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Mygalomorphae

Mygalomorphae, or mygalomorphs, form an infraorder of spiders within the order Araneae, comprising one of the three principal evolutionary lineages alongside Mesothelae and Araneomorphae.^[1] This ancient group, with fossils dating back to the Triassic period approximately 240 million years ago, includes over 3,550 described species distributed across 31 families worldwide.^[2]^[3] Notable for their primitive morphology, mygalomorphs possess chelicerae oriented parallel to the body's long axis, allowing vertical movement of the fangs for prey capture, as well as two pairs of book lungs for respiration.^[4] Distinguished from more derived araneomorph spiders by features such as larger venom glands and the absence of a cribellum, mygalomorphs exhibit diverse lifestyles centered on ambush predation and silk utilization.^[2] Many species construct silk-lined burrows or trapdoors for shelter and hunting, with ancestral behaviors including the production of sheet webs to detect prey vibrations.^[1] Prominent families include Theraphosidae (tarantulas), known for their large size, urticating hairs, and lifespans exceeding 20 years in females; Ctenizidae (trapdoor spiders), which seal burrow entrances with hinged lids; and Dipluridae (funnel-web spiders), featuring complex web architectures.^[5]^[2] These spiders are predominantly terrestrial, inhabiting varied environments from tropical forests to arid deserts, though some are arboreal or cave-dwelling.^[6] Mygalomorph biology emphasizes longevity and low metabolic rates, with life cycles often spanning over three years and females continuing to molt post-maturity.^[2] Reproduction involves elaborate courtship rituals, where males use vibrations and chemical cues on female silk to approach burrows, often at risk of cannibalism.^[6] Their diversification reflects continental vicariance and dispersal events, contributing to high endemism in regions like Australasia and the Neotropics.^[1] While most species pose minimal threat to humans, certain taxa such as some Australian funnel-web spiders produce potent venoms.^[2]

Morphology and Physiology

Physical Characteristics

Mygalomorph spiders exhibit a heavy-bodied build characterized by robust, thick-set bodies and sturdy legs, which contribute to their lower surface-to-volume ratio and aid in water conservation in arid environments.^[2] These spiders display a wide size range, with some of the smallest species, such as those in the genus Hexurella, reaching adult lengths of 2.5–5 mm, while larger forms like tarantulas (Theraphosidae) can attain leg spans exceeding 30 cm.^[7]^[2] A defining feature of mygalomorphs is their paraxial chelicerae, which are oriented parallel to the longitudinal axis of the body and point downward, enabling vertical movement of the fangs during strikes rather than the horizontal motion seen in araneomorph spiders.^[8]^[9] These chelicerae are robust and powerful, often equipped with a prolateral groove or furrow in families such as Theraphosidae, where it supports stridulation or fang articulation.^[10] Unlike araneomorphs, mygalomorphs lack a cribellum, a silk-producing organ present in some cribellate araneomorph lineages.^[11] Respiration in mygalomorphs is facilitated by two pairs of book lungs located on the ventral abdomen, a plesiomorphic trait contrasting with the single pair typically found in araneomorphs, where the posterior pair is often modified into tracheae.^[9]^[12] Their spinnerets, usually numbering four and positioned ventrally on the abdomen, are often reduced in complexity compared to those in araneomorphs, primarily serving to line burrows rather than produce aerial webs.^[2]

Sensory and Locomotor Adaptations

Mygalomorph spiders possess specialized sensory setae distributed across their legs and chelicerae, enabling detection of environmental stimuli crucial for survival in their often secluded habitats. Trichobothria, a type of sensory hair, are particularly abundant on the tarsi, metatarsi, and tibiae of the legs, where they function as mechanoreceptors sensitive to substrate vibrations, allowing the spiders to perceive approaching prey or threats from afar.^[13] Additional setae on the legs and chelicerae serve as chemoreceptors, detecting chemical cues such as pheromones or prey scents through direct contact or airborne molecules, compensating for their relatively poor eyesight.^[14] The cheliceral structure further aids in sensory feedback during prey manipulation, providing tactile information to guide envenomation.^[14] Locomotor adaptations in mygalomorphs are tailored to their predominantly fossorial lifestyles, emphasizing energy conservation over rapid traversal. These spiders typically exhibit slow, deliberate movements, suited to navigating burrows or ambushing prey from stationary positions within silk-lined retreats, which aligns with their sedentary behavior and reduces exposure to predators.^[15] In families such as Theraphosidae, however, individuals can execute short bursts of speed for prey capture or evasion, leveraging powerful hydraulic leg extensions to lunge from burrow entrances.^[15] Exceptional longevity characterizes many mygalomorph females, with records reaching up to 43 years in species like Gaius villosus (Idiopidae),^[16] attributed to low metabolic rates that minimize energy expenditure in their burrow-dwelling existence. This prolonged lifespan is facilitated by iteroparous reproduction, where females produce multiple clutches over decades, remaining in protective burrows while males exhibit shorter lives post-maturity. Respiratory adaptations enhance survival in oxygen-poor burrow environments, where dual pairs of book lungs provide efficient localized oxygen exchange through layered lamellae, supporting low-activity metabolic demands without the need for extensive ventilation.^[15] This system allows mygalomorphs to endure hypoxic conditions deep underground, where air circulation is limited. Despite having reduced spinnerets with short apical segments compared to web-building araneomorphs, mygalomorphs effectively utilize silk for functional purposes, including lining burrow walls to stabilize soil and prevent collapse.^[17]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Evolutionary History

The evolutionary history of Mygalomorphae traces back to the origins of Opisthothelae, with the divergence from Mesothelae estimated to have occurred around the Carboniferous-Permian boundary, approximately 310–300 million years ago (Ma), marking the split between these ancient arachnid lineages based on molecular clock analyses and the earliest mesothele fossils from late Carboniferous deposits.^[18] This early separation positioned Mygalomorphae as a basal clade within Opisthothelae, alongside the more derived Araneomorphae, with the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of extant mygalomorphs dated to around 278 Ma using fossil-calibrated phylogenies.^[18] The subsequent divergence between Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae likely followed soon after, during the early Permian, reflecting the rapid radiation of spider lineages in the aftermath of the late Paleozoic extinction events.^[19] The fossil record of Mygalomorphae is sparse but pivotal, with the oldest known specimen being Rosamygale grauvogeli from the Lower Triassic (Anisian stage) Grès à Voltzia Formation in northeastern France, dated to approximately 242 Ma, which represents the earliest direct evidence of the clade and underscores its early divergence from other spider groups.^[20] This fossil, characterized by paraxial chelicerae and two pairs of book lungs, indicates that core mygalomorph traits were already established by the Triassic, shortly after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.^[21] However, significant gaps persist in the record, particularly during the Jurassic, where mygalomorph fossils are virtually absent despite more abundant spider remains overall; instead, the bulk of preserved evidence emerges from Cenozoic amber deposits, such as those from the Eocene Baltic and Oligocene-Miocene Dominican formations, which capture diverse mygalomorph taxa in high fidelity.^[22] Key evolutionary milestones in Mygalomorphae include the retention of ancestral features like two pairs of book lungs for respiration and downward-oriented (paraxial) chelicerae, which facilitated mastication and envenomation suited to their predatory lifestyle; these traits, inherited from early Opisthothelae, became fixed in the lineage following the breakup of Pangaea around 200 Ma, allowing adaptation to continental fragmentation without major morphological shifts.^[21] This morphological conservatism is largely attributed to the clade's predominantly fossorial habits, involving burrowing and silk-lined retreats, which imposed stabilizing selective pressures and resulted in limited diversification—encompassing around 3,550 extant species compared to over 49,000 in Araneomorphae—despite their ancient origins.^[23]^[24] Recent phylogenomic studies, such as those employing anchored hybrid enrichment across 472 loci, have confirmed Mygalomorphae's basal position in the spider tree of life, resolving internal relationships and highlighting a Gondwanan origin with subsequent global dispersal.^[21]

Phylogenetic Relationships

Mygalomorphae represents a monophyletic infraorder within the order Araneae, positioned basally as the sister group to Araneomorphae based on comprehensive phylogenomic analyses using hundreds of nuclear loci.^[21] This placement is supported by genomic-scale data from anchored hybrid enrichment, which recover strong support for the Opisthothelae clade comprising Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae to the exclusion of Mesothelae.^[21] The monophyly of Mygalomorphae is further corroborated by shared morphological synapomorphies, including paraxial (downward-pointing) chelicerae and the presence of two pairs of book lungs as the primary respiratory organs.^[25] Internally, Mygalomorphae bifurcates into two principal superfamilies: Atypoidea and Avicularioidea.^[21] Atypoidea encompasses relatively primitive lineages such as purseweb spiders (Atypidae) and folding-door trapdoor spiders (Antrodiaetidae), characterized by elongated spinnerets and tubular retreats.^[21] Avicularioidea, the larger and more diverse superfamily, includes tarantulas (Theraphosidae) and various trapdoor spiders (e.g., from Ummidiidae and Idiopidae), with members exhibiting greater ecological and morphological variation.^[21] Phylogenetic trees derived from these analyses depict a basal split between Atypoidea and Avicularioidea, followed by successive divergences within Avicularioidea into major family-level clades such as Nemesioidea, Domiothelcopodoiidea, and Aviculariopodoidea, with high nodal support across datasets.^[26] Recent phylogenomic studies have driven significant revisions to mygalomorph classification, elevating the total number of families to 31 by recognizing new lineages and addressing non-monophyly in previously delimited groups.^[21] For instance, the family Entypesidae was established in 2020 to accommodate southern African genera formerly placed in Nemesiidae, based on distinct molecular signatures and morphological traits like reduced cheliceral teeth.^[27] Similarly, Dipluridae has been found non-monophyletic in genomic analyses, necessitating the separation of subclades such as the funnel-web spiders (now restricted to Dipluridae sensu stricto) from related groups like Ischnothelidae.^[21] These changes highlight key clades within Avicularioidea, including the monophyly of Theraphosoidea and the polyphyletic nature of some trapdoor spider assemblages.^[21] The integration of molecular data has profoundly influenced mygalomorph phylogeny by resolving longstanding polytomies that morphological datasets alone could not clarify.^[25] Early molecular phylogenies using nuclear rRNA genes (18S and 28S) revealed conflicts with morphology, such as the paraphyly of several families, but provided initial support for the Atypoidea-Avicularioidea divide.^[25] Subsequent phylogenomic approaches, employing thousands of loci, have eliminated these ambiguities, yielding well-supported trees that align partially with morphological hypotheses while overturning others, such as the basal positioning of Atypidae within Atypoidea.^[21] This shift underscores the power of genomic data in elucidating deep evolutionary relationships among these ancient spiders.^[21]

Families and Classification

The infraorder Mygalomorphae currently encompasses 31 families and more than 3,550 described species worldwide.^[23]^[28] Among these, Theraphosidae stands out as the most species-rich family, with 1,131 species commonly known as tarantulas, characterized by their robust build and often colorful urticating hairs.^[23]^[29] In contrast, smaller families include Atypidae, comprising 61 species of purseweb spiders that construct silken tubes extending from their burrows, and Atracidae, with 39 species of funnel-web spiders noted for their potent venom.^[23]^[30]^[31] Recent taxonomic studies have highlighted emerging diversity in families such as Actinopodidae and Halonoproctidae, with a 2025 survey from Ecuador documenting 16 new species across five mygalomorph families, including the first records of these two in the region—such as Actinopus saraguro in Actinopodidae and several undescribed forms in Halonoproctidae.^[32]^[33] Classification within Mygalomorphae relies on a combination of morphological traits, including the paraxial orientation of chelicerae for mastication and the configuration of spinnerets for silk production, integrated with molecular data from phylogenomic analyses using hundreds of loci to resolve family boundaries.^[21]^[34] Diversity patterns show Theraphosidae dominating tropical and subtropical regions across all continents, accounting for over one-third of mygalomorph species, while diminutive families like Mecicobothriidae—known as dwarf or midget funnel-web spiders with body lengths under 6 mm—are primarily restricted to temperate zones in the Americas, such as western North America and southern Argentina.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38] Phylogenomic studies have revealed challenges in family monophyly, particularly for Barychelidae (294 species), which appears paraphyletic or polyphyletic in reconstructions incorporating nuclear rRNA and anchored hybrid enrichment data, suggesting potential revisions to incorporate genera from related lineages like Theraphosidae.^[39]^[21]^[40]

Historical Developments

The initial recognition of mygalomorph spiders as a distinct group dates to 1802, when Charles Athanase Walckenaer established the genus Mygale for species characterized by their paraxial cheliceral fangs, which move parallel to the longitudinal axis of the body, distinguishing them from other spiders.^[41] This separation marked the first formal taxonomic distinction based on cheliceral morphology, laying the foundation for recognizing Mygalomorphae as a basal lineage within Araneae.^[42] In 1863, John Blackwall introduced early subfamily divisions within mygalomorph taxa, contributing to the refinement of classifications by incorporating observations from South American collections, such as those from Rio de Janeiro.^[43] These divisions emphasized morphological variations in spinnerets and chelicerae, though they were limited by the era's reliance on descriptive anatomy without cladistic methods. A major advancement occurred in 1985 with Robert J. Raven's comprehensive monograph, which reclassified Mygalomorphae into five superfamilies—Dipluroidea, Atypoidea, Ctenizoidea, Avicularioidea, and Theraphosoidea—using cladistic analysis of 80 morphological characters across 96 genera.^[44] This framework resolved many ambiguities in family-level groupings but was later refined as new data revealed inconsistencies, such as the paraphyly of certain superfamilies.^[45] The 2010s marked a shift to molecular phylogenetics, integrating nuclear rRNA genes (18S and 28S) with morphology to test Raven's classification, revealing conflicts like the non-monophyly of some families and prompting revisions.^[25] This culminated in Opatova et al.'s 2020 phylogenomic study, which used anchored hybrid enrichment of 472 loci from 230 species to restructure Mygalomorphae into 30 families, elevating several subfamilies and synonymizing others based on robust support for monophyly.^[21] Challenges in historical classifications arose from over-reliance on morphology, leading to misclassifications; for instance, the former Dipluridae was found paraphyletic in molecular analyses, resulting in its split into multiple families including Euagridae and Micturidae to reflect evolutionary relationships.^[21] Recent updates in 2025, such as Dupérré and Tapia's descriptions of 16 new species from Ecuador across five families, have further incorporated these into taxonomic frameworks.^[46] The World Spider Catalog has played a pivotal role in standardizing nomenclature, regularly updating family assignments and synonymies to reflect phylogenetic revisions and ensure consistent global usage.^[23]

Distribution and Ecology

Global Distribution Patterns

Mygalomorphae display a predominantly pantropical distribution, occurring across all continents except Antarctica, with a total of over 3,550 described species in 31 families worldwide.^[3] Their range extends into subtropical and temperate zones, including the southern United States and parts of Europe, where diversity is notably low with approximately 100 species across six families.^[47] This distribution reflects a strong Gondwanan heritage, characterized by elevated species richness in southern landmasses such as Australia and South America. In Australia, the family Atracidae exemplifies this pattern, contributing significantly to regional diversity through numerous endemic genera and species adapted to austral environments.^[21] Similarly, South America hosts a high concentration of Theraphosidae, the largest mygalomorph family, with over 1,000 species underscoring the continent's role as a major center of mygalomorph radiation. Endemism is pronounced among Mygalomorphae, with more than half of all species restricted to a single continent, as documented in the 2025 World Spider Catalog; this pattern arises from limited transoceanic dispersal capabilities, which have constrained natural colonization and explain the sparse representation in regions like Europe.^[23] Biogeographic barriers, including vast oceanic distances, have further reinforced continental isolation, resulting in vicariant distributions tied to ancient tectonic events. Recent range expansions have altered northern boundaries in the United States, particularly through human-mediated introductions of Theraphosidae species, allowing tarantulas to establish populations beyond their native southwestern limits.^[48] Overall, superfamily distributions correlate with the breakup of Pangaea and subsequent Gondwanan fragmentation, which facilitated allopatric speciation and shaped the current biogeographic mosaic.^[49]

Habitat and Microhabitat Preferences

Mygalomorph spiders are predominantly fossorial, constructing silk-lined burrows in soil, under bark, or within tubular retreats to create stable microenvironments for ambushing prey and regulating internal conditions.^[6]^[50] This burrowing lifestyle, which evolved independently at least four times across the infraorder, relies on specialized structures like cheliceral rastella for excavation and posterior leg spines for soil manipulation, allowing females to remain sedentary for much of their long lives.^[50]^[15] Diverse microhabitats reflect family-specific adaptations, with Idiopidae species often engineering trapdoor constructions at burrow entrances using silk, soil, and debris to camouflage and seal their retreats against predators and environmental extremes.^[50] In contrast, some Avicularioidea taxa, including certain arboreal theraphosids, inhabit elevated silk nests on tree trunks or foliage, diverging from ground-based fossoriality to exploit vertical strata in forested settings.^[6] Opportunistic species may also utilize natural fissures or leaf litter accumulations as temporary retreats, layering silk to line these spaces without extensive digging.^[15] Many mygalomorphs show a preference for humid, subtropical soils that retain moisture, supporting their need for stable burrow humidity essential for survival and reproduction in mesic environments.^[51] However, desert-adapted lineages, such as certain Australian Anamidae and Idiopidae, tolerate arid conditions by deepening burrows to access subterranean moisture and using trapdoors or plugs to minimize desiccation.^[52]^[53] Some species form symbiotic associations, cohabiting with ants in disturbed soil or residing in leaf litter layers where ant activity enhances prey availability without direct predation conflicts.^[54] These interactions, often commensal, leverage ant foraging to indirectly benefit burrow stability and resource access in litter-rich understories.^[55] Tropical mygalomorphs exhibit sensitivity to habitat fragmentation, as their low dispersal ability and site fidelity amplify risks from isolated patches, disrupting burrow networks in altered landscapes.^[56] Recent studies in 2025 have documented new Ecuadorian species, including a montane genus of theraphosids from western cloud forests, highlighting expanded microhabitat use in high-elevation, mist-shrouded canopies and underscoring the infraorder's adaptability to vertically stratified humid ecosystems.^[57]

Behavior and Reproduction

Hunting Strategies and Diet

Mygalomorph spiders predominantly employ ambush predation strategies, remaining sedentary within burrows or silk-lined retreats to detect prey through vibrations sensed by their sensitive setae and legs.^[6] In families such as Ctenizidae, trapdoor spiders construct hinged silk-and-soil lids over burrow entrances, gripping the underside while waiting nocturnally for passing prey, which they seize without fully emerging.^[58] Similarly, theraphosid tarantulas (Theraphosidae) position themselves at burrow openings, lunging short distances to capture wandering arthropods, while diplurids and nemesiids may use irregular silk trip-lines or funnel-webs to enhance detection around their retreats.^[6] These tactics suit their robust build and fossorial lifestyle, minimizing energy expenditure in environments where prey moves predictably.^[15] Their diet is opportunistic and polyphagous, centered on ground-dwelling invertebrates such as insects—including ants, beetles, cockroaches, and termites—but extending to small vertebrates like frogs, lizards, snakes, and occasionally rodents or birds in larger species.^[59] Cannibalism occurs, particularly among juveniles or during prey scarcity, with remains of conspecifics and other spiders documented in field studies.^[59] Prey selection favors soft-bodied or slow-moving items near burrows, as observed in nemesiids like Acanthogonatus centralis, where ants and beetles comprise the majority of identifiable remains, though acceptance varies in lab trials with termites consumed most rapidly.^[59] This broad feeding ecology reflects their role as generalist predators adapted to diverse terrestrial habitats. Venom delivery occurs via the robust, forward-projecting chelicerae, injecting paralyzing toxins to immobilize prey upon grasp, often aided by adhesive scopulae on tarsi for secure hold.^[6] While mygalomorph venoms are generally less potent and structurally simpler than those of araneomorphs—targeting invertebrate ion channels with lower mammalian toxicity except in Atracidae, whose funnel-web spiders produce highly neurotoxic peptides effective against vertebrates—their yield scales with body size to subdue proportionally larger prey.^[60] Feeding follows external digestion, where enzymes from the chelicerae liquefy tissues externally, allowing suction of nutrient-rich fluids directly into the midgut, an efficient process suited to infrequent but substantial meals.^[61] As top invertebrate predators in fossorial and soil-based communities, mygalomorphs regulate populations of pest insects and contribute to nutrient cycling by discarding indigestible remains near burrows, enhancing local biodiversity in ecosystems where they dominate the predatory niche.^[6] Their persistence as ancient hunters underscores their ecological stability, preying on species that might otherwise proliferate unchecked.^[59]

Mating, Reproduction, and Parental Care

Mygalomorph spiders exhibit indirect sperm transfer, in which males deposit sperm onto a specialized web before loading it into bulbous structures at the tips of their pedipalps, which are then inserted into the female's epigyne to deposit sperm directly into her spermathecae for storage.^[62] This process contrasts with direct internal fertilization seen in many other arthropods and reduces the risk of desiccation during transfer.^[63] Males can perform multiple inductions, with some species capable of over 17 recharges in several weeks prior to seeking mates.^[64] Courtship in mygalomorphs is often elaborate and species-specific, relying heavily on vibratory and seismic signals to avoid aggressive responses from females. In families like Theraphosidae, males produce substrate-borne vibrations through body bounces or palpal drumming, while some employ stridulation by rubbing specialized setae or file-like structures to generate audible or tactile cues.^[65] These signals, combined with chemical pheromones on the female's silk, guide males to burrows and signal receptivity, with females sometimes responding by tapping legs or exposing chelicerae.^[64] Mating typically occurs face-to-face, with males using tibial hooks or spurs to clasp the female's chelicerae, minimizing the risk of sexual cannibalism, which is rare but documented in some encounters.^[66] Reproductive strategies in Mygalomorphae show marked sexual differences, with males often exhibiting semelparity—mating once or a few times before dying shortly thereafter—while females are iteroparous, capable of multiple reproductive cycles over their longer lifespans.^[67] Females produce egg sacs containing 50–200 eggs on average, though some theraphosid species like Grammostola mollicoma can lay up to 288, typically in summer following mating in spring.^[66] These sacs are constructed from silk and guarded within burrows, with incubation lasting several weeks until spiderlings emerge. Parental care is predominantly maternal and extended in many mygalomorphs, with females remaining in burrows to protect egg sacs from predators and environmental threats, often for 1–3 months post-oviposition.^[66] After hatching, spiderlings may stay with the mother for weeks, receiving indirect protection as she maintains the burrow; in some theraphosids, females even partially plug entrances to safeguard emerging young.^[66] This investment enhances offspring survival but can exhaust the female, sometimes leading to her death after the brood disperses. Sexual dimorphism in Mygalomorphae is pronounced, with mature males generally lighter in body mass and possessing relatively longer legs than females, adaptations that facilitate mate-searching and dispersal across distances.^[68] This morphology, observed in species like the Mexican redrump tarantula Brachypelma vagans, allows males to traverse habitats more efficiently during brief adult lives focused on reproduction.^[68] Recent observations from 2025 describe extended maternal care in newly identified Ecuadorian theraphosids of the genus Neischnocolus, where females guard spiderlings for up to four months post-hatching, exceeding typical durations in related species and highlighting regional variations in care intensity.^[69]

Human Interactions and Conservation

Toxicity and Medical Significance

Most mygalomorph spiders pose low toxicity to humans, with bites typically causing mild local symptoms such as pain, swelling, and erythema that resolve without specific treatment.^[70] Exceptions occur in the Australian funnel-web spiders (family Atracidae), where venom contains δ-hexatoxins (δ-HXTXs), peptides that bind to voltage-gated sodium channels, delaying their inactivation and inducing severe neuroexcitation.^[71] These toxins, including robustoxin and versutoxin, lead to systemic effects like autonomic overstimulation, muscle fasciculations, pulmonary edema, and potentially fatal respiratory failure if untreated.^[72] Prior to the development of antivenom in 1981, funnel-web bites resulted in 13 recorded fatalities in Australia, primarily from male spiders due to their higher venom yield and mobility during mating season.^[73] Since then, antivenom—derived from rabbit immunoglobulin—has proven highly effective, with a 97% complete response rate in severe envenomations and only one death reported due to delayed administration.^[72] From 1981 to 2004, 77 severe cases were managed successfully with 1–17 vials, and adverse reactions occurred in fewer than 4% of recipients.^[73] Bites from other mygalomorphs, such as tarantulas (Theraphosidae), rarely cause systemic effects beyond transient pain and edema, with no human fatalities documented.^[70] Mygalomorph venoms consist of complex mixtures of disulfide-rich peptides, often featuring inhibitor cystine knot motifs, primarily evolved for immobilizing insect prey by targeting ion channels.^[71] These peptides have garnered interest in pharmaceutical research for their selectivity and stability, with potential applications in treating chronic pain, stroke, and ion channel-related disorders, though clinical translation remains limited.^[74] Human encounters with mygalomorphs have increased due to the global pet trade in tarantulas, leading to over 300 reported bites from captive arachnids between 2000 and 2020, though most are minor.^[75] In Theraphosidae, defensive urticating hairs—barbed setae flicked from the abdomen—pose a greater risk than bites, causing mechanical irritation, histamine release, and allergic reactions upon skin or ocular contact.70087-0/fulltext) Inhalation of these hairs can trigger respiratory symptoms or anaphylaxis in sensitized individuals, but systemic envenomation from bites remains negligible.^[70] As of 2025, no new mygalomorph species with confirmed medical significance have been reported, despite discoveries of trapdoor and tarantula taxa in regions like Australia and California.^[76]

Conservation Status and Threats

The conservation status of Mygalomorphae species remains poorly documented, with the majority classified as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List due to limited ecological and population data available for assessment.^[77] Among the assessed species, particularly within the family Theraphosidae, several are listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, primarily owing to overcollection for the pet trade and habitat degradation.^[78] For instance, five species in the genus Poecilotheria have been designated as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, reflecting their restricted ranges and collection pressures.^[79] Similarly, analyses of trapdoor spiders indicate that this evolutionarily distinct group is Globally Endangered, facing extinction risks across multiple taxa.^[80] Primary threats to Mygalomorphae include habitat loss from deforestation and agricultural expansion in tropical regions, which disrupt burrowing sites and microhabitats essential for their survival.^[81] In montane and island ecosystems, where endemism is high, these populations are particularly vulnerable to fragmentation, as seen in sky island habitats where isolated species face elevated extinction risks from land conversion.^[82] Climate change exacerbates these issues by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, potentially rendering specialized microhabitats unsuitable and threatening species like those in the Chiricahua Mountains.^[83] The international pet trade poses a significant overharvesting threat, with estimates indicating that tens of thousands of tarantulas are collected annually from the wild, particularly species in genera like Brachypelma and Grammostola.^[84] For example, licensed production in Mexico yields 11,000–14,000 juvenile Brachypelma spiders per year, yet illegal wild collection persists, contributing to population declines in over 50% of traded tarantula species.^[85] This trade has led to the listing of several Mygalomorphae under CITES Appendix II, including 21 tarantula species such as those in Poecilotheria and Brachypelma, to regulate international commerce and prevent overexploitation.^[86] Conservation efforts focus on establishing protected areas within biodiversity hotspots, such as the Andes and Mesoamerican regions, to safeguard critical habitats for endemic species.^[87] CITES implementations have promoted captive breeding programs, reducing pressure on wild populations for popular pet species.^[88] In recent years, habitat loss in Ecuador has intensified concerns, with deforestation for agriculture and mining threatening newly discovered species like Pamphobeteus nigricolor and impacting ongoing biodiversity surveys in Andean foothills.^[89]

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The Mygalomorphae has received considerably less phylogenetic attention than the Araneomorphae ... occurred 326–276 Ma, in the late Carboniferous or early.
[19]
[PDF] NORTHERN VOSGES, FRANCE - The Palaeontological Association
The oldest fossil mygalomorph spider, from the Anisian Grès à Voltzia of the northern Vosges,. France, is described as Rosamygale grauvogeli gen. et sp. nov.
[20]
Phylogenetic Systematics and Evolution of the Spider Infraorder ...
Spiders placed in the infraorder Mygalomorphae are a charismatic assemblage of taxa that includes among its ranks the tarantulas, trapdoor spiders, and also ...
[21]
Imaging techniques in the study of fossil spiders - ScienceDirect.com
Spider fossils become increasingly more common as we move up into Jurassic and Cretaceous strata, with spiders in amber appearing in the Early Cretaceous ( ...
[22]
Correlation with a limited set of behavioral niches explains the ...
Jan 9, 2023 · We reconstruct the evolution of burrowing behavior in the Mygalomorphae, compare the influence of behavior and evolutionary history on somatic morphology,Missing: conservatism habits
[23]
Molecular phylogenetics of the spider infraorder Mygalomorphae ...
Mygalomorphs are currently classified into 15 families, comprising roughly 2500 species and 300 genera. The few published phylogenies of mygalomorph ...
[24]
Phylogenetic systematics and evolution of the spider infraorder ...
Jan 27, 2019 · Phylogenetic relationships of mygalomorph families reconstructed from morphological characters: (a) Raven's classification scheme (Raven 1985), ...
[25]
Entypesidae Bond, Opatova & Hedin 2020 - Zenodo
Family Entypesidae Bond, Opatova & Hedin, 2020. The spider family Entipesidae has been recently established to accomodate three genera previously listed in ...
[26]
World Spider Catalog: NMBE
World Spider Catalog Version 26. Currently 53'531 accepted species included. Introduction. Submit your latest taxonomic publication to wsc(at)nmbe.ch.Search · Families · Introduction · Archive
[27]
A survey of mygalomorph spiders (Araneae: Atypidae, Nemesiidae ...
The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae Pocock, 1892 comprises more than 3550 species in 31 families worldwide (Nuruyeva et al. 2024; World Spider Catalog 2025).
[28]
Tarantula facts | Insects & Arachnids - BBC Earth
Tarantulas are spiders from the family Theraphosidae. As of January 2025, there are 1,131 tarantula species across 169 different genera, according to the World ...
[29]
NMBE - World Spider Catalog
... Atypidae by Ono & Ogata, 2018: 611. Status: accepted. Last updated ... Number of valid species: 61. Reference. Thorell, T. (1870b). On ...
[30]
Family: Atracidae Hogg, 1901 - NMBE - World Spider Catalog
Counts Number of valid genera: 3. Number of valid species: 39. Reference. Hogg, H. R. (1901). On Australian and New Zealand spiders of the ...
[31]
On Some Rare Mygalomorph from Ecuador, with the Description of ...
So far, 128 species of Mygalomorphae, spread across nine families (Barychelidae Simon, 1889, Cyrtaucheniidae Simon, 1889, Dipluridae Simon, 1889, Idiopidae ...
[32]
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-6500/5/3/35
[33]
Molecular phylogenetics of the spider infraorder Mygalomorphae ...
Mygalomorphs are currently classified into 15 families, comprising roughly 2500 species and 300 genera. The few published phylogenies of mygalomorph ...
[34]
What does the history of Theraphosidae systematics tell us about the ...
The infraorder Mygalomorphae Pocock, 1892 comprises approximately 3000 valid species in 31 families (World Spider Catalog, 2024).
[35]
A tangle of forms and phylogeny: Extensive morphological ...
Theraphosid spiders, tarantulas, currently account for nearly 1000 described species grouped in 144 genera, distributed mainly in tropical and subtropical ...
[36]
FAMILY MECICOBOTHRIIDAE • Midget Funnelweb Tarantulas
This family is native to the Americas and contains eight species. Six of the eight are found in western North America. The midget funnelweb tarantulas have ...Missing: temperate zones
[37]
how temperature affects prey capture behaviour and physiology in ...
Jul 7, 2025 · Mecicobothrium thorelli Holmberg, 1882 is a dwarf mygalomorph spider (5–6 mm body length) that is geographically restricted to Ventania and ...Missing: zones | Show results with:zones
[38]
Family: Barychelidae Simon, 1889 - NMBE - World Spider Catalog
Status: accepted ; Last updated: 2025-08-30 ; Described in. Simon, 1889m: 192 ; Counts Number of valid genera: 39. Number of valid species: 294.Missing: non- phylogenomic
[39]
[PDF] Phylogenetic systematics and evolution of the spider infraorder ...
May 2, 2019 · ... (Opatova et al. 2013;. 522. Godwin et al. 2018) dating to the end of Paleocene, approximately 60 – 55 Ma (Sanmartín et al. 523. 2001) and it is ...
[40]
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/531756v3.full.pdf
[41]
Supraspecific names in spider systematic and their nomenclatural ...
Mygalomorphae, based on Mygale Latreille, 1802, a junior homonym of Mygale Cuvier, 1800 (Mammalia), and the families Mygalides Sundevall ...
[42]
Blackwall, 1863a - NMBE - World Spider Catalog
Blackwall, J. (1863a). Description of newly discovered spiders captured in Rio de Janeiro, by John Gray and the Rev. Hamlet Clark (continued).Missing: Mygalomorphae | Show results with:Mygalomorphae
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The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae) : cladistics and ...
The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae) : cladistics and systematics. Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 182, article 1.Missing: taxonomy Walckenaer 1802 Blackwall 1863
[44]
The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae): cladistics and ...
The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae): cladistics and systematics · R. Raven · Published 1985 · Biology · Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.Missing: Walckenaer 1802 Blackwall 1863
[45]
Four new species of Neischnocolus (Araneae: Mygalomorphae
(2023) Four new species of mygalomorph spiders (Araneae, Halonoproctidae and Theraphosidae) from the Colombian Pacific region (Bahía Solano, ...
[46]
[PDF] Patterns of distribution and diversity in European mygalomorph ...
Abstract. A coherent picture of the distribution and diversity of the European mygalomorph spider fauna is presented for the first time.Missing: Mygalomorphae | Show results with:Mygalomorphae
[47]
Phylogenomic analyses reveal evolutionary contrasts in trapdoor ...
The subfamily Idiopinae (Fig. 1) displays the largest distribution within the family (World Spider Catalog, 2025). It currently includes 153 species distributed ...
[48]
Tarantulas are on the move and migrating into new areas - Earth.com
Oct 17, 2018 · Tarantulas migrate annually, but a recent report revealed that the tarantula's range is extending further north as the planet warms.
[49]
Phylogenomic analyses reveal a Gondwanan origin and ... - NIH
Apr 6, 2021 · We followed Opatova et al. (2020) in treating the oldest mygalomorph fossil (Rosamygale grauvogely, Selden & Gall, 1992) as an Avicularioidea ...Missing: position | Show results with:position
[50]
Correlation with a limited set of behavioral niches explains the ...
Jan 9, 2023 · We reconstruct the evolution of burrowing behavior in the Mygalomorphae, compare the influence of behavior and evolutionary history on somatic morphology,
[51]
Mygalomorph Spiders: Part 1, Tricky Assassins
Jun 16, 2016 · They are squat, heavily-constructed spiders, and while they aren't as big as true tarantulas, the females of some species can have bodies too ...
[52]
Diversification of the mygalomorph spider genus Aname (Araneae ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Transitions from dry, even arid, habitat to rainforest have been reported in a wide range of species (Byrne et al., 2018), including sedentary ...
[53]
Desert adaptations in spiders - ScienceDirect.com
Many desert spiders inhabit burrows, and these share various morphological attributes. Whether Mygalomorphae or Araneomorphae, they are usually large, with ...Missing: subtropical | Show results with:subtropical
[54]
Full article: An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological ...
Aug 6, 2024 · ABSTRACT. Mutualistic and similar ecological associations between tarantulas (Mygalomorphae: Theraphosidae) and other animals are reviewed.
[55]
Trapdoor spiders - The Australian Museum
Brown Trapdoor Spiders are dull brown spiders with a cover of paler gold hairs on carapace ('dusty appearance') which is usually weakly arched in side profile.
[56]
A Case for Below-Ground Dispersal? Insights into the Biology ...
Spiders of the infraorder Mygalomorphae have a range of traits that make them especially vulnerable to threatening processes, such as habitat specificity, ...
[57]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/397356349_Between_cloud_forests_and_museums_testing_tarantula_Araneae_Theraphosidae_generic_boundaries_reveals_a_new_montane_genus_from_Ecuador_and_Colombia
[58]
Hidden Architects - Missouri Department of Conservation
Oct 1, 2020 · All mygalomorphs macerate their food, meaning they begin the digestive process by injecting their prey with enzymes that liquify the soft tissue ...
[59]
Feeding Frequency, Prey Acceptance, and Natural Diet of the ...
Despite being euryphagous, mygalomorph spiders could have some prey preferences or they could avoid some kind of prey, like ants. However, there are only a few ...
[60]
Spider venom potency exhibits phylogenetic prey specificity but ...
May 21, 2025 · Spiders employ a suite of contrasting predator traits to capture prey, including potent venoms, specialized silk-hunting strategies and ...
[61]
Characterisation of protein families in spider digestive fluids ... - NIH
Aug 10, 2017 · We describe the protein composition of the digestive fluids of the mygalomorph Acanthoscurria geniculata and the araneomorph Stegodyphus mimosarum.
[62]
Sperm competition when transfer is dangerous - PMC
Aggressive and cannibalistic female spiders can impose strong selection on male mating and fertilization strategies.
[63]
(PDF) Sperm dynamics in spiders - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · Males insert parts of the pedipalp into the female copulatory opening to transfer sperm, which, at the time of transfer are non-motile and ...
[64]
when Simplicity Becomes Complex; an Update of the Last 21 Years
Aug 10, 2025 · We provide a brief introduction to reproductive behaviour of mygalomorph spiders, and then examine some of the general patterns of courtship ...Missing: reproduction | Show results with:reproduction
[65]
[PDF] seismic communication during courtship in two burrowing tarantula ...
Theraphosidae, seismic signals, male vibration, female sexual display. Spiders use different channels to commu- nicate during courtship: chemical, tactile, vi-.
[66]
[PDF] REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF URUGUAYAN THERAPHOSIDS ...
A comprehensive review of literature on theraphosid reproductive biology was undertaken. In the discussion, we consider the lengthy and costly sperm induction, ...Missing: parental scientific
[67]
Increased ROS Production: A Component of the Longevity Equation ...
Mygalomorphae are large, predatory spiders of the family ... male tarantulas present a semelparous reproductive strategy while females are iteroparous.
[68]
Dimorphism and population size of the Mexican redrump tarantula ...
Sexual dimorphism is also evident in the relative size of body parts, with males having comparatively longer legs than females (Prenter, Montgomery, & Elwood, ...
[69]
Four new species of Neischnocolus (Araneae: Mygalomorphae
Four new species of the small mygalomorph genus Neischnocolus (Theraphosidae) are described from Western Ecuador: N. ballerioi sp. nov.
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Tarantula Spider Toxicity - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Tarantula toxicity is rare, mainly from urticating hairs causing irritation, not venom. Venom can cause pain, but no human deaths have been reported.
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Australian funnel-web spiders evolved human-lethal δ-hexatoxins ...
Sep 21, 2020 · The venom of Australian funnel-web spiders contains δ-hexatoxins (δ-HXTXs) that exert fatal neurotoxic effects in humans by inhibiting inactivation of voltage- ...
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Funnel-Web Spider Toxicity - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 26, 2024 · Since the venom from an FWS bite is highly toxic, all species should be considered potentially dangerous.[7] In all the fatalities where the ...
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Funnel-web spider bite: a systematic review of recorded clinical cases
Apr 18, 2005 · Funnel-web spider antivenom appears effective and safe; severe allergic reactions are uncommon. Funnel-web spiders are the most dangerous ...
[74]
Versatile spider venom peptides and their medical and agricultural ...
Highlights · Spider venoms contain a huge diversity of potent and target-selective peptides with a correspondingly vast array of pharmacological activities.
[75]
Unmasking trends and drivers of the international arachnid trade
Jul 10, 2023 · ... exposure to arachnids kept in captivity. Thus, we collected and analysed data from 335 reported bites and stings attributed to pet arachnids.
[76]
Newcastle funnel-web spider identified as bigger, deadlier than ...
Jan 13, 2025 · "The funnel-web antivenom is very effective as long as it's given very soon after the bite, in an hour or two," he said. "For the last 45 years ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[77]
Species conservation profiles of tarantula spiders (Araneae ...
Nov 8, 2019 · Out of 19, 12 species are in threatened categories (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), four species in each of them ( IUCN 2019 ) ...
[78]
Endangered Species Status for Five Poecilotheria Tarantula ...
Jul 31, 2018 · This rule will add the following five tarantula species to the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in title 50 of the Code of Federal ...
[79]
Listing Determinations for Five Poecilotheria Tarantula Species ...
Dec 14, 2016 · This document proposes the listing of the tarantula species Poecilotheria fasciata, P. ornata,P. smithi, P. subfusca, and P. vittata as ...
[80]
The segmented trapdoor spiders, an EDGE species - Story - IUCN
A recent analysis found that this group faces a wide range of threats and experts fear that this Evolutionarily Distinct group is sadly Globally Endangered ( ...Missing: Mygalomorphae | Show results with:Mygalomorphae
[81]
(PDF) Mygalomorphs of India: An overview - ResearchGate
Fourteen species of mygalomorph were listed in the IUCN Red List in 2008. Immediate conservation actions are needed to prevent the extinction of threatened ...
[82]
(PDF) Integrative species delimitation and conservation of tarantulas ...
Aug 5, 2014 · Ecological data are not widely available for Madrean Sky Island tarantulas and it is difficult to evaluate their conservation status. Several ...
[83]
Will climate change be a threat for a new tarantula species?
Aug 21, 2024 · Will climate change lead to the extinction of a newly discovered tarantula species? The remarkable new species is endemic to the Chiricahua ...
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[PDF] Sustainable Trade in Tarantulas: Action Plan for North America
Licensed Brachypelma breeders in Mexico report that they collectively produce, on average, between 11,000–14,000 juvenile tarantulas annually. All Brachypelma ...
[85]
Unmasking trends and drivers of the international arachnid trade
For Brachypelma, there was a clear increase in the percentage of traded captive-bred specimens, that is, from 44.4% to 99.9%, between the two periods analyzed.Missing: harvest | Show results with:harvest
[86]
Species conservation profiles of tarantula spiders (Araneae ...
Nov 8, 2019 · Biological, population, range and habitat information on 21 taxonomically valid tarantula species ( World Spider Catalog 2019 ) listed on CITES ...
[87]
[PDF] Identification of CITES-listed Tarantulas
Annex A lists the tarantula species included in the Checklist of CITES Species (as of 31 August 2018), the current accepted nomenclature for those species, and ...
[88]
[PDF] Taxonomic Checklist of CITES listed Spider Species
(Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae). Arthropoda 11(3): 2 ... Tarantula Spiders: Tarantulas of the U.S.A. and Mexico. Fitzgerald Publ ...
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Pamphobeteus nigricolor: The Magnificent “Giant Blue Bloom ...
Sep 7, 2025 · Habitat Loss: Deforestation and land conversion for agriculture and human settlement in the Andean foothills pose the most significant long-term ...