Muhammadiyah
Muhammadiyah is an Indonesian Islamic socio-religious organization founded on November 18, 1912, by Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta, as a reformist movement seeking to purify Islamic practice from local syncretic traditions through direct recourse to the Quran and Sunnah via ijtihad.[1][2] The organization emphasizes modernist reforms, establishing extensive networks of educational institutions, healthcare facilities, and social services to foster an Islamic society aligned with rational and scientific progress, while rejecting superstitions and excessive ritualism.[3] With an estimated 30 million members, Muhammadiyah ranks among the world's largest Muslim organizations, operating over 5,000 schools, 173 universities, and 123 hospitals in Indonesia alone, significantly contributing to national development in education and public health.[4][5] Its influence extends to promoting tolerance, pluralism, and civic engagement, though it has navigated tensions with traditionalist groups over doctrinal purity and adaptation to modernity.[6]
History
Founding and Early Development (1912–1940s)
Muhammadiyah was established on November 18, 1912 (corresponding to 8 Dhul-Hijjah 1330 AH), in the Kauman neighborhood of Yogyakarta by Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan, born Muhammad Darwis in 1868.[1] The organization's inception followed the founding of a precursor madrasah, Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Diniyah Islamiyah, on December 1, 1911, in Dahlan's home, initially serving eight students in a modest 6m by 2.5m room.[1] Dahlan, influenced by reformist ideas from scholars like Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida encountered during his hajj pilgrimages, sought to purify Indonesian Islamic practices from local syncretism and superstition while promoting rational interpretation (ijtihad) and adaptation to contemporary needs under Dutch colonial rule.[1] The group received formal legal recognition from the Dutch East Indies government via Decree No. 81 on August 22, 1914, enabling structured expansion.[7] Under Dahlan's leadership until his death on February 23, 1923, Muhammadiyah prioritized education and social welfare, establishing four schools by 1917 and the organization's first hospital in Yogyakarta that same year following his passing.[7] The women's wing, Aisyiyah, was founded on May 17, 1917, to extend these efforts among females.[7] Leadership transitioned to K.H. Ibrahim (1923–1931), who continued da'wah and institutional growth amid colonial restrictions; he was succeeded by K.H. Hisyam (1931–1936) and then K.H. Mas Mansyur (1936–1942).[1] Early activities emphasized Quranic exegesis, anti-bid'ah campaigns, and community outreach, attracting merchants, artisans, and ulama dissatisfied with traditionalist stagnation.[1] By the 1930s, Muhammadiyah had expanded branches beyond Yogyakarta across Java and into other Indonesian islands, establishing additional schools, clinics, and orphanages as amal usaha (charitable enterprises) to foster self-reliance and Islamic modernism.[8] In Semarang, for instance, from 1926 to 1940, the movement disseminated doctrines through teaching circles and built social charities, countering missionary influences while navigating Dutch oversight.[9] Muhammadiyah co-initiated the Majelis Islam A'la Indonesia (MIAI) in 1937, a federation of Islamic groups advocating Muslim interests against colonialism, under Mas Mansyur's chairmanship.[7] Leadership shifted to Ki Bagus Hadikusumo in 1942 amid Japanese occupation, marking Muhammadiyah's pivot toward national resilience efforts without direct political partisanship.[1]Expansion During Independence and Early Republic (1940s–1960s)
During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia from 1942 to 1945, Muhammadiyah received legal recognition from the Japanese authorities in 1943, allowing it to reorganize and expand its activities amid wartime constraints.[7] Under the leadership of K.H. Mas Mansur, who served as chairman from 1937 to 1942, the organization emphasized ideological formulation and national unity, with Mansur contributing to early independence efforts as one of the key figures alongside Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and Ki Hadjar Dewantara.[10] In 1944, Ki Bagus Hadikusumo was elected as the new chairman, advocating for the integration of Islamic principles into emerging state structures, including religious courts.[7] Muhammadiyah played a supportive role in Indonesia's proclamation of independence on August 17, 1945, with leaders such as Ki Bagus Hadikusumo and Kasman Singodimedjo participating in the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI), while K.H. Faqih Usman assisted in founding the Masyumi party as a vehicle for Muslim political representation.[7] Post-proclamation, the organization held an emergency congress in Yogyakarta in 1946, consolidating branches primarily from Java and Madura to align with the new republic's needs.[7] In 1947, Muhammadiyah established Angkatan Perang Sabil, a paramilitary unit chaired by Hadjid and advised by Ki Bagus, to defend the nascent state against Dutch reoccupation attempts.[7] K.H. Mas Mansur further influenced the ideological foundations by contributing to the formulation of Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, bridging Islamic reformism with national principles.[11] In the early republic period, Muhammadiyah prioritized institutional expansion despite political turbulence, focusing on education and social services to foster modernist Islamic development. The 31st Congress in Yogyakarta from December 21–26, 1950, attended by representatives from 83 districts and 97 subdistricts, resolved to found what would become Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.[7] By 1953, membership reached 69,554 across 322 districts and 1,612 subdistricts, reflecting steady organizational growth.[7] The 33rd Congress in Palembang in 1956 outlined a comprehensive organizational platform, while the 34th Congress in Yogyakarta from November 18–23, 1959, elected M. Junus Anies as chairman amid the shift to Guided Democracy.[7] Although individual members engaged in politics through Masyumi—which Muhammadiyah helped lead after Nahdlatul Ulama's 1952 exit, securing second place in the 1955 elections—the organization upheld non-partisan status, resigning collective affiliations upon Masyumi's dissolution in 1960.[12] [13] The 35th Congress in Jakarta in 1962 under new chairman Ahmad Badawai reported 185,119 members and 2,300 subdistricts, underscoring expansion amid economic challenges.[7] Educational and healthcare institutions proliferated, though Muhammadiyah schools faced competition from state-run systems in the 1950s and 1960s, prompting adaptations to maintain relevance in nation-building.[14] This era solidified Muhammadiyah's role as a pillar of civil society, emphasizing self-reliance through amal usaha (social enterprises) like hospitals and orphanages to promote Islamic modernity within the republican framework.[15]Modernization and Institutional Growth (1970s–2000s)
During the 1970s and 1980s, Muhammadiyah emphasized the integration of religious and secular curricula in its educational institutions, establishing "religious-plus" schools that laid the foundation for expanded higher education programs amid Indonesia's New Order development policies.[16] This period saw the organization's Manhaj Tarjih—its methodological framework for Islamic jurisprudence—evolve to address practical needs in education, health, and social services, culminating in a comprehensive reformulation in 1986 that prioritized adaptive reasoning over rigid traditionalism.[17] Regular national conferences, such as the XXXVIII in Ujung Pandang (1971), XXXIX in Padang (1974), XL in Surabaya (1978), and XLI in Surakarta (1985), facilitated strategic planning for institutional scaling while navigating state oversight.[7] Leadership transitions in the 1990s accelerated modernization efforts. At the XLIII Conference in Banda Aceh (1995), Prof. Dr. HM Amien Rais was elected chairman, overseeing the renaming of the Tarjih Council to Majelis Tarjih dan Pengembangan Pemikiran Islam to incorporate broader intellectual development aligned with contemporary challenges.[7] Rais's tenure emphasized organizational professionalism, though he stepped down in 1998 to lead the National Mandate Party, succeeded by Prof. Dr. Ahmad Syafii Maarif, who promoted "cultural Islam" to foster societal engagement without political partisanship.[18] Under Maarif, re-elected at the XLIV Conference in Jakarta (2000), Muhammadiyah expanded its network of universities to 128 by the late 1990s, alongside thousands of primary and secondary schools blending Islamic ethics with scientific training.[4] In healthcare, Muhammadiyah grew its facilities from modest clinics to a system of hospitals and polyclinics, reflecting a commitment to welfare amid urbanization; by the 2000s, this included over 100 hospitals emphasizing accessible, modern services integrated with preventive Islamic health teachings.[19] These expansions supported membership growth, with estimates reaching tens of millions by the early 2000s, driven by grassroots branches and non-formal programs in entrepreneurship and community health.[4] The organization's avoidance of direct political involvement allowed focus on these apolitical services, adapting reformist principles to Indonesia's economic liberalization while critiquing external influences, as seen in K.H. A.R. Fakhruddin's 1989 letter to Pope John Paul II decrying missionary impacts on Muslim communities.[7]Recent Historical Trajectories (2010s–Present)
The 46th National Congress (Muktamar) of Muhammadiyah, convened in Yogyakarta in July 2010, reaffirmed Din Syamsuddin as general chairman for the 2010–2015 term amid internal contests over executive board composition, including debates on including women and navigating political influences.[20] This period marked continued emphasis on organizational consolidation following the centennial celebrations in 2012, which highlighted Muhammadiyah's century-long contributions to Islamic reform and social services in Indonesia.[21] At the 47th Muktamar, held in Makassar from August 3 to 7, 2015, Haedar Nashir was elected general chairman for 2015–2020 in a process involving 13 formators, succeeding Syamsuddin.[22][23] The congress adopted the theme "Islam Berkemajuan" (Progressive Islam), underscoring commitments to religious moderation, support for Indonesia's unitary state, and advancement through education and health initiatives, while addressing theological tensions between moderate and conservative factions.[24][25][26] In the 2020s, the 48th Muktamar in Surakarta from November 18 to 20, 2022, re-elected Haedar Nashir for a second term (2022–2027) alongside Abdul Mu'ti as general secretary, emphasizing peaceful electoral processes and issuing five key decrees on humanitarianism, economic empowerment, and global engagement.[27][28][29] During the COVID-19 pandemic, Muhammadiyah mobilized philanthropic efforts, including emergency medical teams verified by the World Health Organization and guidance from its Tarjih and Tajdid Council to align religious practices with public health measures.[30] The organization has pursued internationalization by dispatching cadres abroad, establishing overseas schools, and partnering with entities like BAZNAS for welfare programs, while navigating leadership transitions toward greater intellectual representation and addressing 21st-century challenges in healthcare, education, and economic development.[31][32][4][33]Ideology and Doctrine
Core Theological Principles
Muhammadiyah's core theological framework is grounded in the principles of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah, affirming strict monotheism (tawhid) as the foundational doctrine, which underscores God's absolute oneness and sovereignty while rejecting any form of polytheism (shirk) or association with divine attributes. This tawhid extends beyond ritual to encompass ethical imperatives, demanding justice, anti-oppression stances, and human unity in submission to divine will.[34][35] Adherents are positioned as part of al-Firqah al-Najiyyah (the saved sect), aligning with orthodox Sunni creed that privileges empirical verification of beliefs through primary sources.[36] Central to this theology is an unwavering commitment to the Quran and authentic Sunnah as the sole authoritative sources for faith (aqidah), worship (ibadah), and conduct (muamalah), with supplementary reliance on scholarly consensus (ijma') and analogical reasoning (qiyas) where texts are silent. Muhammadiyah advocates purification (tazkiyah) of Islamic practice by excising unwarranted innovations (bid'ah), superstitions, and syncretic elements that deviate from prophetic example, such as excessive veneration of graves or unverified mystical practices.[37][36] This reformist stance rejects blind imitation (taqlid) of traditional schools (madhabs), instead promoting ijtihad—independent, contextually informed reasoning by qualified scholars—to renew (tajdid) faith for contemporary challenges while preserving doctrinal integrity.[38][39] Theology integrates iman (faith), ilm (knowledge), and amal salih (righteous deeds) as interdependent pillars, drawing from Quranic imperatives to cultivate rational, evidence-based belief that manifests in social reform and moral action. Aqidah is viewed dynamically yet firmly: open to scholarly renewal in interpretive applications but immutable in fundamentals like the six articles of faith (belief in God, angels, scriptures, prophets, Day of Judgment, and divine decree). This approach fosters a progressive yet orthodox Islam, emphasizing rational-legal authority through bodies like the Tarjih Council for collective ijtihad.[40][41][42]Reformist Approach to Ijtihad and Modernity
Muhammadiyah promotes a reformist methodology centered on ijtihad, the independent reasoning from primary Islamic sources—the Quran and Sunnah—to address contemporary issues, rejecting rigid adherence to classical schools of jurisprudence (taqlid) in favor of direct textual and rational analysis.[43] This approach, influenced by early 20th-century Islamic modernists like Muhammad Abduh, seeks to purify religious practice (tajdid) while enabling adaptation to modern societal demands, such as technological advancements and social transformations.[44] Founder Ahmad Dahlan (1868–1923) exemplified this by personally engaging in ijtihad to resolve practical religious questions, including determining the qibla direction via astronomical calculation, using hisab for lunar month starts, conducting Eid prayers in open fields, managing zakat and qurban through committees, and delivering sermons in vernacular Indonesian rather than Arabic, actions that drew accusations of innovation (bid'ah) from traditionalists.[45] To institutionalize this effort, Muhammadiyah established the Majelis Tarjih in 1927 at its 16th congress in Pekalongan, initially proposed by KH Mas Mansur, formalizing collective ijtihad for jurisprudential deliberation (tarjih, or preference selection among valid opinions).[45] The resulting Manhaj Tarjih, developed since around 1924 and refined through stages up to 2000, embodies a non-madhhab (non-mazhab) stance, prioritizing renewal through synthesis of scriptural fidelity, rationality, and spiritual insight tailored to Indonesian contexts.[43] This methodology endorses open ijtihad that incorporates modern influences, enabling responses to evolving realities without compromising core doctrines, as seen in fatwas during the COVID-19 pandemic that adjusted rituals like prayer congregations to align with public health protocols under maqasid al-shari'ah (objectives of Islamic law) prioritizing life preservation.[38][46] Through ijtihad, Muhammadiyah dynamizes social engagement, applying rational reinterpretation to foster progress in education, healthcare, and welfare, viewing modernity not as a threat but as an arena for revitalizing Islamic dynamism against stagnation.[47] This reformist orientation distinguishes Muhammadiyah from traditionalist groups like Nahdlatul Ulama, which favor interpretive methods like bahtsul masail rooted in established madhhabs, highlighting Muhammadiyah's emphasis on proactive adaptation over preservation of inherited rulings.[48] By privileging empirical reasoning and causal alignment with scriptural intents, the organization sustains relevance in a globalized era, issuing guidance on issues lacking explicit classical precedents.[49]Relation to Global Islamic Movements
Muhammadiyah's ideological foundations draw significantly from the global Islamic modernist tradition pioneered by Egyptian reformers Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) and his disciple Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865–1935), whose emphasis on returning to the Quran and Sunnah through rational ijtihad influenced founder Ahmad Dahlan during his exposure to their ideas via publications like Al-Manar.[50][51] This connection positioned Muhammadiyah as an early adopter of reformism that sought to reconcile Islamic purity with modern scientific and social progress, predating similar efforts in organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood (founded 1928) by over a decade.[52] Unlike the Muslim Brotherhood's transnational political activism and emphasis on establishing Islamic governance, Muhammadiyah has prioritized apolitical social reform within Indonesia's national framework, focusing on education, healthcare, and civic engagement rather than ideological expansionism or vanguardism.[53][54] It shares superficial parallels with the Brotherhood in grassroots organization and welfare provision but diverges by integrating local customs and democratic pluralism, avoiding the former's hierarchical caliphate aspirations. Similarly, while exhibiting Salafi-like rejection of un-Islamic innovations (bid'ah) and Sufi excesses, Muhammadiyah adopts a moderate, contextual Salafism—often termed Salafiyah Wasitiyah—that endorses adaptive ijtihad and modernity, contrasting with the literalist, anti-intellectual puritanism of Wahhabism or rigid Saudi Salafism.[55][56][57] In global engagements, Muhammadiyah has participated in international forums to promote its model of progressive Islam, collaborating with entities like the Muslim World League on initiatives for interfaith dialogue and moderate reform, as seen in joint events in Morocco since 2024 emphasizing faith amid change.[58][59] These ties reflect a selective alignment with Saudi-led efforts post-2017 to rebrand as tolerant, yet Muhammadiyah maintains autonomy, critiquing extremism while exporting its civic-focused approach as an alternative to both radical transnationalism and insular traditionalism.[52][54] By 2025, its network of over 167,000 institutions serves as a benchmark for Islamic organizations worldwide seeking sustainable modernization without political overreach.[6]Organizational Structure
Governance and Central Leadership
Muhammadiyah's central governance is vested in the Pimpinan Pusat (PP), the Central Executive Board, which functions as the highest leadership organ responsible for directing the organization's activities nationwide and implementing policies established by the congress.[60] The PP comprises at least 13 members, including a General Chairman (Ketua Umum), General Secretary, and other key roles such as treasurer and chairs of specialized councils for education, health, and organizational development.[60] This structure emphasizes collegial leadership, where authority is distributed collectively to prevent concentration of power and promote consensus-based decision-making among board members.[61] The Central Executive is elected every five years during the Muktamar, Muhammadiyah's national congress, with candidates nominated by the Tanwir Council, an advisory body of senior figures.[60] The election process prioritizes internal deliberation and block voting mechanisms to ensure representation and maintain organizational unity, as demonstrated in recent congresses where outcomes reflect broad cadre consensus rather than factional contests.[62] Terms for all executive positions are limited to five years, with the General Chairman eligible for no more than two consecutive terms to foster renewal and prevent entrenchment.[60] For the 2022–2027 period, Prof. Dr. Haedar Nashir serves as General Chairman, marking his second term following his initial election in 2015.[63] [64] Supporting him are General Secretary Prof. Dr. Abdul Mu’ti and General Treasurer Prof. Hilman Latief, alongside chairs overseeing domains like public health (dr. Agus Taufiqurrohman) and education (Prof. Irwan Akib).[63] The PP holds legal representation for Muhammadiyah, supervises provincial branches, and coordinates over 167,000 member organizations, including schools and hospitals, while adapting to contemporary challenges through policy directives issued via decrees.[60] This framework balances centralized oversight with regional autonomy, ensuring doctrinal consistency and operational efficiency across Indonesia.[60]Regional Branches and Membership Dynamics
Muhammadiyah operates through a hierarchical structure of branches spanning subnational levels, enabling localized implementation of central policies while maintaining organizational unity. The structure includes subdistrict executives (minimum five members), district executives (minimum seven), regional executives for municipalities or regencies (minimum nine), and provincial executives (minimum eleven), all appointed by the next higher level to enforce directives and manage local affairs.[60] This pyramid-like framework culminates at the national central executive, with each level holding conferences every five years to elect representatives proportionally to membership and address regional issues.[60] Provincial branches, known as Pimpinan Wilayah Muhammadiyah (PWM), coordinate activities across Indonesia's provinces, with presence established in 35 of the country's 38 provinces as of recent expansions. Regional dynamics vary, with denser networks in Java due to historical origins, but nationwide coverage now includes branches in all major districts, adapting to local cultural and demographic contexts through autonomous yet aligned operations. For instance, provincial executives stipulate regional leadership compositions, fostering cadre development and policy adaptation without deviating from core reformist principles.[5][65] Membership consists of common members (Indonesian Muslims), extraordinary members (non-Indonesian Muslims), and honorary members for significant contributors, with obligations including adherence to Muhammadiyah's statutes and participation in activities. Estimates place active membership at approximately 30 million, reflecting steady growth from early 20th-century figures—such as 913 branches by 1937, predominantly in Yogyakarta—to a vast network today, bolstered by targeted registration drives over the past two decades.[60][4][66] Branch dynamics emphasize democratic rotation, with five-year terms and chairmanship limits to two consecutive periods, promoting renewal while addressing challenges like urban migration and competition from other groups. Internationally, special branches (PCIM) extend this model abroad, integrating expatriate members into the hierarchy, though domestic regional strength remains the core driver of expansion and resilience.[60][67]Leadership Succession and Key Figures
Muhammadiyah's central leadership, known as Pimpinan Pusat, operates under a collegial system where the Ketua Umum (General Chairman) serves as the primary executive figure. Succession occurs through the Muktamar, the organization's national congress convened every five years, during which delegates elect the leadership board, including the Ketua Umum, via a deliberative and voting process emphasizing consensus and organizational discipline. This mechanism evolved from early annual rapat (meetings) and kongres in the organization's formative years to the standardized quinquennial Muktamar post-independence, ensuring continuity while adapting to modern democratic practices.[68][69] The founder, KH Ahmad Dahlan (1868–1923), established Muhammadiyah on November 18, 1912, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, as its inaugural Ketua Umum until his death in 1923, pioneering Islamic modernism by integrating purification of faith (tazkiyatun nahyi) with social reforms inspired by global movements like Salafism and Western education models.[68] Subsequent leaders have navigated challenges from colonial rule to post-independence nation-building and contemporary globalization. Key figures include:| No. | Name | Term | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | KH Ahmad Dahlan | 1912–1923 | Founded the organization; emphasized faith purification and modern Islamic education.[68] |
| 2 | KH Ibrahim | 1923–1934 | Built first Muhammadiyah hospital; established Nasyiatul Aisyiyah and Majlis Tarjih for doctrinal uniformity.[68] |
| 3 | KH Hisyam | 1934–1937 | Expanded educational institutions, including volkschool system, amid colonial subsidy debates.[68] |
| 4 | KH Mas Mansyur | 1937–1942 | Introduced a 12-step organizational plan focusing on faith renewal and unity.[68] |
| 5 | Ki Bagus Hadikusumo | 1942–1953 | Contributed to Indonesia's 1945 Constitution; recognized as a National Independence Pioneer.[68] |
| 6 | Ahmad Rasyid Sutan Mansur | 1953–1959 | Formulated Khittah Palembang, stressing tauhid and discipline.[68] |
| 7 | KH M. Yunus Anis | 1959–1962 | Defined Kepribadian Muhammadiyah; modernized administration amid political turbulence.[68] |
| 8 | KH Ahmad Badawi | 1962–1968 | Preserved organizational integrity against communist threats; founded Kokam security unit.[68] |
| 9 | KH Faqih Usman | 1968 (brief) | Served as interim; former Minister of Religious Affairs.[68] |
| 10 | Abdur Rozak Fahruddin | 1968–1990 | Longest tenure (22 years); endorsed Pancasila as organizational basis.[68] |
| 11 | KH Ahmad Azhar Basyir | 1990–1994 | Bridged traditional and modern leadership; died in office.[68] |
| 12 | Prof. Dr. HM. Amien Rais | 1995–1998 | Led reformasi era; founded National Mandate Party (PAN).[68] |
| 13 | Prof. Dr. H. Syafi’i Maarif | 1998–2005 | Promoted interfaith dialogue; awarded Ramon Magsaysay Prize.[68] |
| 14 | Prof. Dr. H. Din Syamsuddin | 2005–2015 | Advanced peace initiatives; introduced Darul Ahdi wa Syahadah concept.[68] |
| 15 | Prof. Dr. H. Haedar Nashir | 2015–present (re-elected 2022) | Expanded educational reach; led COVID-19 response efforts.[68] |