte Verde, due to the waterlogged peat conditions, has yielded an unparalleled assemblage of artifacts and ecofacts that illuminate the daily lives of its inhabitants.^[4] Key finds from MV-II include the remains of a 20-meter-long, tent-like residential structure supported by wooden poles, communal hearths, and three human footprints preserved in clay, suggesting a population of 20 to 30 individuals living in a year-round camp.^[1] Artifacts encompass lithic tools such as pebble choppers, flakes, and bifaces for processing food and hides; wooden implements like mastodon-bone-tipped lances, digging sticks, and mortars; and diverse subsistence remains, including bones from hunted megafauna (e.g., gomphotheres and ground sloths) alongside gathered plants like seaweed, berries, and medicinal herbs from coastal and forest zones.^[3] Evidence of specialized activity areas, such as a possible ritual structure and food processing zones, points to organized social behaviors beyond simple nomadism.^[4] Monte Verde's significance lies in its role as a benchmark for early human dispersal, with radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dating confirming human activity predating the Clovis culture (circa 13,000 cal BP) by at least 1,000 years and supporting theories of rapid migration along ice-free Pacific coastal routes during the Last Glacial Maximum.^[3] Designated a Chilean National Monument in 2008,^[5] the site continues to inform debates on pre-Clovis migrations, with ongoing research— including 2023 sediment core analyses—refining its chronological framework and emphasizing its status as a UNESCO tentative World Heritage property for its testimony to ancient human resilience in southern South America.^[1]

Location and Environment

Geographical Setting

Monte Verde is situated in the Llanquihue Province of southern Chile, within the Los Lagos Region, approximately 18 kilometers west of Puerto Montt. The site occupies the banks of the Chinchihuapi Creek, a tributary of the Maullín River, in a lowland area that was historically associated with the margins of a former estuary formed by postglacial sea-level changes and river dynamics. This positioning places Monte Verde in a transitional zone between the Andean foothills to the east and the coastal range to the west, facilitating its role in early human dispersal along southern Pacific coastal routes.^[3]^[6] The site's coordinates are approximately 41°30′S 73°12′W, with an elevation of around 10 to 20 meters above modern sea level, characteristic of the surrounding sandur plains—flat, glaciofluvial deposits shaped by braided stream systems. Topographically, Monte Verde lies on a low terrace along the north bank of the Chinchihuapi Creek, overlooking adjacent peat bogs and shallow channels that form part of a broader wetland complex. Today, the area is enveloped in a humid temperate Valdivian rainforest, dominated by softwood evergreen species such as Nothofagus and Podocarpus, with dense undergrowth and seasonal marshes contributing to the site's exceptional organic preservation conditions.^[1]^[7]^[3] Approximately 50 kilometers inland from the Pacific Ocean, the site's inland location underscores its accessibility via ancient coastal pathways, while the nearby Gulf of Reloncaví—about 20 kilometers to the south—provided additional marine resource proximity. As a designated protected archaeological zone, Monte Verde was inscribed on UNESCO's Tentative List of World Heritage Sites in 2004, recognizing its cultural significance and the need for ongoing conservation amid the region's dynamic fluvial and forested landscape.^[8]^[1]

Paleoenvironmental Context

The paleoenvironment of Monte Verde during its Late Pleistocene to early Holocene occupation reflected a transition from periglacial conditions to a warmer, wetter climate following the Last Glacial Maximum, characterized by deglaciation around 14,100 calibrated years before present (cal BP) and subsequent rising sea levels that reshaped coastal landscapes.^[9] This shift facilitated the expansion of forested ecosystems in south-central Chile, with the site's location enabling access to diverse coastal resources amid these changes.^[10] Geological analyses confirm a periglacial setting at the time of occupation, with postglacial wetlands forming by 14,200–14,000 cal BP as ice retreated from the nearby Patagonian icefield.^[9] Vegetation in the region was dominated by Nothofagus (southern beech) and other evergreen species, indicative of cool temperate rainforests that supported a moist, forested landscape.^[10] Pollen cores from the site reveal a transition from patchy subantarctic parkland and tundra-like conditions around 20,000–17,600 cal BP to open North Patagonian forests by 17,600 cal BP, culminating in dense temperate rainforests by approximately 15,000 cal BP, with Nothofagus pollen comprising a significant portion of assemblages (e.g., up to high concentrations in samples dated 15,680–15,259 cal BP).^[10] These records, including dominant Nothofagus and associated wetland taxa like Cyperaceae, underscore a wetter post-Last Glacial Maximum environment that promoted evergreen forest growth.^[10] Faunal resources available in the vicinity included megafauna such as gomphotheres, paleocamelids, extinct horses, mastodons, giant ground sloths, and glyptodonts, alongside smaller mammals and deer, as evidenced by bone fragments in site sediments dating to 14,000–18,500 cal BP.^[10] Marine resources from the Pacific shoreline, including shellfish and seaweed sourced from estuarine environments, contributed to the ecological diversity, reflecting the site's proximity to both terrestrial and coastal habitats during this period.76:3<441::AID-AJPA1030760317>3.0.CO;2-8) The hydrological context featured an estuarine environment influenced by tidal actions from the Rio Maullín system, where the Chinchihuapi Creek—a braided drainage tributary—provided freshwater and facilitated mixing with saltwater resources in nearby deltas and marshes.^[9] This creek, forming around 15,000 cal BP, bordered the site on sandy point bars and beaches, serving as a key water source and contributing to low-energy sediment deposition.^[10] The resulting waterlogged conditions in surrounding small bogs and floodplains enhanced site preservation by creating anaerobic environments that inhibited organic decay. Peat accumulation post-occupation buried artifacts under turf layers, preserving wood, plant remains, and other organics due to constant saturation and oxygen deprivation.

Discovery and Excavation History

Initial Discovery

In 1976, local lumbermen in southern Chile noticed large animal bones exposed along the eroding margins of Chinchihuapi Creek near Puerto Montt, alerting the landowner who contacted Mario Pino, a geologist at the Austral University of Chile. Pino visited the site and identified preserved wooden stakes and artifacts in the peat bog, recognizing their archaeological potential. He subsequently involved Tom D. Dillehay, an American archaeologist teaching at the university, who conducted initial test excavations in 1977 and confirmed the significance of the finds for early human settlement studies.^[4] These preliminary investigations uncovered evidence of tent-like structures supported by wooden poles and associated hearths, suggesting organized occupation and prompting Dillehay to organize a comprehensive excavation starting in 1979. The project's funding came from the University of Kentucky, Dillehay's primary affiliation, in collaboration with Chilean institutions including the Austral University of Chile and the University of Chile. Early stratigraphic profiles indicated layered deposits preserved by the bog's anaerobic conditions, setting the foundation for further analysis.^[3]^[11] Initial publications in the early 1980s, such as Dillehay's 1982 report on radiocarbon dating in the Journal of Field Archaeology and his 1984 overview in Scientific American, emphasized the site's antiquity and its implications for pre-Clovis migrations into the Americas. However, the remote location approximately 500 miles south of Santiago and the site's waterlogged peat bog environment presented logistical challenges, including difficult access, material degradation risks, and the need for specialized preservation techniques during early fieldwork.^[12]

Key Excavation Phases

The primary excavations at Monte Verde were conducted under the direction of archaeologist Tom Dillehay from 1977 to 1987 across seven field seasons, focusing initially on systematic trenching to expose the main occupation layers.^[2] During the early campaigns, approximately 1977–1982, teams employed grid-based excavation blocks measuring 5 by 8 meters, uncovering over 1,000 square meters of the site's MV-II horizon through careful stratigraphic control and water-sieving techniques to recover fragile organic remains from the waterlogged peat context.^[4] These efforts involved an interdisciplinary team of Chilean and international specialists, including sedimentologists and geologists, to analyze site formation processes alongside artifact recovery.^[2] Subsequent fieldwork from 1982 to 1986 expanded deeper probing into underlying sediments and adjacent areas, targeting MV-I and surrounding locales with larger excavation units up to 6 by 15 meters, while incorporating advanced conservation methods for waterlogged wood, such as freeze-drying and chemical stabilization.^[11] This phase deepened stratigraphic profiling and included radiocarbon sampling from organic materials like wood and bone to establish chronological frameworks, with geologists contributing to sediment analysis for paleoenvironmental reconstruction.^[3] The international collaboration grew to over 60 specialists, enhancing logistical coordination for handling the site's anaerobic preservation conditions.^[2] In the 1990s and 2010s, re-excavations verified earlier findings and expanded investigations, including a pivotal 1997 site visit by a consensus panel of 12 prominent archaeologists who examined artifacts and stratigraphy to affirm the site's integrity.^[13] Later efforts featured core sampling for dating, such as the 2013 campaign with 54 cores and 25 test pits across approximately 20,000 square meters, coring in 2012 yielding 43 radiocarbon dates from overlying sediments, with results published in 2023 to refine the chronological and sedimentological contexts.^[3]^[14] Overall, these phases resulted in about 2,000 square meters of direct excavation, with the site now stabilized under protective coverings to prevent erosion and maintain organic preservation.^[15]

Stratigraphy and Dating

Monte Verde I (MV-I)

Monte Verde I (MV-I) represents the basal cultural horizon at the Monte Verde site, situated within the underlying Salto Chico Formation beneath approximately 4-6 meters of overlying peat deposits that characterize the upper stratigraphic sequence. This layer consists primarily of scattered, discrete features including 12 small hearths—each 1.0–2.8 cm thick and measuring about 33x42 cm—containing ash and charcoal, alongside lithic debitage and other sparse remains indicative of ephemeral human activity.^[3] The horizon is embedded in strata MV-7 (gray sand) and MV-8 (bluish gray sand), reflecting deposition in a dynamic, braided fluvial environment.^[3] However, the dating and cultural attribution of MV-I remain subjects of debate among archaeologists.^[16] Chronological evidence from radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating places MV-I between 18,500 and 14,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP), based on a 2015 re-analysis that integrated multiple lines of interdisciplinary data to refine the site's early occupation timeline.^[3] Earlier claims of dates extending to around 33,000 BP have been dismissed due to contamination from modern organics and stratigraphic inconsistencies, with no verifiable evidence supporting pre-18,500 cal BP human presence in this layer.^[3] Artifacts are limited, featuring 39 lithic pieces such as bipolar cores and percussion flakes made from local basalt and limestone, along with possible mastodon bones bearing ambiguous cutmarks that suggest minimal processing but remain debated for their anthropogenic origin.^[3] The sedimentary context of MV-I comprises alluvial sands and gravels deposited by seasonal meltwater flows on a sandur plain, which provided a cold, non-glacial setting that limited organic preservation compared to the waterlogged peat of overlying layers like MV-II.^[3] Excavation of this deeply buried layer (reaching 0.90–1.50 m within the formation) faced significant challenges, including poor survival of perishable materials and potential post-depositional disturbances that have fueled ongoing discussions about the in-situ integrity of features.^[3]

Monte Verde II (MV-II)

Monte Verde II (MV-II) constitutes the principal occupation layer at the site, characterized by an upper peat horizon containing a dense array of features such as 12 brush huts, hearths, and specialized activity areas. This single-component layer reflects a short-term settlement episode in an open-air setting, with structural remains including wooden frames for tent-like dwellings and associated pits for fires and processing.^[17] The sedimentary context of MV-II involves waterlogged peat deposits (unit MV-5) overlying a sandy terrace (MV-7) within the Monte Verde Formation, which formed around 15,000 cal BP in a narrow creek valley.^[17] These conditions facilitated exceptional preservation of organics, with horizontal patterning delineating residential zones near the huts and workshop areas for tool production and resource processing.^[17] The layer is sealed by subsequent bog development, distinguishing it from underlying sterile sediments and overlying Chinchihuapi deposits. Chronological placement relies on over 70 radiocarbon dates derived from wood, seeds, bones, and other organics, analyzed via accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) for precision and consistency across samples.^[17] Initial estimates spanned 14,800–13,800 cal BP, but integration of 43 new AMS dates from overlying cores refined the occupation to a mean of 14,550 cal BP, confirming a brief, synchronous use of the site.^[17] The MV-II occupation includes a central camp with clustered features and peripheral zones interpreted as activity areas based on artifact dispersion, distributed along the banks of the Chinchihuapi Creek. This linear layout aligns with the creek's banks, integrating residential and functional spaces within the paleovalley, covering an excavated area of approximately 1,000 square meters.^[1] Preservation at MV-II stems from anaerobic conditions in the peat bog, which inhibited bacterial decay shortly after abandonment, allowing rare survival of perishable materials like wood and fibers—exceptional for late Pleistocene sites in the Americas.^[17]

Chinchihuapi I and II

The Chinchihuapi I and II localities are adjacent archaeological sites within the Monte Verde complex, situated approximately 500 meters upstream from Monte Verde II along the south bank of Chinchihuapi Creek in south-central Chile's Valdivian rainforest.^[10] These sites represent phases of human occupation potentially contemporaneous with or predating MV-II, with evidence of intermittent use extending into the Early Holocene. However, the dating and cultural attribution of Chinchihuapi remain subjects of debate among archaeologists.^[16] Chinchihuapi I features lithic scatters and burned areas interpreted as hearths, indicative of seasonal camps occupied around 14,500 cal BP and 14,175–14,025 cal BP.^[10] Excavations have uncovered pebble flakes, scorched animal bone fragments, and a fragmented Monte Verde II-style point made from exotic quartz, suggesting continuity in biface technology from earlier occupations. A later horizon in this locality, dated to around 10,660–10,620 cal BP, includes Paijan-like projectile points and drill fragments, reflecting technological adaptations in a post-Pleistocene environment.^[10] Chinchihuapi II, located nearby on the south side of the creek, shows evidence of occupation from about 18,500 to 14,500 cal BP, including knapped lithics and faunal remains associated with burned features, pointing to repeated short-term settlements.^[10] Stratigraphically, these sites overlie the sediments of Monte Verde II within the Salto Chico Formation, with fewer preserved organics due to exposure and erosion following creek incision around 15,000 cal BP; this shift highlights increased reliance on durable stone tools amid changing depositional conditions.^[10] The overall record at Chinchihuapi I and II demonstrates site reuse potentially bridging late Pleistocene and Early Holocene adaptations in southern South America.

Artifacts and Site Features

Architectural Remains

The architectural remains at Monte Verde II primarily consist of a large tent-like dwelling measuring approximately 20 meters in length, divided into individual living spaces by planks and poles. These spaces were framed with wooden stakes and logs from local species, covered with poles and animal hides for walls, and secured with cordage made from reeds, with internal evidence of hearths and designated sleeping areas on a dirt floor with hide fragments. Construction involved anchors for stability, while the site's layout suggests organized pathways and peripheral areas.^[2] A secondary wishbone-shaped structure, likely used for communal or non-residential purposes, featured wooden uprights embedded in a sand and gravel foundation hardened with animal fat. The site's spatial organization reflects a central residential zone with the main dwellings connected by pathways, surrounded by peripheral refuse pits that contained tools and debris, indicating organized settlement layout. Associated woodworking tools, such as adzes, were likely employed in the construction of these features.^[2] Exceptional preservation of organic elements, including wooden stakes up to 3 meters long, stems from the site's rapid burial in an anaerobic peat bog, which inhibited decay through oxygen deprivation and constant moisture. This rare intact wood allows direct comparisons to ethnographic descriptions of semi-permanent camps among historic Patagonian indigenous groups, who used similar stake-framed, hide-covered, and thatched structures adapted to temperate forested environments. The overall scale of the remains supports a semi-permanent occupation by 20-30 individuals, evidencing a structured and enduring presence.^[2]

Tools and Material Culture

The lithic assemblage from Monte Verde II primarily consists of unifacial tools manufactured from local basalt and exotic materials such as quartzite, limestone, and serpentine. Key tool types include choppers, scrapers, and unifacial points, produced through percussion flaking and edge trimming, often utilizing bipolar reduction techniques on pebble cores. Concentrations of debitage and shattered pieces indicate designated workshop areas within the campsite for on-site tool production. No evidence of Clovis-style fluting has been found on tools from the site. Organic artifacts reveal advanced woodworking and fiber processing, including sharpened wooden digging sticks and lance points made from local tree species like Drimys winteri, bone awls fashioned from seabird and mammal remains, and braided cordage twisted from terrestrial plant fibers such as Gunnera chilensis. The site's exceptional preservation yielded a large number of specimens, encompassing these organics alongside lithics and ecofacts. Immunological analysis confirmed mastodon blood residues on select basalt tools.^[18] Marine imports underscore extensive resource procurement networks, featuring nine seaweed species—including kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) and bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica)—and conch shells (e.g., from Choromytilus chorus) sourced from Pacific coastal zones approximately 90 km distant during the late Pleistocene. These materials, preserved in masticated cuds and bundled forms, were transported inland, with the seaweeds alone weighing about 125 g in dry residue. Herbal knowledge is evidenced by boldo leaves (Peumus boldus) combined with 22 other plant species in a seaweed-wrapped bundle, likely for medicinal purposes based on ethnographic parallels.^[19]^[20] Some organic tools, such as wooden stakes, were used in nearby architectural contexts.

Interpretations of Occupation

Subsistence and Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Monte Verde exhibited an omnivorous subsistence strategy, with plant foods forming the bulk of their diet based on the identification of remains from 45 different plant species, including wild potatoes (Solanum maglia), berries, seeds, and medicinal herbs from inland forests and wetlands.^[21] Analysis of botanical remains associated with hearths and residential features indicates heavy reliance on gathered resources, such as tubers and stalks, processed for consumption.^[22] Marine algae played a significant role, with nine species of seaweed recovered from site features, sourced from distant coastal environments more than 50 miles (80 km) away and used for both food and medicinal purposes.^[23] Animal protein supplemented the diet at approximately 20% based on faunal assemblages, primarily from small mammals, birds, fish, and shellfish obtained through coastal foraging and inland hunting pursuits, rather than dependence on large game.^[24] Evidence from butchered bones and fishing implements points to opportunistic gathering along the Pacific coast and targeted collection in nearby wetlands and forests, reflecting a mobile yet localized resource exploitation pattern without dominance by megafauna hunting.^[14] The site's layout, featuring 12 semi-subterranean wooden hut structures arranged in a wishbone-shaped residential camp covering several hundred square meters, suggests occupation by a multi-family group of 20–30 individuals organized cooperatively for resource procurement and shelter construction.^[24] Spatial distributions of tools, such as grinding stones near hearths and projectile points in peripheral areas, imply division of labor possibly aligned with gender roles, with processing activities concentrated in central living spaces.^[14] Diverse and stable resources from coastal, estuarine, and terrestrial zones supported potential year-round occupation, as indicated by the presence of non-seasonal plants alongside spring-to-fall seaweed collections.^[23] Hearth features throughout the site demonstrate routine fire use for cooking plant and animal foods, as well as providing warmth in the cool temperate climate.^[24] Human skeletal remains are scarce, limiting direct health assessments, but inferred evidence from tool wear patterns and site activities points to a varied diet supporting physical resilience amid labor-intensive foraging and processing tasks. Dental pathologies, potentially from abrasive plant fibers and tubers, suggest nutritional adequacy tempered by demanding manual work.^[14]

Cultural Implications

The discovery of marine resources such as seaweed at Monte Verde II supports the hypothesis of a coastal migration route for early human entry into the Americas, where Pacific coastal environments provided reliable food sources enabling rapid southward movement along the continent's western edge. The site's location on a tributary of the Maullín River, approximately 60 kilometers inland from the Pacific coast at the time of occupation, indicates that migrants penetrated interior regions via fluvial pathways, facilitating access to diverse terrestrial and riparian ecosystems.^[12] Recent 2023 analyses of sediment cores have further confirmed the site's dating, reinforcing evidence for pre-Clovis coastal migration routes.^[14] This coastal strategy contrasts with the inland ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets, which geological evidence shows did not become viable for human passage until around 13,000 calibrated years before present (cal BP), well after Monte Verde's occupation dated to approximately 14,500 cal BP.^[25] Archaeological assemblages at Monte Verde reveal technological adaptations characterized by a flexible, opportunistic toolkit suited to heterogeneous environments, including unifacial pebble tools, percussion-flaked implements, and unmodified manuports derived from local and exotic raw materials.^[10] This diverse array, lacking the specialized bifacial projectile points typical of later Clovis technologies, underscores an adaptive versatility that allowed small groups to exploit varied resources without reliance on a narrow corridor's more uniform habitats.^[10] Evidence of cultural complexity at the site includes human footprints preserved in clay near hearths and structural features, interpreted as potential indicators of symbolic or social behaviors among occupants around 14,500 cal BP, reflecting cognitive capacities akin to those of modern humans.^[10] These traces suggest intentional arrangements or ritualistic activities within domestic spaces, highlighting early expressions of group identity and environmental engagement. Demographic patterns inferred from the site point to small, mobile bands engaging in seasonal occupations, with the presence of exotic lithics comprising up to 34% of the assemblage implying long-distance procurement or exchange networks that connected coastal and inland populations by at least 14,500 cal BP.^[10] Such connectivity supports models of gradual population expansion across South America prior to 14,000 cal BP, driven by resource-rich migration corridors. However, gaps persist in genetic evidence, with no ancient DNA recovered from Monte Verde to date, though archaeological continuities suggest potential ancestral ties to modern indigenous groups in the Aysén Region of Chile.^[10]

Academic History and Controversies

Early Academic Reception

The initial scholarly reports on Monte Verde emerged in the 1980s through publications by Tom D. Dillehay, who directed the excavations starting in 1977. In a 1984 article in Scientific American, Dillehay described the site's evidence for a late Ice Age settlement, including preserved wooden structures and tools, which challenged the dominant Clovis-first model of American colonization that posited human arrival no earlier than around 13,000 years ago.^[26] Further, a 1988 paper in Nature co-authored with Michael B. Collins presented early cultural artifacts, such as mastodon bones and plant remains, dated to approximately 13,000 radiocarbon years before present (yr BP) via radiocarbon analysis, prompting reevaluation of migration timelines.^[27]^[28] These works highlighted the site's stratigraphic integrity but encountered initial skepticism from the academic community, primarily due to its unusual organic preservation in peat bogs, which raised questions about possible post-depositional contamination or non-cultural origins of the materials.^[27] International awareness grew with the publication of Dillehay's 1989 book, Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Volume 1: Palaeoenvironment and Site Context, issued by the Smithsonian Institution Press. This comprehensive volume integrated paleoenvironmental data, radiocarbon dates, and interdisciplinary analyses from nearly 80 specialists, establishing Monte Verde as a key benchmark for pre-Clovis research and gradually gaining traction despite the paradigm shift it implied.^[29] The book's detailed documentation of the site's context, including pollen and faunal records supporting human activity, helped disseminate findings to a broader scholarly audience. A pivotal moment in early reception occurred in 1997, when a delegation of 12 prominent North American archaeologists, including several former skeptics, visited the site and examined its collections. Their consensus affirmed the authenticity of the MV-II layer as a human occupation dating to about 12,500 years ago, as reported in David J. Meltzer's accompanying review in Science.^[30] This validation, building on Dillehay's ongoing work including the publication that year of Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Volume 2: The Archaeological Context, marked a turning point in acceptance. The spread of Monte Verde's implications faced hurdles, including restricted access to remote South American field sites for international researchers and language barriers in regional publications, which slowed integration into global discourse.^[31] Early advocates, such as David Meltzer, bolstered credibility by endorsing the site's pre-Clovis potential in his 1988 analysis, where he concluded after examination that the evidence supported genuine Pleistocene antiquity for MV-II.^[27]

Pre-Clovis Debate and Resolution

The discovery of Monte Verde in the 1970s and its initial publication in the 1980s challenged the prevailing Clovis-first paradigm, which posited that the Clovis culture, dated to around 13,000 years before present (BP), represented the earliest human occupation of the Americas. However, in the 1990s, prominent Clovis advocates, including David J. Meltzer, raised significant concerns about the site's dating and stratigraphy, arguing that periglacial conditions and post-depositional processes could have caused vertical displacement of artifacts, potentially mixing older sediments with later human materials. These critiques focused particularly on Monte Verde I (MV-I), the older component dated to approximately 18,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP), which was contested as lacking clear stratigraphic integrity and unambiguous human modification of artifacts.^[27] To address these challenges, an independent panel of 12 archaeologists, including skeptics like Meltzer, visited the site in 1997 and conducted a thorough review, ultimately concluding in a landmark publication that Monte Verde II (MV-II) represented a secure archaeological occupation predating Clovis by at least 1,000 years. Further independent verifications followed, including re-dating efforts in the early 2000s that confirmed the site's antiquity through additional radiocarbon assays on organic remains. Subsequent studies in 2015 provided new geoarchaeological evidence from exploratory excavations, solidifying the ~18,500–14,500 cal BP occupation of MV-I with in situ hearths and artifacts in undisturbed peat layers, countering earlier stratigraphic doubts.^[27]^[32]^[3] By the 2010s, the pre-Clovis status of Monte Verde gained widespread acceptance among archaeologists, marking a paradigm shift away from the Clovis-first model and paving the way for recognition of other early sites, such as the White Sands footprints in New Mexico dated to 21,000–23,000 BP. A 2023 study analyzed 43 new radiocarbon dates from sediment cores adjacent to the site, confirming the integrity of the depositional context and further dispelling concerns about post-occupational disturbances. Despite this consensus, ongoing issues persist, including calls for ancient DNA analysis to link Monte Verde's inhabitants to broader population histories, as current evidence relies primarily on material culture and dating.^[14] The resolution of the Monte Verde debate has profoundly influenced models of human migration to the Americas, supporting theories of multiple waves of entry via coastal routes along the Pacific kelp highway rather than a single interior ice-free corridor, with evidence of maritime adaptations enabling rapid southward dispersal by at least 14,500 BP.^[33]

Comparisons to Other Sites

Pre-Clovis Parallels

The Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, USA, dated to approximately 16,000 years before present (BP), shares key pre-Clovis characteristics with Monte Verde, including its status as a rock shelter containing hearths and lithic artifacts such as prismatic blades and unifaced tools.^[34]^[35] These features indicate early human occupation in a sheltered environment with evidence of fire use and basic stone tool production, paralleling the sparse artifact assemblages from Monte Verde's earliest layers.^[36] In Brazil, the Pedra Furada site complex claims dates extending to around 20,000 BP or earlier, featuring quartzite tools, rock art, and potential hearths that echo the limited organic and lithic evidence from Monte Verde I.^[37] However, these claims remain highly controversial, with recent studies (as of 2023) suggesting that similar quartzite lithics in the region were produced by capuchin monkeys and date to the Holocene rather than the Pleistocene, questioning their attribution to early humans.^[38]^[39] Excavations have uncovered pebble tools and painted rock surfaces, suggesting a cultural emphasis on simple stone working and symbolic expression in a semi-arid setting, much like the rudimentary technologies and environmental adaptations at Monte Verde. The Cooper's Ferry site in Idaho, USA, with occupations dated to about 16,500 BP, provides evidence of coastal migration routes similar to those inferred for Monte Verde, through artifacts like stemmed projectile points and microblades associated with Pacific Northwest maritime influences.^[40] This site's location along ancient riverine corridors hints at water-based travel and resource exploitation, aligning with broader patterns of early dispersal along the Americas' western edges.^[41] The White Sands National Park site in New Mexico, USA, preserves human footprints dated to 21,000–23,000 calibrated years before present (cal BP), as confirmed by multiple studies including quartz optically stimulated luminescence and radiocarbon dating of seeds and pollen up to 2025. These footprints, found in relict lakebed sediments, depict adults, children, and possible animal tracks, indicating small family groups navigating a wetland environment during the Last Glacial Maximum. This provides the earliest direct evidence of human presence in North America, supporting pre-Clovis migration models via Pacific coastal or interior routes and reinforcing Monte Verde's role in demonstrating early human adaptability south of the ice sheets.^[42] Across these pre-Clovis sites, common traits include non-fluted stone points, indicating diverse lithic traditions without the diagnostic fluting seen in later cultures, alongside subsistence strategies focused on a broad spectrum of resources rather than megafauna specialization.^[43] Organic materials, such as wood and fiber artifacts, are often preserved in wet or anaerobic contexts, preserving perishable evidence of early technologies and daily life.^[44] In South America, regional patterns emphasize coastal adaptations, with sites like Monte Verde serving as a benchmark for dated occupations around 14,500 BP that highlight reliance on marine and riparian resources for rapid southward expansion.^[45] These adaptations reflect a pattern of exploiting kelp highways and sheltered bays, facilitating human movement along ice-free Pacific routes during the late Pleistocene.^[46]

Contrasts with Clovis Sites

Monte Verde, particularly its MV-II occupation layer, dates to approximately 14,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP), predating Clovis sites by about 1,000 years, as Clovis occupations span 13,050–12,750 cal BP across North America.^[3] This temporal difference challenges the notion of Clovis as the earliest widespread culture, positioning Monte Verde as evidence of earlier human dispersal into South America.^[45] Geographically, Monte Verde's location in southern Chile's coastal region contrasts sharply with Clovis sites, which are concentrated in North America's interior plains and Southwest, often near water sources for megafauna hunting.^[47] This southern placement implies rapid migration routes along Pacific coastlines, bypassing the ice-free corridor favored in Clovis-first models.^[15] Material culture at Monte Verde features diverse, non-fluted stone tools such as edge-trimmed pebble flakes, bifacial points, cores, grinding stones, and abundant organic artifacts including wooden digging sticks, mastodon bone tools, and cordage—none of which resemble the standardized, fluted lanceolate points central to Clovis assemblages.^[48] Clovis toolkits emphasize high-quality chert or flint for fluting and pressure flaking, optimized for spear points used in big-game hunting, with limited organic preservation due to dry, open-air contexts. Subsistence evidence from Monte Verde reveals a broad-spectrum economy adapted to a temperate rainforest, incorporating marine resources like seaweed and fish, terrestrial plants such as potato bulbs and leaves, small game, and occasional megafauna like mastodons, as indicated by faunal remains and coprolites.^[24] In comparison, Clovis sites show a narrower focus on hunting large Pleistocene mammals—mammoths, mastodons, and bison—with kill sites yielding concentrations of bones and points, and minimal botanical or marine evidence reflecting a mobile, specialized hunter-gatherer pattern.^[49] Settlement patterns further diverge: Monte Verde includes at least 12 semi-subterranean huts with wooden frames, stakes, and hide coverings, arranged in a linear fashion along a creek, suggesting semi-sedentary occupation and social organization in a resource-rich environment.^[47] Clovis manifestations, conversely, consist of transient camps, caches, and kill sites without structural remains, aligning with high residential mobility and logistical foraging across vast territories.^[50] These differences underscore Monte Verde's unique adaptation to coastal South American ecotones, distinct from Clovis's continental hunting adaptations.

References

[1]
Monte Verde Archaeological Site - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The Monte Verde archaeological site locates in the region of the sub-Antarctic and evergreen softwood forest, in the low mountains of the South of Chile.
[2]
[PDF] chile's monte verde - Smithsonian Institution
Mapuche crew with Dillehay (center) excavating test pits near. Monte Verde. Photo, courtesy of Tom Dillehay. References. Dillehay, Tom D. 1989. Monte ...
[3]
New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at ...
New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at Monte Verde, Chile. Tom D. Dillehay, Carlos Ocampo, José Saavedra, Andre Oliveira Sawakuchi, Rodrigo ...
[4]
America, in the Beginning - Monte Verde - September/October 2014
Artifacts found in the area include wooden slabs (for grinding), the burned tip of a long lance, rudimentary pebble tools used for scraping and cutting, and ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[5]
Monte Verde, South‐Central Chile: Stratigraphy, climate change ...
Aug 6, 2025 · MONTE VERDE, SOUTH-CENTRAL CHILE. was referenced to an arbitrary ; 100. m high bench ; marker. Two sediment units were distinguished: the Salto ...Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
[6]
[PDF] New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at ...
Oct 17, 2019 · In Dillehay TD, editor. Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile. Volume I: The Paleo-environment and Site Con- text. Washington D.C. ...
[7]
Monte Verde Ancient Village or Settlement - The Megalithic Portal
Aug 23, 2008 · A thin cap of peat bog covers Monte Verde and much of the site was found by either erosion from the creek and the area having been cleared of ...Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
[8]
https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=20197
[9]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2011.06.011
[10]
Encounters with the Maverick Archaeologist of the Americas
Aug 13, 2024 · Monte Verde. Anthropological archaeologist Tom Dillehay began excavating at a site in Chile called Monte Verde in the 1970s. Pictured here ...
[11]
New evidence from earliest known human settlement in the ...
May 8, 2008 · It was about 400 feet above sea level and located more than 50 miles from the coast and about 10 miles from a large marine bay.Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
[12]
When Did Humans Come to the Americas? - Smithsonian Magazine
The Monte Verde site gained wider acceptance after a panel of well-known archaeologists visited it in 1997 and reached a consensus. Dillehay was pleased ...
[13]
Monte Verde II: an assessment of new radiocarbon dates and their ...
Mar 29, 2023 · Monte Verde II in southern Chile is one of the most important, and debated, sites for understanding of the early peopling of the Americas.
[14]
Geological perspectives on the Monte Verde archeological site in ...
... Maullín, which drains to a marine estuary from Lago Llanquihue (Fig. 4), a postglacial lake dammed by the terminal-moraine complex of a prominent ice lobe ...
[15]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000871
[16]
[PDF] The Mechanism of Organic Preservation at Monte Verde, Chile, and ...
1989 Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Vol. 1. Palaeoenvironmental and Site Context. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
[17]
(PDF) Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the Peopling of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The site's inhabitants used seaweed from distant beaches and estuarine environments for food and medicine.
[18]
A Late Ice-Age Settlement in Southern Chile - jstor
MONTE VERDE lies in a valley in southern Chile formed by the Andes to the east and the coastal mountains to the west. It is often assumed that in South ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
Map of the Monte Verde area showing the location of the sea level ...
Monte Verde was ~ 120 m above sea level at the time of human occupation (SOM text, section 1). Today, the sea is ~55 km west and ~11 km south of the site and ~ ...Missing: coordinates | Show results with:coordinates
[20]
Potato Remains from a Late Pleistocene Settlement in Southcentral ...
Aside from eating of wild potatoes, the inhabitants of Monte Verde are known to have consumed ... SEM micrographs of archaeological Solanum maglia starch. Fig. 8.
[21]
Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the Peopling of South ...
May 9, 2008 · Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the Peopling of South America ... Supplementary Material. File (dillehay.som.pdf). Download; 478.36 ...Missing: pdf | Show results with:pdf
[22]
[PDF] Monte Verde: Human Subsistence and Mobility in Pre-Clovis Chile
Along the lush banks of Chinchihuapi. Creek, a tributary of southern Chile's Maullín. River, lies one of the most controversial archeological sites of the ...
[23]
The age of the opening of the Ice-Free Corridor and implications for ...
These developments have lent support to a proposed migration route for pre-Clovis people from Beringia down the western Canadian coast (the “coastal corridor”) ...
[24]
Monte Verde Under Fire: References and Further Reading
Dillehay, T., "A Late Ice-Age Settlement in Southern Chile," Scientific American 251 (1984), pp. 106-117. Dillehay, T., 1989 Monte Verde, A Late Pleistocene ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
On the Pleistocene Antiquity of Monte Verde, Southern Chile
Jan 20, 2017 · Dillehay has argued. The status of the potentially even older material at the site (MV-1, ∼ 33,000 B.P.) remains unresolved.Missing: reception 1980s
[26]
Monte Verde. A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile. Vol ... - Science
Dillehay. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1989. xxiv, 306 pp., illus. $49.95. Smithsonian Series in Archaeological Inquiry.
[27]
Monte Verde and the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas - Science
These volumes, and an examination of the site and its collections in January of 1997, convinced a group of Paleoindian specialists—staunch skeptics among them— ...Missing: Meltzer 1997
[28]
(PDF) Handbook of South American Archaeology - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · Knowing how Native Americans dispersed along the American continent is still a major challenge faced by researchers studying the biological ...
[29]
[PDF] ON THE PLEISTOCENE ANTIQUITY OF MONTE VERDE ... - SMU
During this time, Mario Pino presented a synthesis of the Monte Verde stratigraphy; many of the remaining bone, wood, and soft tissue specimens, as well as a ...
[30]
Geological perspectives on the Monte Verde archeological site in ...
Jan 20, 2017 · New insights into the glacial and relative sea-level history of the western Fraser Lowland based on sediment cores from geotechnical ...Missing: rising | Show results with:rising
[31]
[PDF] Analysis of the Current Pre-Clovis vs. Clovis Debate from the Site of ...
The debate is about whether Clovis people were the first to inhabit the Americas, or if a Pre-Clovis group existed. Meadowcroft Rockshelter is a key site in ...Missing: challenges advocates
[32]
Pre-Clovis sites and their implications for human occupation before ...
These early sites include Monte Verde in Chile, Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in Pennsylvania, Cactus Hill in Virginia, and Topper in South Carolina. 38 By about ...
[33]
[PDF] Evidence of Pre-Clovis Sites in the Eastern United States
Examples of small prismatic blades from Meadowcroft. Rockshelter (36WH297). By S. Patricia, courtesy of J. M. Adovasio,. Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, ...
[34]
A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada ...
Based on Monte Verde finds, a lively Clovis versus pre-Clovis debate and discussion of a possible coastal entry route for the origin of the first Americans ...Missing: similarities | Show results with:similarities
[35]
Disputed finds put humans in South America 22,000 years ago
Mar 13, 2013 · Pedra Furada's excavators regard the finds as evidence of ancient human hearths and stone tools. Critics, and especially many Clovis ...
[36]
Late Upper Paleolithic occupation at Cooper's Ferry, Idaho, USA
Aug 30, 2019 · The Cooper's Ferry archaeological site in western North America has provided evidence for the pattern and time course of the early peopling of the Americas.
[37]
15,000-year-old Idaho archaeology site now among America's oldest
Aug 29, 2019 · Artifacts from the Cooper's Ferry site poke more holes in the traditional theory of when people arrived in the Americas.
[38]
Pre-Clovis Sites: First Colonists of the Americas - ThoughtCo
Aug 8, 2018 · Guitarrero Cave is a rock shelter high in the Andes mountains (2580 meters above sea level) in the Ancash region of Peru, where human ...
[39]
[PDF] A Framework for the Initial Occupation of the Americas | leiaufsc
Aug 12, 2015 · where horse, giant ground sloth, and other megafauna ... “On the Pleistocene antiquity of Monte Verde, southern Chile.” American Antiquity 62: 659 ...
[40]
Geological perspectives on the Monte Verde archeological site in ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Mario Pino · Tom D. Dillehay. Monte Verde II in southern Chile is one of the most important, and debated, sites for ...
[41]
The coastal migration theory: Formulation and testable hypotheses
Dec 1, 2020 · We provide a formal definition of the CMT which, briefly stated, is that Upper Paleolithic populations moved from Asia to coastal regions along ...
[42]
Monte Verde Under Fire - Archaeology Magazine Archive
Tom Dillehay of the University of Kentucky, director of the Monte Verde excavations, told ARCHAEOLOGY that some of the questions raised by Fiedel are, in ...Missing: funding | Show results with:funding
[43]
New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at ...
Nov 18, 2015 · Here we discuss recent exploratory excavation at and interdisciplinary data from the Monte Verde area in Chile to further our understanding of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Clovis First: Shaking the Orthodoxy - Bradshaw Foundation
The Clovis First theory states that the earliest human evidence in North America is 11,500-year-old Clovis points, linked to the opening of an ice corridor.
[45]
The Hogeye Clovis cache, Texas: quantifying lithic reduction ...
While Clovis settlement patterns in the Plains reflect high residential mobility (Kelly and Todd, 1988), patterns in the East suggest that Clovis groups settled ...