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Multiomics

Multi-omics is an integrative approach in systems biology that combines data from multiple high-throughput omics technologies, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, epigenomics, microbiomics, and emerging modalities like single-cell and spatial omics, to generate a comprehensive, multidimensional view of biological systems and their dysregulation in disease.^[1] This method addresses the limitations of single-omics studies by capturing interactions across molecular layers—from DNA alterations to protein function and metabolite profiles—enabling deeper insights into genotype-phenotype relationships and complex pathways.^[2] The origins of multi-omics trace back to foundational omics advancements, including the Human Genome Project completed in 2003, which established genomics as a cornerstone for high-throughput analysis.^[3] The field gained momentum in the 2010s with innovations in next-generation sequencing (NGS), mass spectrometry for proteomics, and computational tools for data integration, leading to a surge in publications—particularly in cancer and human health studies—by the late 2010s.^[2] Key milestones include cost reductions in whole-genome sequencing to under $500 by 2021 and the rise of single-cell technologies around 2016, which expanded multi-omics to resolve heterogeneity at cellular resolution.^[3]^[1] In applications, multi-omics has transformed precision medicine by facilitating biomarker discovery, patient subtyping, prognosis prediction, and drug target identification across diseases like cancer, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, type 2 diabetes, and aging-related conditions.^[2]^[1] For instance, in oncology, it integrates genomic mutations with transcriptomic and proteomic data to match therapies, improving response rates in trials like WINTHER (from 23% to 35% treatment matching).^[3] Beyond human health, it supports agricultural and environmental research by elucidating molecular mechanisms in model organisms.^[2] Despite its promise, multi-omics faces challenges in data heterogeneity, integration complexity, missing values, high computational demands, and ensuring reproducibility through standardized pipelines and FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) principles.^[2]^[1] Ongoing developments in machine learning and multimodal technologies aim to overcome these hurdles, positioning multi-omics as a cornerstone for future biological discovery.^[3]

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Multiomics refers to the simultaneous analysis and integration of multiple "omics" datasets, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, to capture complex interactions across biological scales from DNA to phenotype.^[4] This approach, also known as panomics, emphasizes the combined study of diverse molecular layers to provide a more complete picture of biological systems than isolated analyses.^[5] By integrating data from at least three omics layers derived from different regulatory levels, multiomics enables the elucidation of dynamic processes that govern cellular function.^[4] The core objectives of multiomics include achieving a holistic view of cellular mechanisms, identifying regulatory networks that link molecular events, and predicting phenotypic outcomes from genotypic variations.^[4] These goals address the inherent limitations of single-omics studies, which often fail to account for post-transcriptional, post-translational, or environmental influences—for instance, genomic data alone cannot reveal how transcriptomic regulation modulates protein activity.^[4] Multiomics overcomes these constraints by layering complementary data types, thereby revealing causal relationships and reducing noise from individual modalities to support applications like biomarker discovery.^[4] Key concepts in multiomics distinguish between vertical integration, which aligns data across molecular layers (e.g., genome to metabolome) within the same samples to trace regulatory cascades, and horizontal integration, which combines data from the same omics layer across different samples or conditions to identify population-level patterns.^[6] For example, multiomics can uncover emergent properties such as pathway crosstalk, where interactions between signaling pathways like Hippo and immune responses in tumors become evident only through integrated analyses, highlighting regulatory dynamics invisible in single-omics views.^[7]

Historical Development

The historical development of multiomics originated from the sequential emergence of individual omics disciplines, beginning with foundational advances in DNA sequencing. In 1977, Frederick Sanger and colleagues developed the chain-termination method for DNA sequencing, enabling the analysis of genetic material at scale and setting the stage for genomics. The Human Genome Project, initiated in 1990 and culminating in a draft sequence in 2001 and a complete version in 2003, represented a landmark effort that sequenced the entire human genome, fostering the birth of high-throughput genomic studies. Building on this, transcriptomics advanced in 1995 with the introduction of DNA microarrays by Patrick Brown and colleagues, which allowed simultaneous measurement of thousands of gene expression levels. Proteomics, meanwhile, gained momentum in the early 2000s through refinements in two-dimensional gel electrophoresis—pioneered in 1975—and mass spectrometry, with the Human Proteome Organization (HUPO) established in 2001 to coordinate global efforts. Key technological drivers in the mid-2000s transformed these silos into integrated possibilities. The advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, such as 454 pyrosequencing introduced by 454 Life Sciences in 2005, dramatically reduced costs and increased throughput, making large-scale omics data generation feasible. Concurrently, the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) project, launched by the National Human Genome Research Institute in 2003, began systematically mapping functional elements across the genome, providing layered datasets that highlighted the need for multi-level analyses. Leroy Hood, a pioneer in systems biology, played a crucial role by founding the Institute for Systems Biology in 2000 and advocating for holistic biological profiling that integrated genomics, proteomics, and beyond, influencing the shift toward systems-oriented research. The concept of multiomics coalesced in the late 2000s and early 2010s as computational and experimental tools matured to handle data integration. The term "multi-omics" first appeared in scientific literature in 2002,^[8] reflecting efforts to combine multiple omics layers for a more comprehensive view of biological systems, as seen in early reviews on disease modeling. A pivotal milestone was the 2012 launch of the Integrative Human Microbiome Project (iHMP) by the National Institutes of Health, the first large-scale initiative to profile microbial communities using integrated genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data from human cohorts. By the mid-2010s, single-cell multiomics emerged, with technologies like combined single-cell RNA sequencing and epigenomics profiling post-2015 enabling resolution of cellular heterogeneity, exemplified by methods such as those developed in 2016 for multiplexed assays. These advancements, culminating in AI-assisted integration by the 2020s, underscored multiomics' evolution from isolated omics to a unified framework for understanding complex biology.^[9]

Omics Data Types

Core Omics Layers

The core omics layers form the foundational components of multiomics research, capturing sequential levels of biological information from genetic material to downstream functional outputs. These layers—genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenomics—enable a comprehensive view of molecular processes by profiling distinct biomolecular entities, their generation typically relies on high-throughput technologies, and their data exhibit unique characteristics suited to specific analytical approaches. Together, they reflect the central dogma of molecular biology, where genetic information flows from DNA to RNA, proteins, and ultimately metabolites, allowing researchers to trace regulatory cascades and phenotypic outcomes.^[10] Genomics focuses on the complete set of DNA within an organism, including its sequence variants, structural features, and functional elements. It primarily examines genetic variations such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copy number variations (CNVs), which influence disease susceptibility and trait inheritance. Genomic data are generated through next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, such as Illumina platforms, which enable high-throughput reading of DNA fragments to produce raw sequence reads or processed variant calls. The resulting data consist of aligned sequences, variant frequency tables, or genome-wide maps, often quantified in terms of coverage depth (e.g., 30x for whole-genome sequencing) to ensure accuracy.^[11]^[11]^[11] Transcriptomics investigates the transcriptome, defined as the full repertoire of RNA molecules transcribed from the genome, to assess gene expression dynamics and alternative splicing events. It reveals how environmental cues or genetic factors modulate RNA abundance, providing insights into cellular responses and regulatory networks. Transcriptomic profiles are commonly produced using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), which involves reverse transcription of RNA to cDNA followed by NGS, yielding high-resolution data on transcript diversity. Key data outputs include read counts per gene, normalized metrics like fragments per kilobase of transcript per million mapped reads (FPKM), or differential expression matrices, capturing both coding and non-coding RNAs.^[12]^[12]^[12]^[12] Proteomics targets the proteome, the entire collection of proteins expressed by a genome, emphasizing their abundance, post-translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation), and interactions that determine cellular function. Unlike nucleic acid-based layers, proteomics accounts for the dynamic and context-dependent nature of proteins, which cannot be fully predicted from genomic or transcriptomic data due to regulatory discrepancies. Data are primarily generated via mass spectrometry (MS), including liquid chromatography-tandem MS (LC-MS/MS), where proteins are digested into peptides, ionized, and fragmented for identification and quantification. Outputs comprise spectral intensities, peptide-spectrum matches, or label-free quantification values, often revealing thousands of proteins per sample with variability in detection limits around 10-100 ng/mL.^[13]^[13]^[13]^[13] Metabolomics profiles the metabolome, encompassing all small-molecule metabolites (typically <1,500 Da) that reflect the end products of cellular metabolism and physiological states. It captures biochemical pathways influenced by genetics, environment, and lifestyle, offering a snapshot of organismal phenotype closer to clinical outcomes than upstream omics. Metabolites are detected using analytical platforms like liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or gas chromatography-MS (GC-MS), which separate and ionize compounds for identification against databases. Data characteristics include peak areas or relative concentrations for hundreds to thousands of features, normalized to internal standards, with challenges in absolute quantification due to matrix effects.^[14]^[14]^[14]^[14] Epigenomics examines epigenetic modifications across the genome, such as DNA methylation and histone marks, which regulate gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. These layers provide mechanistic insights into how environmental factors induce heritable changes in chromatin structure and accessibility. Common methods include bisulfite sequencing for DNA methylation and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) for histone modifications, enabling genome-wide mapping. Data are represented as enrichment scores, beta values (0-1 for methylation levels), or peak calls at regulatory regions like promoters, highlighting dynamic patterns in development and disease.^[15]^[15]^[15]^[15] These core layers interconnect hierarchically: genomic variations underpin transcriptomic regulation, which translates to proteomic outputs, further influencing metabolomic profiles, thus forming a unified framework for dissecting complex biological systems.^[10]

Emerging Omics Modalities

Emerging omics modalities encompass specialized layers that extend the scope of multiomics by capturing niche molecular and environmental features, such as lipid dynamics, glycan modifications, microbial ecosystems, and protein interaction networks, thereby enhancing the understanding of cellular function and host-environment interactions.^[16] These approaches, often enabled by post-2010 technological refinements in mass spectrometry and sequencing, provide complementary data to core omics layers, revealing functional dimensions like signaling pathways and community-level influences that are critical for systems biology.^[17] Lipidomics profiles the diverse lipid species within cells and tissues, focusing on their roles in membrane structure, energy storage, and signaling cascades. Shotgun lipidomics, which analyzes intact lipids directly from crude extracts without prior separation, has seen significant advancements since 2010, including higher-resolution mass spectrometry that enables quantitative detection of hundreds of lipid subclasses with improved sensitivity and throughput.^[17] For instance, multidimensional mass spectrometry strategies in shotgun lipidomics have facilitated the identification of lipid alterations in diseases like atherosclerosis, where specific phospholipid changes correlate with inflammatory responses.^[18] This modality adds depth to multiomics by linking lipid composition to dynamic processes, such as vesicle trafficking and receptor activation, which are not fully captured by genomic or proteomic data alone. Glycomics investigates the structure and function of glycans—complex carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids—essential for processes like cell adhesion, immune recognition, and pathogen interactions. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) has emerged as a key technique for glycan profiling, allowing high-throughput analysis of glycosylation patterns in biological samples.^[19] In immunity and cancer, glycomics reveals aberrant glycan structures, such as truncated sialylated glycans on tumor cells that promote immune evasion and metastasis.^[20] Recent MALDI-MS innovations, including imaging variants, enable spatial mapping of glycans in tissues, contributing to multiomics by elucidating how glycosylation modulates protein function and influences disease progression in contexts like oncology.^[21] Microbiomics examines the composition, diversity, and functional potential of microbial communities, particularly in the human gut, skin, and other niches, highlighting their impact on host physiology through metabolite production and immune modulation. 16S rRNA gene sequencing targets conserved bacterial ribosomal genes to assess taxonomic diversity, while shotgun metagenomics provides functional gene content via whole-community genome sequencing.^[22] These methods have uncovered host-microbe interactions, such as how gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids regulate epithelial barrier integrity and inflammation.^[23] In multiomics frameworks, microbiomics introduces an environmental dimension, integrating microbial data with host omics to model dysbiosis in conditions like inflammatory bowel disease. Interactomics maps protein-protein interactions (PPIs) to construct networks that reveal signaling complexes and regulatory hubs within cells. Techniques like yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening detect binary interactions in vivo, while affinity purification-mass spectrometry (AP-MS) captures native complexes for proteomic identification.^[24] Recent AP-MS advancements, including quantitative crosslinking and proximity labeling, have expanded interactome maps to over 10,000 human PPIs, visualized as dynamic networks that inform pathway perturbations.^[25] This modality enriches multiomics by providing structural insights into functional assemblies, such as kinase-substrate networks in cancer signaling. Technological enablers have further propelled these modalities since 2012, notably CRISPR-based epigenome editing, which uses deactivated Cas9 fused to epigenetic modifiers to precisely alter DNA methylation or histone marks without sequence changes.^[26] This tool facilitates targeted epigenomic profiling in multiomics studies, linking regulatory landscapes to gene expression in development and disease. Complementing this, long-read sequencing technologies, such as Pacific Biosciences and Oxford Nanopore, resolve complex structural variants like insertions and inversions that short-read methods miss, enhancing genomic context for emerging omics layers.^[27] For example, long-read data has identified microbiome-associated structural variants influencing host susceptibility to infections, adding layers of genomic-environmental interplay.^[28]

Data Acquisition and Integration

Multiomic Data Collection Methods

Multiomic data collection can occur through sequential or simultaneous approaches, each tailored to capture multiple molecular layers from the same biological sample while minimizing technical artifacts such as batch effects. In sequential collection, analytes are extracted in a stepwise manner from bulk tissues, allowing for the isolation of DNA, RNA, and proteins from a single sample to ensure direct comparability across layers. For instance, commercial kits like the Qiagen AllPrep DNA/RNA/Protein Mini Kit, introduced in the late 2000s, enable the simultaneous purification of high-quality genomic DNA and total RNA from cells and tissues in a single spin-column format, reducing sample heterogeneity and preserving molecular integrity for downstream analyses. This method has been widely adopted in bulk multiomics studies to avoid splitting samples, which could introduce variability.^[29]^[30] Simultaneous collection, often via multimodal assays, integrates multiple omics layers in a single experimental workflow, particularly advantageous for single-cell resolutions where sample scarcity is a concern. These assays couple techniques like oligonucleotide-tagged antibodies or transposase-based indexing to profile transcriptomes alongside other modalities without physical separation. A prominent example is CITE-seq (cellular indexing of transcriptomes and epitopes by sequencing), which simultaneously measures single-cell mRNA expression and surface protein levels using DNA-barcoded antibodies, enabling the detection of up to 100 proteins alongside the full transcriptome in thousands of cells. Similarly, SHARE-seq facilitates joint profiling of chromatin accessibility and gene expression by combining ATAC-seq-like tagmentation with RNA capture, allowing high-throughput analysis of regulatory elements and transcriptional states in hundreds of single nuclei from frozen tissues. Such methods enhance compatibility by processing all layers in parallel, reducing batch effects inherent in separate assays. Sample preparation poses significant challenges in multiomic collection, particularly in preserving the integrity of diverse biomolecules across scales from bulk tissues to single cells. Effective preservation methods, such as snap-freezing samples in liquid nitrogen immediately after collection, are essential to halt degradation of labile components like RNA and proteins while maintaining chromatin structure for epigenomic assays. This approach is critical for bulk extractions, where tissues are homogenized prior to multi-layer isolation, and extends to single-cell workflows, where dissociation protocols must balance cell viability with multiomic yield—often favoring nuclei isolation over whole cells to improve RNA recovery and reduce cytoplasmic contamination. Scaling from bulk (millions of cells) to single-cell levels requires optimized lysis conditions to avoid cross-contamination between layers, with challenges amplified in heterogeneous tissues like tumors.^[31] Experimental designs in multiomics emphasize strategies that capture temporal or population-level dynamics while ensuring robust data across layers. Longitudinal sampling, involving repeated collections from the same subjects over time, is particularly valuable for studying disease progression or treatment responses, as it links multiomic changes to clinical trajectories without confounding inter-individual variability. Large-scale cohort studies exemplify this, such as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), a multiomics initiative spanning 2006 to 2016 that profiled genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic data from approximately 11,000 primary tumor samples across 33 cancer types, providing a benchmark for minimizing batch effects through standardized protocols and sample matching. These designs typically incorporate power calculations for cohort sizes to detect subtle multi-layer associations, prioritizing paired samples to enhance signal-to-noise ratios.^[32]^[33] Quality control during multiomic data collection is vital for cross-layer comparability, focusing on normalization techniques to account for technical variations in yield and sequencing depth. Spike-in controls, such as External RNA Controls Consortium (ERCC) synthetic transcripts added at known concentrations prior to library preparation, serve as internal standards for calibrating RNA abundance across samples and layers, enabling accurate normalization of transcriptomic data relative to genomic or proteomic profiles. In multimodal assays, additional QC metrics like library complexity checks and batch effect assessments via principal component analysis ensure that variations arise from biology rather than processing artifacts, with thresholds for read depth and coverage uniformity applied to filter low-quality samples before integration.^[34]

Data Integration Strategies

Data integration strategies in multiomics involve computational and statistical frameworks designed to combine heterogeneous datasets from multiple omics layers, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, to uncover correlated patterns, infer causal relationships, and enhance biological insights. These strategies are broadly classified into unsupervised and supervised approaches, as well as vertical and horizontal integration paradigms, addressing challenges like high dimensionality, data heterogeneity, and missing values. Vertical integration fuses different omics types measured on the same samples to model joint distributions, while horizontal integration aligns similar omics data across independent studies or cohorts to mitigate batch effects and enable meta-analyses.^[35]^[6] Unsupervised methods focus on dimensionality reduction and latent factor discovery without prior labels, facilitating exploratory analysis of multiomics data. Principal component analysis (PCA) and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) are commonly applied for reducing high-dimensional multiomics datasets into lower-dimensional representations that preserve global and local structures, respectively, allowing visualization of cross-omics relationships.^[36] A seminal unsupervised framework is Multi-Omics Factor Analysis (MOFA), introduced in 2018, which decomposes variation across omics layers into shared and modality-specific factors using a probabilistic factor analysis model, enabling the identification of principal sources of variation in datasets like those from cancer studies. Supervised approaches incorporate phenotypic or outcome information to guide integration, often through network-based or probabilistic models for targeted correlation and causal inference. Network-based methods, such as Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), construct co-expression modules across omics layers to reveal interconnected modules associated with traits, as demonstrated in transcriptomics-proteomics integrations.^[37] Bayesian models provide probabilistic fusion by modeling uncertainties and dependencies, for instance, through hierarchical frameworks that integrate multiomics data with missing values via Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling, supporting joint inference in disease association studies.^[38] Vertical integration employs layer-specific models for joint analysis of matched multiomics data on the same samples, exemplified by iCluster, a 2009 method that performs integrative clustering via a joint latent variable model. iCluster maximizes a joint likelihood across omics to identify sample clusters and subtype-specific features, formulated as:

L = \sum \log P(\mathbf{X}_g | \mathbf{Z}, \theta_g) + \log P(\mathbf{Z} | \theta_z)

where \mathbf{X}_g denotes data from the g-th omics layer, \mathbf{Z} is the shared latent cluster assignment, and \theta parameters are estimated via expectation-maximization, applied successfully to breast and lung cancer subtype analysis.^[39] Horizontal integration facilitates meta-analysis by combining similar omics data from multiple studies, addressing heterogeneity through batch correction techniques like ComBat, which adjusts for known or unknown batch effects using empirical Bayes estimation to remove non-biological variance while preserving signals.^[10] This approach enhances statistical power in large-scale consortia, such as those integrating transcriptomics across cohorts for gene expression meta-analysis. To ensure reproducibility and interoperability, multiomics integration adheres to standards like the Minimum Information About BIobank data Sharing (MIABIS) ontology, which standardizes metadata descriptions for biobanks and omics samples, including attributes for data provenance and experimental conditions.^[40] Workflows often leverage tools such as the R-based MixOmics package, which implements multivariate methods like sparse partial least squares for unsupervised and supervised integration, supporting correlation analysis across omics in diverse biological contexts.

Advanced Techniques

Single-Cell Multiomics

Single-cell multiomics extends multiomic profiling to the resolution of individual cells, allowing the simultaneous measurement of multiple molecular layers such as transcriptomes, epigenomes, and proteomes within heterogeneous populations. This approach overcomes the averaging effects of bulk multiomics by capturing cellular diversity, enabling the dissection of rare subpopulations and dynamic processes that are masked in population-level analyses. Key advancements include methods that integrate single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) with assays for chromatin accessibility or surface proteins, facilitating a deeper understanding of regulatory mechanisms at the single-cell level.^[41] Core technologies in single-cell multiomics have evolved to jointly profile RNA and other modalities. For instance, sci-CAR combines scRNA-seq with single-cell ATAC-seq (scATAC-seq) through combinatorial indexing, enabling scalable profiling of both gene expression and chromatin accessibility in thousands of cells from complex tissues like the mouse brain. Similarly, REAP-seq (RNA expression and protein sequencing) uses oligonucleotide-tagged antibodies to simultaneously quantify transcripts and surface proteins, such as immune markers, in human T cells, providing insights into protein-RNA correlations without spatial information. These methods build on foundational scRNA-seq platforms, adapting them for multimodal capture.^[42] The typical workflow for single-cell multiomics begins with cell isolation, often using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for enrichment of specific populations or droplet-based encapsulation for high-throughput processing, as in the 10x Genomics Chromium system, which partitions cells into nanoliter droplets for efficient handling of up to 10,000 cells per run. Cells or nuclei are then barcoded with unique molecular identifiers (UMIs) during reverse transcription or amplification, followed by pooled library preparation and joint sequencing on platforms like Illumina NovaSeq, where multimodal reads are demultiplexed based on barcodes to assign features to individual cells. This process ensures traceability of omics layers to the same cell while minimizing batch effects.^[43] Single-cell multiomic data are characterized by high dimensionality and sparsity, typically represented as count matrices with 10^4 to 10^5 features (e.g., genes, peaks, or proteins) per cell, but with only a fraction detected due to technical dropout rates exceeding 80% for lowly expressed features. To address missing values arising from this sparsity, imputation methods like MAGIC (Markov affinity-based graph imputation of cells) apply diffusion-based smoothing across similar cells, recovering continuous gene expression patterns and reducing noise without introducing artifacts.^[44] These data structures demand specialized preprocessing to handle zero-inflation and variability.^[41] A primary advantage of single-cell multiomics lies in its ability to resolve heterogeneous cell states, such as distinguishing malignant subclones in tumors or tracking differentiation trajectories during embryonic development, where bulk methods fail to capture transitions. For example, trajectory inference tools like Monocle order cells along pseudotime based on multiomic features, revealing regulatory dynamics in processes like myoblast differentiation. This resolution has illuminated cell fate decisions that drive phenotypic diversity. However, single-cell multiomics faces resolution limits due to inherent trade-offs between throughput and depth; while platforms like 10x Genomics enable profiling up to 10^6 cells in extended runs, this often reduces per-cell molecular coverage to a few thousand reads, limiting detection of rare transcripts or low-abundance proteins. Increasing depth via deeper sequencing improves sensitivity but scales costs quadratically, constraining applications to targeted subsets rather than whole tissues. Ongoing optimizations aim to balance these constraints for broader utility. As of 2025, deep learning-based methods like scAI and DCCA have advanced integration of single-cell multi-omics data, preserving biological signals more effectively than traditional approaches.^[45]^[43]

Spatial Multiomics

Spatial multiomics refers to the integration of multiple omics layers—such as transcriptomics, proteomics, and genomics—while preserving the spatial context within tissues, enabling the mapping of molecular profiles to specific locations to uncover tissue organization, cellular interactions, and functional heterogeneity. Unlike dissociated single-cell approaches, spatial multiomics maintains the positional information of cells and molecules, revealing how omics data varies across microenvironments in intact tissues. This approach has become essential for studying complex biological systems where location influences function, such as in developmental biology and pathology.^[46] Key technologies in spatial multiomics include sequencing-based and imaging-based platforms that capture multiomic data at varying resolutions. The Visium platform from 10x Genomics, introduced in 2019, enables unbiased spatial transcriptomics by capturing mRNA on barcoded slides with approximately 55 µm spot resolution, allowing whole-transcriptome profiling across tissue sections. For protein and DNA analysis, NanoString's GeoMx Digital Spatial Profiler uses targeted probes to quantify up to hundreds of analytes in user-defined regions of interest, supporting multiomic overlays on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples. High-resolution imaging methods like MERFISH (multiplexed error-robust fluorescence in situ hybridization), developed in 2015, achieve subcellular resolution for RNA detection, imaging thousands of transcripts per cell through combinatorial barcoding and error correction. These technologies generate data structured as voxel-based matrices, where each spatial coordinate (e.g., spot or pixel) is associated with multiomic features, facilitating the visualization of molecular distributions in 2D or 3D tissue maps.^[47]^[48] Integration of multiomic layers in spatial contexts involves overlaying datasets from complementary modalities to correlate, for instance, RNA expression with protein localization. Platforms like NanoString's CosMx, launched in 2022, enable simultaneous high-plex imaging of over 1,000 RNAs and 100 proteins at subcellular resolution (<1 µm), allowing direct multiomic profiling within the same tissue section to study co-localization patterns. Deconvolution algorithms such as SPOTlight enhance integration by inferring cell-type compositions in low-resolution spots using single-cell references, improving the granularity of multiomic maps without additional experiments. In applications like mapping tumor microenvironments, spatial multiomics has revealed heterogeneous interactions between cancer cells, immune infiltrates, and stromal components, such as altered signaling gradients in glioblastoma that drive therapeutic resistance. For example, integrating transcriptomic and proteomic data has identified spatially restricted immune checkpoints in solid tumors, informing targeted immunotherapies. Post-2020 advances have focused on multimodal platforms that combine sequencing and imaging for broader coverage and higher throughput. SeqFISH+, an extension of sequential FISH introduced in 2019, profiles over 10,000 genes at near-single-molecule resolution by iterative hybridization rounds, enabling dense multiomic atlases of tissues like the mouse brain with minimal optical crowding. These developments have expanded spatial multiomics to include epigenomic layers, such as spatial ATAC-seq for chromatin accessibility, integrated with transcriptomics to link regulatory elements to spatial gene expression. As of 2025, methods like MultiGATE provide integrative analysis and regulatory inference in spatial multi-omics, jointly profiling transcriptome and epigenome/protein markers.^[49] Despite these progresses, challenges persist, including resolution trade-offs—spot-level methods like Visium average signals across multiple cells, while subcellular imaging like MERFISH demands extensive computational resources for error correction and data alignment. High-dimensional multiomic datasets also require scalable algorithms to handle noise, batch effects, and the computational intensity of 3D reconstructions, limiting widespread adoption in resource-constrained settings.^[50]^[46]

Computational Tools

Software and Algorithms

Software and algorithms are essential for handling the complexity of multiomic data, encompassing preprocessing to ensure data quality, integration to combine disparate layers, visualization to reveal patterns, and comprehensive platforms for end-to-end workflows. These tools emphasize scalability to manage terabyte-scale datasets and interoperability through standardized formats like those in Bioconductor, an R-based ecosystem with over 2,360 packages (as of release 3.22 in 2025) facilitating multiomic analyses. Benchmarks highlight their performance in high-throughput environments. In preprocessing, FastQC provides quality control for next-generation sequencing data by evaluating metrics like per-base sequence quality and GC content, generating interactive HTML reports for rapid assessment. STAR, an ultrafast aligner for RNA-seq reads, supports spliced alignments and handles up to billions of reads efficiently, achieving speeds significantly faster than many comparable tools, as demonstrated in early benchmarks. For multiomic-specific preprocessing, MultiQC aggregates outputs from tools like FastQC and STAR across multiple samples and omics types into unified reports. Integration platforms enable the fusion of multiomic datasets to uncover shared variations. MOFA2, an extension of Multi-Omics Factor Analysis, uses unsupervised factor analysis to decompose multi-view data into latent factors, supporting diverse modalities like genomics and proteomics while handling missing data through variational inference for scalable training on large datasets.^[51] NEMO (Neighborhood-based Multi-Omics clustering) integrates partial multiomic profiles via kernel-based similarity measures, performing robust clustering even when some omics are unavailable for subsets of samples, as demonstrated in cancer subtyping benchmarks where it outperformed similarity-network fusion methods in accuracy.^[52] Visualization tools aid in interpreting integrated results through intuitive representations. Cytoscape facilitates network-based views of multiomic interactions, with apps like MultiGraph enabling layered displays of genomic and proteomic edges for exploring correlations. In R, ggplot2 extensions such as ComplexHeatmap support multi-layer heatmaps to depict hierarchical patterns across omics, allowing annotation tracks for metadata and scalable rendering for datasets with millions of features. Comprehensive suites streamline multiomic pipelines. Galaxy, a web-based platform introduced in 2005, offers modular workflows integrating preprocessing tools like STAR and integration methods like MOFA2, promoting reproducibility through shareable histories and scalability via cloud deployments handling petabyte-scale data. Partek Flow, a proprietary solution, provides a graphical interface for multiomic analysis, including automated alignment, variant calling, and factor analysis. Selection criteria for these tools prioritize scalability and interoperability, exemplified by Bioconductor's S4 classes for seamless data exchange between packages like MOFA2 and visualization tools.

Machine Learning Applications

Machine learning has revolutionized multiomics analysis by enabling the handling of high-dimensional, heterogeneous data to uncover patterns that traditional statistical methods often miss. In supervised learning paradigms, random forests have been particularly effective for biomarker discovery, as they aggregate predictions from multiple decision trees to identify key features across omics layers such as genomics and proteomics. For instance, random forests integrate multiomics data to predict disease outcomes while ranking biomarkers based on their contribution to classification accuracy. Feature importance in random forests is derived from the mean decrease in Gini impurity across trees, where the Gini index for a node with class proportions p_i is given by

Gini = 1 - \sum_{i=1}^{C} p_i^2,

and importance is the weighted sum of impurity reductions from splits on that feature, scaled by the number of samples at each node. This approach has demonstrated superior performance in identifying robust biomarkers from integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic datasets.^[53] Deep learning techniques further enhance multiomics by capturing nonlinear relationships and reducing dimensionality. Autoencoders, particularly variational autoencoders (VAEs), compress multiomic profiles into low-dimensional latent spaces while preserving biological variance, facilitating downstream tasks like integration of single-cell RNA-seq with epigenomic data. A seminal example is scVI, a deep generative model that uses a VAE framework to model count-based omics data, accounting for technical noise and batch effects to yield biologically interpretable embeddings. Graph neural networks (GNNs) extend this by modeling interactomes, where nodes represent genes or proteins and edges capture interactions from multiomics sources; GNNs propagate information through these graphs to predict functional modules, improving accuracy in cancer subtyping by 10-20% compared to non-graph methods.^[54] Unsupervised learning with VAEs enables clustering of multiomic samples to reveal subtypes without labels, as seen in frameworks that jointly embed genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data into a shared latent space for hierarchical clustering. These models leverage the evidence lower bound (ELBO) objective to balance reconstruction fidelity and regularization, yielding clusters that align with known disease heterogeneity. Anomaly detection, another unsupervised application, identifies outliers in disease cohorts by reconstructing multiomic profiles and flagging high reconstruction errors, which has proven useful in detecting rare variants in cancer progression studies. For example, VAE-based detectors have isolated anomalous metabolic profiles in tumor cohorts with precision exceeding 85%.^[55] Recent advances incorporate large language models (LLMs) for interpreting multiomic outputs, where post-2023 models fine-tuned on omics sequences generate hypotheses about regulatory mechanisms, such as linking variants to pathway disruptions with contextual explanations. Federated learning addresses privacy concerns in multi-site multiomics by training models across distributed datasets without centralizing sensitive information, using techniques like differential privacy to aggregate gradients; this has enabled collaborative analysis of genomic cohorts from multiple hospitals while maintaining data security.^[56]^[57] A practical case is predicting drug response from multiomic profiles using the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) database, where deep learning models integrate mutation, expression, and copy number data to forecast sensitivity, achieving Pearson correlations of 0.7-0.8 for hundreds of compounds. These predictions guide personalized therapies by prioritizing drugs targeting patient-specific vulnerabilities, as validated in cross-cohort evaluations.^[58]

Applications in Biology and Medicine

Health and Disease Studies

Multiomics approaches have revolutionized the study of cancer by integrating genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic data to uncover driver mutations and molecular subtypes. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) Pan-Cancer Analysis Project, initiated in 2013, initially profiled tumors across 12 cancer types, revealing recurrent driver mutations such as those in TP53 and PIK3CA, and defining subtypes like the four breast cancer intrinsic subtypes (luminal A, luminal B, HER2-enriched, and basal-like) through multiplatform analyses including DNA sequencing, RNA expression, and methylation profiling.^[59] These efforts extended into the Pan-Cancer Atlas, which analyzed over 11,000 tumors across 33 cancer types, further delineating pan-cancer themes in pathway alterations and immune landscapes, enabling the identification of actionable therapeutic targets across tumor types.^[60] In immunotherapy contexts, multiomic signatures have predicted responses to checkpoint inhibitors; for instance, profiling of melanoma patients treated with anti-PD-1 therapy identified immunosuppressive features in non-responding tumors, such as reduced T-cell infiltration and altered metabolic profiles, achieving predictive accuracy with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.84.^[61] In neurodegenerative diseases, multiomics has elucidated complex interactions between pathology markers and metabolic pathways, particularly in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The Accelerating Medicines Partnership-Alzheimer's Disease (AMP-AD) consortium, launched in 2014 with key analyses from 2015 onward, integrated transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data from brain tissues and cohorts like the Religious Orders Study and Rush Memory and Aging Project, revealing links between amyloid-beta plaques, tau tangles, and dysregulated metabolites such as altered lipid and amino acid pathways that exacerbate neuronal damage.^[62] A comprehensive metabolomics study within AMP-AD identified 298 brain metabolites associated with AD traits, including 188 linked to tau tangles and 34 to amyloid-beta deposition, highlighting pathways like sphingolipid metabolism as potential therapeutic targets and correlating these changes with cognitive decline severity.^[63] Proteomic analyses from the consortium further mapped tau interactomes, showing synaptic and mitochondrial disruptions tied to amyloid-tau interactions, which inform disease progression models.^[64] For infectious diseases, multiomics profiling has mapped host responses to pathogens, exemplified by COVID-19 studies in 2020 that integrated single-cell RNA sequencing, proteomics, and epigenomics to characterize immune dysregulation. Analyses integrating data from over 1,000 patients revealed severity-specific signatures, such as hyperinflammation in severe cases driven by elevated cytokines (e.g., IL-6) and monocyte activation, alongside metabolic shifts toward glycolysis supporting immune exhaustion.^[65] These profiles distinguished mild from critical disease with high specificity, identifying biomarkers like neutrophil extracellular traps and IFN-stimulated genes that predict outcomes and guide antiviral therapies.^[65] Multiomics supports precision medicine by integrating pharmacogenomic data with other layers to enable personalized dosing and treatment selection. The National Cancer Institute's Molecular Analysis for Therapy Choice (NCI-MATCH) trial, launched in 2015, screened tumors for over 140 actionable mutations using genomic profiling, assigning patients to targeted therapies regardless of cancer type, which demonstrated responses in mutation-matched arms and informed dosing adjustments based on pharmacokinetic interactions.^[66] Broader pharmacogenomics applications incorporate multiomics to predict drug metabolism; for example, combining CYP450 genotyping with transcriptomic and metabolomic data has optimized warfarin and chemotherapy dosing, reducing adverse events by identifying variability in drug clearance pathways.^[67] Overall, multiomics integration in health and disease studies has enhanced survival predictions, with models combining genomic and clinical data yielding improvements in concordance indices for cancer outcomes compared to single-omics approaches; for instance, deep learning frameworks on TCGA breast cancer data increased c-index from approximately 0.62 (single-omics) to 0.64 (multiomics), enabling better risk stratification and therapeutic planning.^[68] Recent advances as of 2025 include the integration of multi-omics with artificial intelligence for precision medicine in gastrointestinal diseases, such as using machine learning on microbiome and host data to predict inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapeutic responses and colorectal cancer (CRC) prognosis through gut microbiota signatures.^[69]^[70]

Microbiome and Immunology

The Integrative Human Microbiome Project (iHMP), conducted from 2012 to 2022 as the second phase of the NIH Human Microbiome Project, generated longitudinal multi-omic datasets from over 300 subjects across multiple clinical sites to investigate dynamic host-microbiome interactions in health and disease.^[71] This initiative focused on three cohorts—preterm birth, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and prediabetes/type 2 diabetes onset—employing metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, host transcriptomics, and immune assays to capture microbiome stability and perturbations.^[72] In the IBD cohort, involving 132 participants, multi-omic profiling of 1,785 stool samples, 651 biopsies, and 529 blood samples revealed greater temporal instability in the gut microbiome of Crohn's disease (CD) patients compared to ulcerative colitis (UC) or controls, with frequent shifts in microbial composition linked to disease flares.^[73] Key findings highlighted functional dysbiosis during active IBD, characterized by reduced short-chain fatty acid production (e.g., butyrate) and increased primary bile acids, correlating with host immune markers such as anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA) and elevated fecal calprotectin.^[73] Systems immunology leverages multi-omic approaches to map immune cell states and regulatory networks, integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, and epigenomics to uncover hidden drivers of immunity.^[74] For instance, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and mass cytometry (CyTOF) have delineated T-cell heterogeneity and activation pathways, such as Runx3-mediated CD8+ T-cell residency in tissues.^[74] Integrations with repositories like the Immunology Database and Analysis Portal (ImmPort) facilitate mining of curated immune datasets, enabling cross-study analyses of gene expression and cellular phenotypes.^[74] Cytokine-proteome correlations, analyzed via tools like NetBID, reveal regulatory interactions, such as Hippo kinase Mst1 influencing dendritic cell metabolism and cytokine networks in CD8α+ cells.^[74] Host-microbe multi-omics studies combine metatranscriptomics and host RNA-seq to elucidate dysbiosis mechanisms, particularly in metabolic disorders like obesity. In a cohort of 100 Italian women, multi-omic profiling (16S rRNA, metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, lipidomics) identified low microbial diversity and transcriptional inactivity in bile acid biosynthesis pathways among obese individuals with uncontrolled eating behaviors, correlating with elevated primary bile acids and sterols.^[75] These microbial shifts influenced host gene expression related to lipid metabolism and neuroendocrine signaling, underscoring dysbiosis-driven alterations in host physiology. Spatial multi-omics techniques, such as spatial host-microbiome sequencing (SHM-seq), further reveal localized interactions at the gut barrier, profiling bacterial distributions (e.g., Lactobacillus in the lumen, Pseudobutyrivibrio in mucosa) alongside host transcripts like Muc2 in mouse colon tissues.^[76] This approach demonstrates bacterial co-organization with goblet cells and colonocytes, modulating immune signaling and barrier integrity in specific morphological niches.^[76] Multi-omic analyses have yielded insights into microbial metabolites shaping host epigenetics, with short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate acting as histone deacetylase inhibitors to alter chromatin structure and gene expression in intestinal cells.^[77] Metagenomic and epigenomic integrations in IBD cohorts show microbiota-derived folate and B vitamins supplying methyl donors (e.g., S-adenosylmethionine) for DNA methylation, linking dysbiosis to disease-associated epigenetic patterns.^[77] In immunology, baseline multi-omic signatures from B- and T-cell profiles predict vaccine responses; for example, integration of transcriptomics, proteomics, and flow cytometry in a hepatitis B vaccination study identified JAK-STAT and TLR4 pathway markers that forecast antibody titers with high accuracy using supervised models like DIABLO.^[78] The Human Microbiome Project 2 (HMP2), launched in 2017 as an extension of iHMP, applied multi-omics to the preterm birth cohort, collecting longitudinal data from 96 pregnancies to track vaginal and placental microbiomes. Findings indicated dynamic shifts in microbial communities preceding preterm delivery, with reduced Lactobacillus dominance and increased diversity correlating with host inflammatory responses.^[71]

Challenges and Future Directions

Current Limitations

Multiomics research generates vast volumes of data, often reaching petabyte-scale datasets, which pose significant challenges for storage and management.^[79] The inherent heterogeneity across omics layers—such as differences in data formats, resolution, and noise levels from genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics—complicates integration and analysis.^[80] Storage costs further exacerbate these issues, with substantial expenses for archiving large omics repositories in comprehensive projects.^[81] Analysis of multiomics data is hindered by missing values, where imputation methods can introduce biases that skew downstream inferences, particularly when missingness is not completely at random.^[82] Scalability remains a critical barrier in single-cell multiomics, as processing datasets exceeding 10^6 cells demands high-performance computing (HPC) resources to handle the computational intensity without prohibitive delays.^[83] Ethical concerns in multiomics prominently include privacy risks associated with genomic data sharing, necessitating compliance with regulations like the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) enacted in 2018 to safeguard identifiable information.^[84] Additionally, inequities in cohort diversity persist, with underrepresented populations often excluded from studies, limiting the generalizability of findings and perpetuating health disparities.^[85] Reproducibility in multiomics is undermined by the absence of standardized pipelines, leading to variability in results across labs and hindering validation efforts.^[86] High-dimensional statistical analyses are particularly susceptible to p-hacking, where selective reporting of p-values inflates false positives and erodes trust in discoveries.^[87] Resource limitations further restrict multiomics adoption, with costs for processing multiomic samples, which can range from hundreds to thousands of dollars depending on the layers included and facility. Accessibility is especially challenging in low-resource settings, where limited infrastructure and funding prevent routine implementation, widening global research gaps.^[88]

Emerging Trends

In the coming years, technological advances in multiomics are poised to accelerate through AI-driven real-time integration of diverse datasets, enabling dynamic analysis and predictive modeling in biological systems. For instance, AI models trained on longitudinal multi-omics data are expected to facilitate real-time clinical decision-making by adjusting therapeutic interventions based on evolving patient profiles. Hybrid quantum-classical platforms are being developed to handle the complexity of multiomics network analysis, building on frameworks like the encode-search-build approach for quantum machine learning in multiomics data.^[89] As of 2025, advancements in sample preparation and sequencing have reduced costs, facilitating wider adoption, alongside AI-driven tools like multimodal large language models for omics data analysis.^[79]^[90] Clinical applications of multiomics are shifting toward routine diagnostics, particularly through advanced liquid biopsies that combine circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) with metabolomic profiles to improve early detection and monitoring of diseases like cancer. This integration allows for comprehensive biomarker analysis in non-invasive samples, supporting personalized treatment strategies and reducing reliance on invasive procedures. The global multiomics market is projected to reach approximately $11 billion by 2034, driven by increasing adoption in diagnostics and therapeutics. Interdisciplinary fusions are expanding multiomics into imaging and environmental domains, with multiomic MRI techniques correlating molecular profiles with spatial imaging data to reveal intratumor heterogeneity and disease progression. Similarly, exposomics—the study of cumulative environmental exposures—is integrating with multiomics to map gene-environment interactions, providing a holistic view of health influences through longitudinal multi-omics signatures. In precision medicine, multiomic avatars—digital representations of patient biology derived from integrated omics data—are enabling tailored therapies by simulating treatment responses at the individual level. For example, these avatars support predictive modeling in oncology, guiding drug selection and minimizing adverse effects. Extensions of the Human Cell Atlas initiative are advancing single-cell spatial multiomics atlases, creating comprehensive maps of cellular diversity across tissues in the 2020s to inform organ-specific interventions. Post-2025 trends indicate mainstream adoption of multiomics in pharmaceutical research and development, with AI-enhanced pipelines accelerating drug discovery and clinical trials through omics-based personalization. To address accompanying challenges, ethical AI frameworks for multiomics emphasize data privacy, algorithmic fairness, and informed consent, ensuring responsible integration into healthcare systems.

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