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Incivility

Incivility encompasses low-intensity deviant behaviors, such as rudeness, condescension, or ostracism, that violate norms of mutual respect in social, workplace, or public interactions, often with ambiguous intent to harm the target.^[1]^[2]^[3] These acts, distinct from overt aggression, erode interpersonal dignity and can accumulate to foster broader hostility.^[4] Empirical research highlights incivility's prevalence across domains, including healthcare, academia, and politics, where it manifests as gossip, exclusion, or dismissive interruptions.^[5]^[6] Studies document a marked escalation in societal incivility since the early 2010s, with workplace surveys reporting record highs in 2024 driven by ideological clashes, such as political viewpoint differences cited by 56% of U.S. workers.^[7] This trend extends to online discourse, where uncivil exchanges amplify emotional reactivity and disinhibition.^[8] Consequences include diminished employee performance, heightened stress, burnout symptoms like exhaustion, and spillover effects on family well-being through emotional labor.^[9]^[10]^[11] In organizational contexts, uncorrected incivility correlates with bullying escalation and reduced trust in leadership.^[12]^[13] Addressing it demands systemic interventions, as individual coping often proves insufficient against entrenched cultural or structural enablers.^[14]

Definition and Conceptual Foundations

Core Definitions and Distinctions

Incivility denotes behavior that contravenes established norms of politeness and mutual respect, often manifesting as subtle discourtesies or slights. Etymologically, the term derives from the Late Latin incivilitas, stemming from incivilis ("impolite" or "uncivil"), which combines the privative prefix in- with civilis ("befitting a citizen"), implying a lack of civilized conduct tied to societal membership.^[15] This root underscores incivility's historical connotation as a deviation from communal standards of decorum, evolving from 16th-century English usage denoting "want of civilized behavior."^[16] In contemporary social sciences, particularly organizational psychology, incivility is precisely defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, violating norms of mutual respect.^[17] This framework, introduced by Lynne Andersson and Christine Pearson in 1999, emphasizes the subtlety and interpretive uncertainty of such acts—such as dismissive remarks or interruptions—distinguishing them from mere faux pas by their intentional disregard for relational equilibria.^[17] The concept has since permeated broader empirical studies in sociology and communication, framing incivility as interpersonal rudeness that erodes social cohesion without escalating to overt conflict.^[2] Incivility differs from rudeness, which may involve isolated impoliteness without systematic norm violation or deviant intent, as rudeness often lacks the targeted ambiguity that signals underlying disregard.^[18] Unlike aggression, characterized by high-intensity actions with clear harmful purpose—such as verbal abuse or physical threats—incivility remains low-stakes and plausibly deniable, allowing perpetrators to evade accountability while still inflicting psychological strain.^[17] It also contrasts with legitimate disagreement, which adheres to respectful discourse norms even amid contention, whereas incivility undermines dialogue through condescension or exclusion irrespective of substantive merits.^[3]

Historical Development of the Concept

The concept of incivility, as the counterpart to evolving norms of civility, received early sociological treatment in Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traced the historical emergence of restrained social behavior in Western Europe from medieval times. Elias described how feudal societies exhibited uninhibited bluntness—such as open displays of bodily functions and aggressive impulses—that contrasted with the gradual imposition of self-control through state centralization, courtly etiquette, and interdependent social structures, rendering such behaviors increasingly uncivil.^[19] This framework positioned incivility not as timeless rudeness but as deviations from historically contingent standards of mutual consideration, influenced by power dynamics and class hierarchies.^[19] Incivility formalized as an academic construct in the late 1990s within organizational psychology and management studies, initially focused on workplace settings amid rising reports of subtle interpersonal mistreatment. Early indicators appeared in legal contexts, such as the 1997 Eighth Circuit Gender Fairness Task Force findings on courtroom rudeness, which spurred development of measurement tools like the Workplace Incivility Scale.^[3] The pivotal 1999 model by Lynne Andersson and Christine Pearson defined it as "low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect," introducing a reciprocal spiral dynamic that differentiated it from overt aggression.^[20] This conceptualization shifted analysis from anecdotal complaints to structured, data-oriented inquiry, with precursors like L.M. Ring's 1992 discussion of an "incivility crisis" in professional environments.^[3] By the 2000s, the framework extended beyond workplaces to political discourse and media environments, adapting empirical models to dissect public interactions. Researchers applied incivility lenses to televised debates and partisan exchanges, viewing them as low-stakes violations of deliberative norms akin to organizational rudeness.^[3] This broadening reflected a post-2010 acceleration in publications linking the concept to societal polarization, though foundational expansions in the prior decade established interdisciplinary traction.^[3]

Underlying Causes and Precipitating Factors

Psychological and Individual Drivers

Individuals exhibiting low agreeableness, a trait characterized by antagonism and low concern for others in the Big Five personality framework, demonstrate higher tendencies to instigate workplace incivility, such as rude interruptions or dismissive comments, as evidenced by correlations in empirical studies linking this trait to antagonistic behaviors.^[21] Similarly, narcissism, particularly as part of the Dark Triad traits, predicts instigated incivility toward supervisors and colleagues, with grandiose narcissists responding to perceived slights with belittling or condescending actions to maintain superiority.^[22] Meta-analytic evidence confirms that such personality dispositions, including psychopathy and Machiavellianism, consistently correlate with perpetrating low-intensity deviant acts like incivility, independent of situational reciprocity.^[23] Thwarted psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as outlined in self-determination theory, foster frustration that manifests in defensive or retaliatory rudeness, particularly when individuals perceive threats to their self-determination in interpersonal exchanges.^[24] This aligns with frustration-aggression models, where unmet needs trigger aggressive responses calibrated to the provocation level, such as curt replies or exclusionary gestures in everyday interactions, supported by longitudinal data showing need frustration preceding interpersonal deviance.^[25] Cognitive biases, including hostile attribution bias—wherein ambiguous actions are interpreted as intentionally malicious—amplify incivility by prompting preemptive rudeness to neutralize perceived threats, with empirical findings indicating that high-HAB individuals escalate neutral encounters into uncivil exchanges more frequently.^[26] Dehumanization of out-groups, by denying others full human qualities like emotional depth, facilitates uncivil treatment in high-stress contexts, as laboratory experiments reveal reduced inhibitions against rude behaviors toward dehumanized targets, though this effect is moderated by conflict intensity rather than routine interactions.^[27] These biases operate at the individual level, independent of broader cultural norms, to causalize uncivil acts through distorted threat appraisals.^[28]

Societal and Cultural Contributors

The erosion of traditional institutions such as the family and religious organizations has diminished social capital, weakening the informal mechanisms that enforce norms of reciprocity and restraint essential to civility. Robert Putnam's analysis in "Bowling Alone" (2000) documents a profound decline in U.S. civic engagement from the 1970s onward, with memberships in civic groups dropping by 25-50% compared to mid-20th-century peaks, partly due to destabilized family structures and reduced communal ties. Divorce rates, for example, rose from 2.2 per 1,000 population in 1960 to 5.2 in 1980, fragmenting households that historically inculcated intergenerational norms of politeness and mutual respect.^[29] Religious participation followed suit, with weekly church attendance falling from 49% in the mid-1950s to 36% by the late 2010s, depriving communities of shared moral frameworks that promote forbearance over confrontation.^[30] Putnam posits that dense social networks enable norm enforcement via trust and generalized reciprocity; their fraying thus allows uncivil impulses to proliferate unchecked, as evidenced by correlations between low social capital and heightened interpersonal distrust in longitudinal community studies.^[31] Cultural shifts toward relativism and identity-based mobilization have further undermined universal civility standards, replacing them with group-specific moralities that tolerate or incentivize hostility toward out-groups. Post-1960s relativism, entrenched in academic disciplines, posits behaviors as contextually valid rather than intrinsically rude, diluting consensus on what constitutes unacceptable discourse and enabling selective enforcement of politeness. Identity politics amplifies this by fostering tribal allegiances, where grievances tied to race, gender, or ideology justify derogation of opponents; surveys show partisan affective polarization doubling since 1994, with 45% of Republicans and 35% of Democrats viewing the opposing party as a "threat to the nation's well-being" by 2018, correlating with normalized incivility in cross-group interactions. Institutional analyses note that left-leaning dominance in media and universities often frames such tribalism as empowerment rather than a driver of reciprocal rudeness, overlooking how it erodes broader normative cohesion.^[32] Pre-digital mass media precedents in sensationalism illustrate how profit-driven amplification of conflict coarsens public norms, independent of online anonymity. In the 1890s, yellow journalism—pioneered by rivals William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer—prioritized lurid exaggerations and ad hominem attacks, boosting circulations from under 100,000 to over a million daily while inflaming debates, as in the inflammatory coverage of the 1898 USS Maine sinking that hastened the Spanish-American War.^[33] This era normalized vitriolic rhetoric over factual restraint, setting a template for media-induced tribal outrage that persists, with studies linking early sensationalism to lasting declines in deliberative discourse quality.^[34] Such dynamics reveal causal pathways from structural incentives to normative decay, predating digital echo chambers yet mirroring their effects on civility.

Forms and Contexts of Incivility

Interpersonal and Everyday Interactions

Incivility manifests in routine interpersonal exchanges through behaviors such as curt verbal responses, interrupting others during casual conversations, or exclusionary gestures like avoiding eye contact or personal space violations in public venues. These acts deviate from norms of mutual respect without escalating to overt aggression. Annual surveys since 2010 have consistently shown that 93% of Americans identify incivility as a problem in society, with 68% deeming it a major issue, reflecting perceptions of its embeddedness in daily life.^[35] In-person encounters, including those in retail settings or transportation, contribute significantly, with 33% of respondents reporting weekly or daily experiences of such rudeness.^[36] Urban density exacerbates these interactions by increasing the frequency of encounters with strangers, where anonymity diminishes incentives for restraint and elevates reports of perceived rudeness. Empirical analyses of national surveys on stranger-directed incivility reveal that higher population concentrations correlate with more frequent narratives of disruptive behaviors, such as unsolicited comments or physical jostling, as individuals navigate compressed social spaces without established relational ties.^[37] Ethnic diversity, absent assimilation processes that foster shared norms, empirically associates with reduced interpersonal trust, creating fertile ground for miscommunications interpreted as incivility. Studies across European contexts demonstrate that unintegrated diversity lowers indicators of social cohesion, including tolerance for minor norm violations, challenging claims that mere exposure to difference inherently builds harmony; instead, it can heighten mutual suspicion in everyday dealings.^[38] Distinguishing true incivility from cross-cultural variances is critical, as communication directness—prized in American norms for clarity—may register as brusque or discourteous in high-context societies favoring indirect phrasing to preserve harmony. Such misattributions underscore that not all perceived slights stem from intent to offend but from mismatched expectations, though persistent failure to adapt shared civic standards can still erode collective civility.^[39]

Political and Public Sphere Dynamics

Incivility in the political sphere manifests through ad hominem attacks during debates, disruptions of public events, and inflammatory rhetoric in legislative proceedings. During the 2024 U.S. presidential election cycle, exposure to uncivil political exchanges, such as those in the Trump-Biden debate on June 27, 2024, correlated with heightened perceptions of rudeness among observers, contributing to broader spikes in reported incivility tied to partisan differences.^[40] Post-election data indicated sustained elevations, with threats and harassment against election officials persisting into late 2024, as documented in analyses of social media animosity and physical confrontations.^[41] These patterns align with empirical observations of incivility surges during high-stakes electoral periods, where protest disruptions and verbal aggressions amplify around policy flashpoints like immigration.^[42] Historically, such dynamics parallel the contentious discourse among American founders, where ad hominem barbs and partisan vitriol defined early republican debates. The 1800 election between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson exemplified this, featuring smears labeling Adams a monarchist and Jefferson an atheist, yet yielding a resilient constitutional framework without modern-era demands for enforced restraint.^[43] Unlike contemporary invocations of civility—often advanced by institutional elites to curb dissent on politicized issues like election integrity—the founding-era exchanges prioritized unfiltered argumentation, fostering breakthroughs against entrenched colonial orthodoxies. This contrasts with critiques positing incivility as mere dysfunction, revealing its role in contesting suppressed viewpoints amid power asymmetries. Experimental studies demonstrate that exposure to political incivility erodes trust in institutions and diminishes intentions to comply with policies, as participants viewing uncivil debates reported lower confidence in politicians and reduced willingness to adhere to measures like COVID-19 restrictions.^[44] A meta-analysis of such research confirms consistent negative effects on political trust, though impacts on participation vary.^[6] These outcomes, however, exhibit partisan skews: individuals perceive greater incivility in out-group rhetoric than in-group equivalents, with left-leaning media outlets disproportionately emphasizing conservative-originated aggressions while underreporting parallel extremism from progressive activists, as evidenced by biased perception patterns in controlled comment evaluations.^[45] In politicized environments dominated by institutional biases—such as academia and mainstream outlets favoring left-leaning narratives—incivility from marginalized perspectives can counteract suppression of empirical challenges to prevailing orthodoxies, serving as a mechanism to elevate causal realities over sanitized discourse. Elite calls for civility, in these contexts, risk functioning as tools to delegitimize dissent rather than purely fostering mutual respect, as historical precedents suggest robust debate, not decorum, underpins substantive governance advances.^[46]

Workplace and Organizational Settings

In professional environments, workplace incivility encompasses low-intensity deviant acts with ambiguous intent to harm, such as condescending comments, exclusionary behaviors like ignoring input during meetings, and taking credit for others' work.^[47] These manifestations differ from overt aggression by their subtlety, often evading formal policies while eroding relational norms.^[48] Surveys indicate U.S. workers collectively experience around 223 million acts of incivility daily across settings, with approximately 40% linked to workplaces, equating to over 89 million professional incidents per day based on 2024 estimates.^[7]^[49] Additionally, 31% of employees reported their organizations as ineffective at fostering civility and civil discourse in 2024, highlighting gaps in organizational responses.^[50]^[51] Such behaviors impose measurable economic costs, with U.S. organizations incurring over $2.7 billion daily in losses from diminished productivity, absenteeism, and turnover as of Q4 2024.^[50]^[52] Incivility correlates with 66% of affected workers reducing effort and output, amplifying these impacts through cascading effects on team cohesion.^[49] However, framing all interpersonal friction as inherently toxic overlooks evidence that calibrated dissent—distinct from rudeness—mitigates groupthink by surfacing flaws in consensus-driven decisions, as teams encouraging diverse viewpoints demonstrate improved problem-solving and reduced errors.^[53]^[54] Incivility in organizations has intensified with external factors, particularly political polarization spilling into work discussions, cited by 47% of workers as a key driver in 2024 SHRM data.^[55] Election cycles exacerbate this, with reported acts surging post-debates and ballots, as observed in spikes following the 2024 U.S. presidential events.^[56]^[40] Projections for 2025 anticipate sustained elevation absent targeted interventions, underscoring the need to distinguish politicized incivility from productive debate while prioritizing empirical metrics over subjective "toxicity" narratives.^[50]^[57]

Digital and Media Environments

In digital environments, incivility commonly appears as trolling, defined as posting intentionally offensive or provocative messages to elicit reactions; doxxing, the unauthorized release of personal information to harass individuals; and pile-ons, where groups rapidly converge to criticize or shame a target en masse.^[58]^[59]^[60] Surveys indicate that 64% of American millennials have engaged in trolling, while approximately 4% of U.S. adults report having been doxxed, often amid broader online harassment affecting 41% of Americans.^[58]^[59]^[61] These behaviors exploit platform scalability, allowing rapid dissemination and escalation beyond interpersonal scales. Longitudinal analyses reveal that online incivility levels have remained relatively stable rather than exponentially rising, challenging perceptions of a pervasive epidemic. A study of Reddit subreddits over 11 years (2010–2021) found uncivil comments consistently comprising about 10% of total posts across political, non-political, and mixed communities, with hostility driven by a minority of persistent users rather than widespread adoption.^[62]^[63] This stability persists despite growing user bases, suggesting that while platforms amplify visibility, the core incidence of rudeness does not originate uniquely online but reflects imported offline norms. Anonymity facilitates disinhibition, enabling aggressive expressions through reduced accountability, yet experimental evidence attributes causal escalation primarily to deindividuation effects rather than anonymity alone as the root.^[64] Social media algorithms exacerbate incivility by prioritizing engagement metrics, which favor emotionally charged, outrage-laden content over measured discourse. Research on platforms like Twitter demonstrates that recommendation systems amplify divisive, out-group hostile posts, as these generate higher interactions, creating feedback loops that normalize hostility.^[65]^[66] For instance, 64% of Americans attribute broader societal negativity partly to such dynamics, where algorithmic curation surfaces provocative material irrespective of its civility.^[67] Platform moderation responses, intended to curb harms like doxxing, often involve selective content removal, prompting critiques of bias toward suppressing certain viewpoints—particularly conservative ones—over others, as evidenced by internal analyses and user reports of asymmetric enforcement.^[68] This selective approach, while framed as protecting users, risks eroding open exchange by favoring platform-curated norms, with private companies unbound by First Amendment obligations yet wielding outsized influence on public conversation.^[69]

Empirical Impacts and Evidence

Effects on Individuals

Exposure to incivility, defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm, has been linked to diminished psychological well-being among individuals, including heightened stress, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion, according to a comprehensive meta-analysis of 253 samples spanning 20 years of research. These effects manifest through mechanisms such as rumination and perceived threat, which exacerbate mental strain even in subtle interpersonal encounters.^[70] In high-incivility professions like nursing, meta-analyses reveal strong correlations between experienced incivility and burnout, with prevalence rates exceeding 60% in hospital settings contributing to psychosomatic symptoms such as fatigue and sleep disturbances.^[1] ^[71] Physical health linkages extend to elevated cortisol responses and immune dysregulation, underscoring causal pathways from interpersonal rudeness to somatic outcomes.^[72] Cognitively, incivility impairs performance by reducing diagnostic accuracy and creative problem-solving; for instance, experimental studies demonstrate that rudeness decreases task helpfulness and efficiency by up to 30% in simulated professional scenarios.^[73] Behaviorally, individuals often respond with reciprocal incivility, initiating retaliatory cycles that further degrade personal productivity and engagement, though meta-analytic evidence confirms these patterns vary by context without universal escalation. Resilience factors moderate these impacts; individuals with high psychological detachment or mastery-oriented recovery experiences exhibit buffered effects on emotional exhaustion and withdrawal tendencies. Chronic exposure, however, may promote desensitization, wherein repeated low-level deviance erodes sensitivity to norms, potentially normalizing further breaches as observed in longitudinal workplace observations.

Broader Societal and Economic Consequences

Political incivility has been empirically linked to diminished public trust in institutions and reduced compliance with policy measures, as demonstrated in experimental studies where exposure to uncivil political discourse lowered satisfaction with democratic processes and adherence to restrictions like COVID-19 guidelines.^[44]^[6] This erosion extends beyond immediate political contexts, fostering broader societal distrust through feedback loops in which uncivil interactions provoke reciprocal hostility, intensifying affective polarization and group divisions without evidence of symmetric outrage across ideological lines.^[75] Such dynamics challenge narratives of a uniform "incivility epidemic," as data indicate spikes in perceived rudeness are often context-specific—concentrated in polarized media environments—rather than a causal societal collapse, with selective media amplification exaggerating trends over baseline interpersonal norms.^[76] Economically, workplace incivility imposes substantial macro-level costs on U.S. organizations, estimated at approximately $2 billion daily in diminished productivity, absenteeism, and turnover, based on surveys aggregating self-reported impacts from over 1,000 HR professionals tracking rudeness incidents.^[52]^[77] These figures derive from causal modeling of incivility's role in alienating employees and disrupting collaboration, though they rely on correlational self-assessments prone to overestimation in high-stress sectors. Counterarguments posit that rigid civility enforcement, by suppressing candid disagreement, may inadvertently hinder competitive innovation and knowledge exchange, akin to findings that overly moderated online discourse reduces debate depth and novel idea generation.^[78] Empirical gaps persist in quantifying such trade-offs, underscoring the need to distinguish enforced conformity from genuine interpersonal respect to avoid unintended stifling of economic dynamism.

Debates and Viewpoints

Claims of Rising Incivility and Measurement Challenges

Surveys indicate that public concern over incivility in the United States has remained consistently high since 2010, with approximately 93% of Americans viewing it as a problem and two-thirds considering it a major issue, showing little variation over the decade despite episodic spikes during politically charged events such as presidential elections.^[79]^[80] These spikes in perceived incivility often correlate with heightened media coverage of conflicts rather than sustained increases in measured behaviors, as longitudinal data from nationwide polls reveal stable baseline perceptions rather than a linear upward trend. Measuring incivility poses significant challenges, primarily due to discrepancies between self-reported perceptions and objective observations of behavior. Self-reports, which dominate surveys on rudeness and disrespect, often inflate perceptions because they rely on subjective interpretations influenced by personal norms and recent exposures, whereas trace data or behavioral logs show weaker correlations with these accounts owing to the low reliability of capturing sporadic acts in real-time.^[81]^[82] For instance, individuals overestimate their encounters with incivility when primed by vivid examples, leading to a perception-reality gap where episodic events are generalized as trends without accounting for consistent historical baselines of interpersonal friction.^[83] Media amplification exacerbates claims of rising incivility by prioritizing sensational, episodic incidents over routine rudeness, which has long characterized public discourse. Historical analyses reveal precedents of outrage and verbal aggression in pre-internet eras, such as partisan print media satires and yellow journalism in the 19th and early 20th centuries, where inflammatory rhetoric mirrored modern complaints but lacked digital scale.^[84] This selective focus ignores that baseline levels of discourtesy persist across eras, with current narratives often driven by availability heuristics rather than comprehensive data.^[85] Partisan lenses further complicate assessments, as mainstream media outlets, which exhibit systemic left-leaning biases, disproportionately label conservative critiques or pushback—such as direct challenges to institutional orthodoxies—as incivility, while framing similar leftist expressions as principled dissent.^[86] Empirical studies confirm that perceptions of uncivil speech intensify when aligned against one's ideology, but asymmetric labeling in coverage contributes to politicized reporting that attributes societal rudeness spikes to one side's rhetoric.^[87] Such biases undermine objective measurement, as they prioritize narrative fit over verifiable incidence rates.

Potential Upsides and Critiques of Excessive Civility

Excessive civility, by prioritizing harmonious discourse over candid confrontation, can perpetuate existing power structures and stifle necessary dissent. Demands for polite engagement often serve to maintain the status quo, allowing those in positions of comfort to avoid scrutiny of oppressive practices.^[88] Similarly, an inflexible norm of civility may demand too much from individuals, functioning as a mechanism to quash challenges to prevailing social arrangements by framing blunt disagreement as inherently disruptive.^[89] This critique posits that such politeness enforces conformity, potentially fostering groupthink where excessive agreement leads to flawed decision-making and overlooked risks.^[90] Incivility, in contrast, can disrupt willful ignorance and compel reevaluation of entrenched flaws, particularly when polite overtures fail to prompt action. Subversive incivility challenges the comfort derived from superficial harmony, exposing hidden biases or errors that civility might gloss over.^[91] In organizational contexts, blunt feedback—often perceived as rude—correlates with improved outcomes by breaking cycles of avoidance and encouraging direct problem-solving, as evidenced in environments where free-flowing critique enhances performance over sanitized exchanges.^[92] Whistleblowing exemplifies this dynamic, where forthright accusations, though uncivil in tone, are essential to revealing systemic misconduct that indirect suggestions might ignore.^[93] Historical precedents illustrate how incivility has catalyzed progress by countering complacency. During the civil rights era, actions deemed uncivil—such as Rosa Parks' refusal to yield her seat—ignited widespread mobilization and forced reevaluation of discriminatory norms, despite contemporary condemnations of rudeness.^[94] Confrontational tactics, including disruptive protests, complemented more restrained approaches by amplifying urgency and preventing stagnation in reform efforts, as seen in movements where diversity of methods pressured systemic change.^[95] These instances underscore that measured incivility can invigorate inquiry and adaptation, countering the inertia induced by unrelenting politeness.^[96]

Responses, Interventions, and Future Trends

Mitigation Strategies Across Domains

Individual-level mitigation strategies emphasize building personal resilience to withstand incivility without suppressing open expression. Resilience training, including mindfulness practices and cognitive rehearsal techniques, has been shown to buffer against the emotional toll of rudeness by enhancing emotional regulation and reducing turnover intentions.^[97] For instance, programs incorporating detachment, relaxation, and mastery experiences help mitigate exhaustion from workplace incivility.^[98] Norm reinforcement through self-directed practices, such as gratitude journaling or scenario-based role-playing, fosters adaptive coping without relying on external enforcement.^[99] In workplace and organizational settings, evidence-based programs focus on addressing underlying frustrations rather than mere behavioral policing. Cognitive rehearsal and simulation-based training have demonstrated statistically significant reductions in perceived incivility, particularly in multi-session formats targeting nurses and frontline staff.^[100] Interventions combining education on conflict resolution with clear codes of conduct promote civility by improving skills in de-escalation, though efficacy diminishes if root causes like workload pressures are overlooked.^[101] Meta-analyses indicate that such civility initiatives enhance organizational outcomes, including lower absenteeism and better retention, but only when integrated with leadership modeling unbiased communication.^[102]^[103] Institutional approaches in political and public spheres prioritize structured debate rules that maintain argumentative vigor while setting boundaries against personal attacks. Ground rules such as active listening, issue-focused discourse, and emotional management during public meetings reduce escalation without curtailing dissent.^[104] Science-based strategies, including perspective-taking exercises, encourage tolerance in polarized discussions by promoting rigorous detachment from identity-based conflicts.^[105]^[106] These methods preserve free exchange, as overly restrictive policing risks stifling legitimate critique, evidenced by historical precedents where robust incivility fueled substantive reform.^[107] Empirical evaluations reveal mixed success across domains, with interventions succeeding when they tackle grievances directly but faltering in top-down applications that ignore context. Studies report improved collegiality and health outcomes from civility training, yet reductions in incivility are inconsistent without addressing systemic stressors like staffing shortages.^[108]^[109] In nursing contexts, educational and rehearsal programs lowered general and supervisory incivility, but broader adoption requires voluntary participation to avoid backlash.^[101] Overall, while targeted strategies yield measurable benefits—such as decreased medical errors and enhanced patient safety—failures arise when programs impose uniformity over authentic resolution.^[110]^[72]

Observed Trends and Projections

Surveys indicate that workplace incivility reached record levels in 2024, with U.S. workers experiencing approximately 223 million acts daily, a surge attributed to political viewpoint differences that increased incivility by 27% during the election period.^[7] ^[56] This trend persisted into early 2025, as evidenced by SHRM's Q1 data showing 77% of employees witnessing incivility in the prior month, though some metrics suggest a slight taper from late-2024 peaks amid post-election fatigue.^[111] ^[112] In digital environments, incivility remains entrenched, with virtual interactions like emails and Slack exhibiting rising rudeness patterns, compounded by social media dynamics where disagreement frequently escalates to uncivil expression.^[113] ^[114] Projections link future incivility trajectories to ongoing political and social polarization, which empirical data correlates with heightened interpersonal friction rather than transient events.^[55] Causal analysis suggests that measures suppressing divergent views, such as institutional speech restrictions often aligned with progressive norms, may provoke backlash and amplify resentment, perpetuating cycles over fostering resolution.^[115] Potential stabilizing factors include regulatory efforts in platforms or organizational fatigue leading to disengagement, yet current evidence points to sustained elevation absent reductions in underlying polarization drivers like unmet psychological needs and group misconceptions.^[116] Significant data limitations hinder precise forecasting, as most assessments rely on self-reported incidents prone to subjective bias and recall inaccuracies, with few longitudinal studies incorporating objective behavioral metrics.^[98] ^[117] Enhanced research employing tracked interactions over extended periods is essential to distinguish genuine trends from perceptual artifacts and evaluate intervention efficacy beyond short-term surveys.^[118]

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Our study revealed that hostile attribution bias and negative reciprocity beliefs strengthened the positive relationship between workplace incivility and ...
[27]
Two field studies on the association between dehumanization and ...
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[28]
Is it them? Or is it you? Examining Perceptions of Workplace Incivility ...
Results indicated that conscientiousness, narcissism, and hostile attribution bias were positively related to perceptions of incivility. Qualitative analysis ...
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Divorce: More than a Century of Change, 1900-2018
Apr 6, 2021 · Almost four times as many women experienced a divorce in 2018 compared to 1900, with rates of 15.7 and 4.1, respectively. · The peak divorce rate ...
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How Religious Are Americans? - Gallup News
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Power, social context and the theory of Robert Putnam - Sage Journals
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[PDF] Bigotry, Civility, and Reinvigorating Civic Education
Mar 9, 2020 · believes the “identity politics” and “political correctness” of “left-wing tribalism” are doing so.10. Americans, some argue, have growing ...
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U.S. Diplomacy and Yellow Journalism, 1895–1898
Yellow journalism was a style of newspaper reporting that emphasized sensationalism over facts. During its heyday in the late 19th century it was one of many ...Missing: incivility discourse
[34]
Yellow Journalism | Definition and History | The Free Speech Center
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[PDF] civility in america 2019: - solutions for tomorrow
93% — identify incivility as a problem, with most classifying it as a “major” problem (68%). This.
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Civility Survey - Dreier Roundtable
Oct 4, 2025 · Americans encounter incivility with alarming frequency, reporting weekly or daily incidents of incivility both online (34%) and in person (33%).
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Rethinking Urban Incivility Research: Strangers, Bodies and ...
This was a random national sample survey collecting systematic narrative information on interpersonal encounters involving a rude stranger. Findings from the ...
[38]
Does Ethnic Diversity Have a Negative Effect on Attitudes towards ...
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[PDF] Communication Styles - Think Cultural Health
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Workplace incivility increased after Trump-Biden debate, survey shows
Oct 28, 2024 · With polarization and friction rife, DEI expert Sara Taylor says we should look at ourselves rather than blame others.
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Analysis of Threat and Harassment Data for the 2024 Election
Last month, election officials and poll workers from communities across the United States came together to facilitate the 2024 election.
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National Poll Reveals Immigration and Incivility Key Issues for Voters
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[43]
Political incivility of the highest order has been with us since this ...
Jun 28, 2023 · An examination of the history of American politics suggests to me that our political discourse has never been civil. Far from it in fact.
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When politicians behave badly: Political, democratic, and social ...
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[45]
Partisan Bias of Perceived Incivility and its Political Consequences
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Workplace Incivility May Be Costing U.S. Businesses $2B Per Day
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The Cost of Incivility: Addressing Workplace Challenges into 2025
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[52]
Incivility's Cost to Employers: $2 Billion a Day - SHRM
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[57]
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U.S. millennials are most likely to engage in trolling, study finds
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A meta-analysis of experienced incivility and its correlates
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Advancing Workplace Civility: a systematic review and meta ...
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The COVID-19 Pandemic and Rising Incivility - Ray Williams - Medium
Sep 12, 2021 · Incivility in America has been an increasing concern of the public, and the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to the problem.
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Business loses $2 billion a day from office rudeness, study says. Is ...
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Researchers Ask: Does Enforcing Civility Stifle Online Debate?
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[PDF] Civility in America VII - Weber Shandwick
Nearly six in 10 (58%) feel that the media exaggerates the problem of incivility. Despite the pervasive incivility in society, Americans seem unwilling to take.
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93 Percent of Americans Agree the U.S. Has a Civility Problem, Yet ...
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Correlating Self-Report and Trace Data Measures of Incivility
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Why Are Self-Report and Behavioral Measures Weakly Correlated?
The weak correlations between self-report and behavioral measures of the presumed same construct result from the poor reliability of many behavioral measures ...
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Jeffrey M. Berry, Sarah Sobieraj - The Outrage Industry | PDF | News
Rating 5.0 (2) WHAT'S NEW ABOUT THE NEW INCIVILITY? Many will rightly note that American political media have always had out- rageous elements. Whether we think of yellow ...
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How Online Incivility Can Undermine Perceptions of Media
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When Incivility Is a Form of Civility: Challenging the Comfort of Willful ...
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The purpose of this systematic review was to identify the factors that are associated with intentions to blow the whistle on wrongdoing.
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America's nonviolent civil rights movement was considered uncivil ...
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Why do protestors use disruptive, confrontational tactics? New ...
May 20, 2025 · These actions may sometimes include confrontational tactics such as civil disobedience, disruption and, at times, violent resistance.
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(PDF) Disobedience and the ideology of civility - Academia.edu
By challenging traditional notions of civil disobedience, the work explores how accusations of incivility ... It can aim at systemic transformations, as arguably ...<|separator|>
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Mind over matter: mindfulness as a buffer against workplace incivility
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Resilience to Workplace Incivility: How Different Recovery ...
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19 Resilience Activities & Training to Overcome Adversity
Oct 7, 2025 · Resilience-building activities like gratitude journaling & mindfulness exercises enhance coping skills & emotional strength.
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Interventions to Address Clinical Incivility in Nursing: A Systematic ...
Eight studies demonstrated statistically significant reductions in perceived incivility, particularly those with simulation-based, multi-session, or ...
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Effectiveness of educational intervention and cognitive rehearsal on ...
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Advancing Workplace Civility: a systematic review and meta ...
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Evidence-based actions for civility and respect
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Feb 27, 2020 · Based on my knowledge of psychological research, here are four approaches you can use to overcome divisiveness.
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Strategies for Practicing Constructive Disagreement
Separate Ideas From Personal Identity. For people who like politics, it can be easy to define your identity by the ideas you hold. · Practice Rigorous Detachment.
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Three Cheers For Political Incivility - Hoover Institution
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The impact of civility interventions on employee social behavior ...
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From incivility to outcomes: tracing the effects of nursing ... - NIH
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The Benefits of Civility Training to Counteract Healthcare Workplace ...
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Workplace Incivility: What Leaders Can Do to Help Lower the ...
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Incivility Takes a Hit on Worker Mental Health, SHRM Data Finds
Jun 2, 2025 · While the latest data from the Civility Index indicates that uncivil behaviors may have tapered down since the 2024 election season — ...
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When Workplace Incivility Goes Virtual - SHRM
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Incivility in Online Discussion as a Collective Phenomenon
Jul 14, 2025 · Drawing from dynamic systems theory, we examine how incivility is collectively constructed in an online discussion community.
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What the psychology of conflict zones can teach us about incivility
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The impact of interprofessional incivility on medical performance ...
Interprofessional incivility causes stress, compromised patient safety, poor care quality, medical errors, and increased mortality, impacting medical ...Missing: aiding | Show results with:aiding
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Workplace incivility as a risk factor for workplace bullying and ...
Dec 12, 2022 · The findings of the present study suggests that workplace incivility can be a risk factor for future bullying. In addition, the findings suggest ...