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Avicularioidea

Avicularioidea is a superfamily of mygalomorph spiders that forms one of the two main clades within the infraorder Mygalomorphae, with the other clade being Atypoidea.^[1] This group encompasses the majority of mygalomorph taxonomic diversity, including well-known families such as the tarantulas (Theraphosidae), and is characterized by paraxial chelicerae, two pairs of book lungs, and diverse silk-producing behaviors ranging from funnel-and-sheet webs to burrow construction.^[1] Phylogenetic analyses using ultraconserved elements (UCEs) and other molecular data have robustly supported Avicularioidea as monophyletic, with strong bootstrap values (100%) confirming its sister relationship to Atypoidea.^[1] Early-diverging lineages within Avicularioidea tend to be species-poor and ancient, while more derived groups exhibit rapid diversification and varied ecological adaptations, such as sedentary retreats in soil or vegetation.^[2] Revisions since 2019 have highlighted paraphyly or polyphyly in several families, including Dipluridae, Ctenizidae, Cyrtaucheniidae, and Nemesiidae, prompting ongoing taxonomic restructuring based on phylogenomic evidence, such as the 2018 split of Hexathelidae into Atracidae, Macrothelidae, and Porrhothelidae.^[2]^[3] As of 2023, Avicularioidea includes approximately 19 families, depending on the analytical approach, with key examples encompassing Theraphosidae (over 1,180 species of often large, hairy spiders as of November 2025), Atracidae (funnel-web spiders noted for potent venom), Euagridae, Ischnothelidae, Hexathelidae, Idiopidae, and Nemesiidae.^[4]^[5] These spiders are distributed worldwide, predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions, and play significant roles in ecosystems as predators, though some species pose medical risks due to their venoms. Advances in spider phylogenomics continue to refine the boundaries and internal relationships of this superfamily, aiding in broader understandings of arachnid evolution.

Overview

Definition and Classification

Avicularioidea is a superfamily of mygalomorph spiders within the suborder Opisthothelae of the order Araneae, representing one of the two primary divisions of the infraorder Mygalomorphae alongside Atypoidea.^[6]^[7] This clade encompasses a diverse array of spiders, including familiar groups such as tarantulas and trapdoor spiders, and forms the bulk of mygalomorph taxonomic diversity.^[6] A defining characteristic of Avicularioidea is the absence of dorsal abdominal tergites, which are vestigial structures representing remnants of abdominal segmentation; these tergites are retained in Atypoidea but lost in Avicularioidea and all derived mygalomorphs.^[8]^[6] The superfamily has a temporal range spanning from the Triassic to the present, with the earliest known fossil, Rosamygale grauvogeli from the Anisian stage (approximately 242 million years ago), assigned to Avicularioidea based on the lack of abdominal scuta and presence of a colulus.^[9] It currently includes over 2,500 extant species distributed across approximately 19 to 25 families (as of 2025).^[7]^[10]

Diversity and Ecological Role

Avicularioidea encompasses approximately 2,500–3,000 extant species (as of 2025) distributed across approximately 19 to 25 families, accounting for over 80% of the total diversity within the mygalomorph infraorder.^[11] This superfamily dominates mygalomorph biodiversity, with major contributions from families such as Theraphosidae (over 1,100 species) and Idiopidae (around 450 species), reflecting a high level of endemism and adaptive radiation in various terrestrial habitats.^[7] The clade's species richness underscores its evolutionary success, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere, where many lineages have diversified since the breakup of Gondwana.^[12] Members of Avicularioidea play crucial ecological roles as apex predators in soil and arboreal ecosystems, primarily targeting insects and other arthropods to regulate population dynamics. For instance, Theraphosidae species consume large numbers of pest insects, contributing to natural pest control in agricultural and forest settings by reducing herbivore pressures on vegetation.^[13] Their burrowing and web-building behaviors further enhance soil aeration and nutrient cycling, supporting broader biodiversity.^[14] Avicularioidea holds significant human relevance, encompassing both hazardous and beneficial aspects. Venomous species in Atracidae, such as the Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus), produce potent neurotoxins that have drawn medical interest for potential treatments in cardiovascular conditions like heart attacks and strokes, with compounds like Hi1a showing promise in protecting cardiac tissue.^[15] Theraphosidae tarantulas are highly popular in the global pet trade, with over 400 species commercially available, supporting a multimillion-dollar industry while raising concerns about overcollection.^[16] Culturally, these spiders feature in indigenous lore across the Americas, often symbolizing resilience, creativity, and interconnectedness in creation stories of groups like the Hopi.^[17] Conservation challenges for Avicularioidea primarily stem from habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and climate change, affecting sedentary species reliant on stable microhabitats. In Idiopidae, several Australian taxa, such as those in the genus Cantuaria, are endangered or declining, with populations significantly reduced in some areas since the mid-20th century owing to land clearing and altered fire regimes.^[18] Efforts to mitigate these threats include protected areas and monitoring programs, emphasizing the need for taxonomic clarity to inform targeted preservation.^[19]

Taxonomy

Historical Development

The taxonomic history of Avicularioidea traces back to the late 19th century, when Reginald Innes Pocock divided the Mygalomorphae into major groups based on cheliceral morphology, particularly the presence or absence of a fornicating lamina, which helped distinguish primitive forms from more derived ones resembling Avicularioidea. These early efforts laid the groundwork for recognizing Avicularioidea-like assemblages, though the group was not formally named as such at the time. In the 20th century, Robert J. Raven's comprehensive 1985 cladistic analysis of Mygalomorphae provided the first modern framework, proposing a division into two main lineages—Atypoidea and a diverse clade encompassing what would later be Avicularioidea—based on morphological characters such as tarsal scopulae and cheliceral structure. Raven's work emphasized the monophyly of this broader group through shared synapomorphies like the reduced number of spinnerets and specialized silk glands, influencing subsequent classifications. A pivotal shift occurred with molecular approaches; Bond et al.'s 2012 study, using nuclear genes (18S, 28S, and EF-1γ) combined with morphology, supported the two-clade split of Mygalomorphae into Atypoidea and the remaining mygalomorphs (later formalized as Avicularioidea), validating Raven's morphological hypothesis.^[20] This analysis resolved several familial relationships within the group, highlighting potential polyphyly in groups like Dipluridae and prompting further revisions.^[20] The superfamily status of Avicularioidea was formally adopted in the World Spider Catalog version 18.0 in 2017, reflecting the growing consensus from molecular data.^[11] Subsequent refinements included the 2018 phylogenomic study by Hedin et al., which split the polyphyletic Hexathelidae into three distinct families—Atracidae, Macrothelidae, and Porrhothelidae—based on anchored hybrid enrichment of 1,352 loci across 53 taxa, clarifying basal relationships within Avicularioidea.^[21] Despite these advances, challenges persist, including ongoing debates over the monophyly of Avicularioidea due to polyphyletic families such as Dipluridae, which exhibit deep divergences unsupported by traditional morphology.^[7] Hamilton et al.'s 2019 phylogenomic analysis, employing 472 loci from anchored hybrid enrichment on 113 mygalomorph taxa, further resolved major relationships by recovering Avicularioidea as monophyletic while identifying paraphyly in several included families, thus refining the group's boundaries and underscoring the need for continued integrative taxonomy.^[7] Subsequent revisions based on this work erected new families such as Anamidae, Bemmeridae, Entypesidae, Pycnothelidae, and Stasimopidae from formerly paraphyletic groups like Nemesiidae.

Current Families and Subgroups

Avicularioidea encompasses approximately 24 extant families, representing a significant portion of mygalomorph spider diversity, with over 3,000 described species distributed across various ecological niches worldwide. These families are primarily defined by shared cheliceral features and burrowing or web-building behaviors, though recent phylogenomic analyses have highlighted the need for further taxonomic refinement in some groups. The following table summarizes key current families, including their genera and species counts as per the World Spider Catalog as of November 2025 (note: not exhaustive, as ongoing revisions continue).

Family	Genera	Species
Actinopodidae	3	125
Anamidae	10	143
Atracidae	3	38
Barychelidae	39	330
Ctenizidae	9	94
Cyrtaucheniidae	6	93
Dipluridae	16	162
Euagridae	9	66
Euctenizidae	4	29
Halonoproctidae	6	93
Hexathelidae	2	8
Idiopidae	23	619
Ischnothelidae	5	29
Macrothelidae	1	21
Migidae	12	109
Nemesiidae	38	292
Paratropididae	5	17
Porrhothelidae	1	4
Pycnothelidae	7	76
Theraphosidae	186	1180

Theraphosidae stands out as the largest family, comprising the well-known tarantulas, which exhibit both arboreal and terrestrial lifestyles and dominate the superfamily's species richness. In contrast, Atracidae includes the highly venomous Australian funnel-web spiders, noted for their potent neurotoxic venoms that pose risks to humans. Other notable families include Barychelidae, characterized by their pursuit predation strategies among leaf litter, and Nemesiidae, a diverse (though reduced) group of tube-dwelling spiders often found in arid regions. Recent studies indicate that some families, such as Nemesiidae and Dipluridae, remain polyphyletic or require further subdivision to reflect monophyletic clades, based on genomic-scale phylogenetic analyses conducted since 2019. These findings suggest ongoing taxonomic revisions to better align family boundaries with evolutionary relationships, with additional changes as of 2025. Among extinct taxa assigned to Avicularioidea, Fossilcalcaridae represents a Cretaceous family with one genus and species, providing early evidence of the clade's diversification. Incertae sedis fossils include Cretamygale from the Cretaceous and Rosamygale from the Triassic, the latter being one of the oldest known mygalomorphs potentially affiliated with the superfamily.

Morphology and Physiology

Anatomical Features

Avicularioidea, as a clade within the mygalomorph spiders, exhibit several primitive anatomical traits characteristic of the suborder Mygalomorphae. These include paraxial chelicerae that articulate vertically in a parallel fashion, enabling powerful downward strikes for prey capture.^[23] The respiratory system features two pairs of book lungs, a plesiomorphic condition retained from early spider lineages.^[24] Venom glands are simple and undivided, confined primarily to the basal segments of the chelicerae without extension into the prosoma.^[25] The eyes number eight, arranged in a compact group with two recurved rows, lacking the distinct orbital patterns seen in araneomorph spiders.^[23]^[26] Specific to Avicularioidea, the abdomen is smooth and unsegmented, lacking the dorsal tergites that persist as vestiges in the sister clade Atypoidea.^[27] Spinneret configurations vary across families, with Theraphosidae typically possessing four spinnerets arranged in two pairs near the anal tubercle, while some other groups show reductions in number or elaboration.^[28]^[7] Legs are robust, often equipped with strong, toothed claws that facilitate burrowing or climbing on varied substrates.^[23] Body size within Avicularioidea shows considerable variation, ranging from small species in Microstigmatidae with body lengths of approximately 4–5 mm to large Theraphosidae individuals achieving leg spans up to 30 cm.^[29]^[30] Sexual dimorphism is evident in the chelicerae, where males often develop enlarged or modified structures compared to females, aiding in species recognition or mating rituals.^[31] Coloration is typically cryptic, featuring shades of brown or gray for camouflage, though Theraphosidae additionally bear specialized urticating hairs on the abdomen as a defensive adaptation.^[32]

Physiological Adaptations

Avicularioidea, as part of the Mygalomorphae, possess a primitive respiratory system consisting of two pairs of book lungs, which facilitate oxygen uptake through diffusion across stacked lamellae into the hemolymph. This dual-lung configuration is highly efficient for the low-oxygen conditions prevalent in their burrow-dwelling lifestyles, allowing sustained respiration during periods of inactivity without requiring active ventilation.^[33] In basal families such as Dipluridae, the respiratory apparatus retains a particularly symplesiomorphic structure, with both pairs of book lungs fully functional and contributing to localized gas exchange, enhancing adaptability to hypoxic subterranean environments.^[34] The venom apparatus in Avicularioidea features large glands housed within the chelicerae, which produce a complex array of neurotoxins targeted primarily at immobilizing invertebrate prey. These toxins, including peptides like δ-atracotoxins in the family Atracidae, act by modulating sodium channels to induce rapid paralysis, enabling efficient capture of insects and small vertebrates.^[35] While most species exhibit low toxicity to mammals due to the specificity of their neurotoxins for arthropod ion channels, funnel-web spiders (Atracidae) possess venoms with exceptional mammalian potency, capable of causing severe neurotoxic effects including autonomic overstimulation and potentially fatal outcomes without antivenom intervention.^[36] Reproductive physiology in Avicularioidea involves direct sperm transfer via the male's embolus, a sclerotized structure on the pedipalp that delivers sperm into the female's spermathecae during copulation, ensuring precise internal fertilization without external deposition. Females exhibit remarkably extended lifespans, often exceeding 20 years post-maturity in families like Theraphosidae, allowing multiple reproductive cycles over decades.^[37] Egg-laying is followed by cocoon production, where females extrude silk from spinnerets to form protective egg sacs containing hundreds of eggs, which are guarded until hatching to maximize offspring survival.^[38] Defensive mechanisms in Avicularioidea include urticating hairs in Theraphosidae, specialized barbed setae on the abdomen that are flicked toward threats, embedding in skin or mucous membranes to cause mechanical irritation, pruritus, and inflammation without relying on chemical toxins.^[32] Additionally, several families possess stridulation organs, comprising file-like setae on the chelicerae or legs that rub against opposing surfaces to produce warning hisses or rasps, signaling potential danger to predators and deterring attacks through acoustic deterrence.^[39]

Ecology and Behavior

Habitat Utilization

Avicularioidea spiders exhibit diverse microhabitat preferences that reflect their burrowing and web-building behaviors, enabling them to exploit varied environmental niches across terrestrial ecosystems. Many species in this superfamily construct elaborate burrows for shelter and ambush predation, with trapdoor mechanisms being particularly prominent in families like Ctenizidae and Euctenizidae. Members of Ctenizidae build underground burrows lined with silk, capped by a hinged trapdoor composed of silk, soil, and sometimes vegetation fragments, which allows them to remain concealed while detecting prey vibrations through silk trip lines.^[40] Similarly, Euctenizidae species create heavily silk-lined, unbranched burrows with wafer-like trapdoors made from silk and soil, often in stable soil substrates such as grasslands or woodlands.^[41] In contrast, Idiopidae typically favor open burrows without trapdoors, silk-lined and extending into moist soils on embankments or creek banks, facilitating rapid access to surface prey in open habitats like lawns or agricultural fields.^[42] Arboreal and foliage-based microhabitats are utilized by several Avicularioidea families, adapting to vertical or litter-layered environments through silk constructions. Theraphosidae includes arboreal species that dwell in silk retreats or tube tents within tree foliage, providing protection in humid canopies while allowing opportunistic foraging.^[43] Euagridae, known as curtain-web spiders, construct extensive funnel- or curtain-like sheet webs in sheltered spots such as under rocks, tree roots, or bark, often in forested understories where they can span multiple retreat chambers.^[44] Ground-layer specialists like Barychelidae occupy leaf litter and soil interfaces in diverse habitats from rainforests to arid zones, building burrows with hinged doors for ambush strategies amid organic debris.^[45] Nemesiidae species are particularly adapted to leaf-litter layers in undisturbed forests, where they excavate silk-lined burrows beneath moist, deep litter at the base of large trees, relying on the humid microclimate for stability.^[46] Environmental tolerances within Avicularioidea further shape habitat utilization, with certain lineages showing specialized adaptations to climatic extremes. Australian Idiopidae have diversified in arid zones since the Miocene, evolving behavioral and morphological traits such as phragmotic burrow-plugging and sclerotized sigilla to withstand dry, sandy substrates and temperature fluctuations in transitional arid landscapes.^[47] Conversely, Paratropididae are confined to tropical regions, preferring high-humidity environments like rainforests where their burrowing habits thrive in consistently moist soils, supporting their dispersal-limited lifestyles.^[48] These microhabitat specializations underscore the superfamily's ecological versatility, linking burrow architecture and web use to specific moisture and substrate conditions.

Predatory and Reproductive Behaviors

Avicularioidea spiders employ a variety of predatory strategies adapted to their ambush-oriented lifestyles, primarily relying on wait-and-strike tactics that detect prey through vibrations transmitted via silk threads or substrate contact.^[49] In families like Euagridae, predators construct sheet-webs over burrows or retreats to intercept passing prey, which triggers vibrations alerting the spider to rush out and subdue victims using chelicerae and venom. Conversely, many Theraphosidae species are wandering hunters that forgo webs for prey capture, instead ambushing from burrows or actively pursuing targets at night, with prey consisting mainly of insects such as crickets and beetles, alongside occasional small vertebrates like frogs or lizards.^[50] Mating in Avicularioidea involves elaborate rituals where males approach females cautiously, often initiating contact by tapping pedipalps or legs on the female's silk or body to signal intent and assess receptivity, reducing the risk of aggression.^[51] Sperm transfer occurs via the male's embolus-tipped pedipalps, inserted into the female's epigyne during copulation, which can last several minutes and may involve multiple insertions.^[52] Encounters are frequently aggressive, with females charging or biting males, and sexual cannibalism occurs in some cases, particularly in Atracidae where post-copulatory attacks can result in the male's death and consumption.^[51] Reproductive cycles in Avicularioidea are typically seasonal, peaking in warmer months to align with prey availability, with females producing one or more egg sacs containing 100 to 1,000 eggs, depending on species size and resources.^[53] Females exhibit extended maternal care, guarding the silk-wrapped egg sac in their burrow and later the emerged spiderlings for weeks to months, providing protection from predators and occasionally regurgitating food.^[54] Spiderling dispersal is predominantly terrestrial via crawling from the maternal burrow, with ballooning on silk threads being rare due to limited silk production for aerial launch in this group.^[55] While most Avicularioidea are solitary throughout their lives, some Ischnothelidae display subsocial or colonial tendencies, sharing extensive sheet-webs for prey capture and tolerating communal living without cannibalism among group members.^[56] These shared retreats facilitate cooperative hunting, where vibrations from multiple spiders enhance prey detection efficiency.

Distribution

Global Geographic Range

Avicularioidea, a superfamily of mygalomorph spiders, exhibits a predominantly Southern Hemisphere distribution, with the highest species diversity concentrated in Australasia, South America, and Africa. In Australasia, families such as Atracidae and Idiopidae show particularly high diversity; Atracidae are largely restricted to eastern Australia, while Idiopidae, with over 100 described species, are most abundant in Australia and New Zealand, where the majority of genera are endemic to the region. South America serves as a hotspot for Theraphosidae and Dipluridae, with Theraphosidae encompassing hundreds of species across tropical and subtropical areas, and Dipluridae primarily occurring in Central and South America. In Africa, Barychelidae and Nemesiidae are prominent, with Barychelidae distributed across the continent, Madagascar, and adjacent regions, and Nemesiidae showing cosmopolitan tendencies but with significant diversity in African habitats.^[7] Northern extensions of Avicularioidea are limited to tropical and subtropical zones, avoiding cold temperate regions due to physiological constraints. For instance, Theraphosidae extend into the southern United States (e.g., species of Aphonopelma in the southwestern deserts) and parts of Asia, including India and Southeast Asia, but are absent from higher latitudes. Similarly, Nemesiidae occur in southern Europe and North America, though sparingly, with Euctenizidae confined to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The superfamily is notably absent from boreal and arctic zones worldwide.^[7]^[57] Human-mediated introductions have expanded the range of some Avicularioidea beyond native distributions, particularly through the pet trade. Levels of endemism are notably high in certain regions, underscoring the superfamily's biogeographic isolation. In Australia, approximately 90% of Idiopidae species are endemic, reflecting the continent's role as a center of diversification for trapdoor spiders. Madagascar hosts unique Nemesiidae lineages, with several genera and species restricted to the island, contributing to its exceptional mygalomorph endemism.^[47]^[58]

Biogeographic Patterns

Avicularioidea exhibits strong biogeographic ties to the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana, with ancestral ranges concentrated in regions that were once contiguous, such as Australasia, Africa, and South America. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the superfamily's early diversification occurred around 101–88 million years ago, coinciding with the fragmentation of eastern and western Gondwana, which vicariated lineages across these landmasses. For instance, families like Idiopidae and Migidae show disjunct distributions mirroring this breakup, with Australian and southern African clades diverging during the Late Cretaceous. This Gondwanan legacy explains the current high concentrations of Avicularioidea diversity in these southern continents, where relictual mesic-adapted taxa persist in fragmented habitats.^[7] Dispersal events in Avicularioidea have been limited due to the group's generally low vagility, but notable instances include over-water migration via rafting. In Theraphosidae, rafting is inferred to have facilitated colonization of the Caribbean islands from South American mainland populations during the Miocene, with lineages like those in the subfamily Ischnocolinae establishing isolated island endemics. Similarly, vicariance played a key role in Nemesiidae following the initial breakup of Pangaea around 200 million years ago, with the family's origin dated to approximately 115 million years ago leading to cosmopolitan but fragmented distributions through subsequent continental drift. These patterns underscore the superfamily's reliance on passive mechanisms rather than active long-distance dispersal.^[59]^[7] Geological barriers have profoundly influenced radiations within Avicularioidea. The uplift of the Andes during the Miocene (14–11 million years ago) acted as a vicariant barrier, isolating western and eastern South American lineages in families such as Pycnothelidae and Cyrtaucheniidae by creating arid corridors and elevational divides that restricted gene flow. In Australia, Miocene aridification drove diversification among trapdoor spider clades like Anamidae and Barychelidae, as contracting rainforests forced adaptations to semi-arid environments, resulting in high endemism and speciation in inland habitats. These events highlight how tectonic and climatic shifts promoted allopatric speciation in dispersal-limited taxa.^[60]^[61] Contemporary ecological pressures, particularly habitat fragmentation, are contracting ranges across Avicularioidea, with many species facing decline due to urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation. A 2019 assessment of 19 Theraphosidae species from southwestern Asia found that over 60% were threatened primarily by habitat loss (IUCN categories). This fragmentation exacerbates vulnerability in already restricted endemics, underscoring the need for conservation focused on connectivity in remnant habitats.^[62]

Evolution and Phylogeny

Origins and Diversification

The origins of Avicularioidea trace back to the broader mygalomorph lineage, which emerged during the Carboniferous period around 300 million years ago, with the superfamily itself diverging from its sister clade Atypoidea in the late Paleozoic. Molecular clock analyses using phylogenomic data estimate the split between Avicularioidea and Atypoidea at approximately 315–323 million years ago, though crown-group diversification within Avicularioidea began in the Triassic around 240–250 million years ago.^[1] These estimates, derived from fossil-calibrated models incorporating hundreds of loci, highlight an ancient origin influenced by early continental configurations.^[1] Major radiations within Avicularioidea occurred during the Jurassic period (approximately 201–145 million years ago), coinciding with the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea, which facilitated vicariance and initial lineage splitting among early-branching families such as Ischnothelidae around 254 million years ago. A significant diversification pulse followed in the Cretaceous (145–66 million years ago), marked by the emergence and rapid expansion of Theraphosidae (tarantulas) around 107–120 million years ago, driven by Gondwanan fragmentation and the opening of new habitats.^[63] In the Cenozoic era (66 million years ago to present), Avicularioidea underwent further adaptations to emerging modern biomes, including repeated dispersals from Gondwanan remnants like India into Asia, contributing to higher species diversity compared to Atypoidea.^[63] Overall, diversification rates in Avicularioidea exceed those in Atypoidea, accounting for the majority of mygalomorph taxonomic richness.^[1] Key evolutionary drivers included morphological innovations such as urticating hairs in Theraphosidae, which provided enhanced defense against predators and enabled exploitation of diverse terrestrial environments starting in the Cretaceous. Additionally, variation in web architectures—from sheet webs in ancestral lineages to trapdoor burrows in clades like Bipectina—promoted niche partitioning and reduced competition, supporting radiations across fragmented landscapes. These adaptations, combined with low dispersal ability and sensitivity to climatic shifts, shaped the clade's biogeographic patterns and sustained diversification through the Phanerozoic.

Fossil Record and Relationships

The fossil record of Avicularioidea is limited, reflecting the challenges of preserving soft-bodied arachnids outside of exceptional conditions like amber. The earliest known representative is Rosamygale grauvogeli, a small mygalomorph spider from the Middle Triassic (Anisian stage) Grès à Voltzia Formation in the northern Vosges Mountains of France, dated to approximately 242 million years ago; this specimen provides the oldest evidence of avicularioid morphology, including chelicerae and leg structures indicative of ground-dwelling habits.^[64] Subsequent Mesozoic fossils include Cretamygale chasei from Early Cretaceous (Barremian) amber on the Isle of Wight, United Kingdom, around 125 million years old, which exhibits nemesiid-like features such as bipectinate chelicerae and is preserved in three dimensions, allowing detailed study of its somatic structures.^[65] Cretaceous amber deposits have yielded additional avicularioids, notably the extinct family Fossilcalcaridae from mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) Burmese amber in Myanmar, represented by the type species Fossilcalcar praeteritus; this taxon stands out for its well-preserved spinnerets, which reveal early configurations of silk-producing organs similar to those in modern avicularioids. Burmese amber inclusions also include members of the extinct Lagonomegopidae, dating to about 99 million years ago. Preservation gaps are pronounced, with few sedimentary fossils due to the group's terrestrial lifestyle and lack of sclerotization; most records post-Triassic derive from amber, highlighting a bias toward tropical Mesozoic environments. Phylogenetic analyses consistently recover Avicularioidea as monophyletic within Mygalomorphae, comprising a diverse assemblage of families including Nemesiidae, Theraphosidae, and others, based on early phylogenomic studies using anchored hybrid enrichment of 40 taxa across 71 genes. Within this clade, Paratropididae occupies a basal position, supported by morphological synapomorphies like reduced book lungs and specialized palpal bulbs, as resolved in comprehensive transcriptomic and genomic datasets.^[7] Sister group relationships include a close alliance between Dipluridae and Hexathelidae (encompassing former Atracidae), forming a subclade characterized by funnel-web building behaviors and shared genitalic features.^[7] The family Nemesiidae exhibits polyphyly in recent phylogenomic treatments, with its genera dispersing across multiple avicularioid lineages due to convergent burrowing adaptations, as demonstrated in a 2019 analysis of 472 loci from 115 mygalomorph taxa that restructured family boundaries. Unresolved issues persist, particularly in delimiting family-level taxa, underscoring the need for expanded genomic sampling to clarify deep divergences and integrate fossil calibrations more robustly.^[7]

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The family Microstigmatidae is known from Central and South America ... Body size: 4-13 mm. • Diagnostic characters: colour: various shades of brown ...
[26]
Theraphosidae, Pycnothelidae), and First Record of Xenonemesia ...
Dec 2, 2022 · Description and Sexual Behavior of Two New Species of Mygalomorph ... sexual differences in the male chelicerae. View full-text. Article.
[27]
Urticating setae of tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae)
Nov 11, 2019 · Tarantula urticating setae are modified setae located on the abdomen or pedipalps, which represent an effective defensive mechanism against vertebrate or ...Missing: coloration | Show results with:coloration
[28]
The ultrastructure of the book lungs of the Italian trap-door spider ...
The respiratory system of Cteniza sp. consists of two pairs of book lungs that are considered primitive and are present in members of the infraorder ...
[29]
Correlation with a limited set of behavioral niches explains the ...
Jan 9, 2023 · Mygalomorphae possess the symplesiomorphic posterior respiratory system consisting of a pair of book lungs. These allow only localized ...
[30]
Synthesis and characterization of delta-atracotoxin-Ar1a, the lethal ...
Delta-atracotoxin-Ar1a (delta-ACTX-Ar1a) is the major polypeptide neurotoxin isolated from the venom of the male Sydney funnel-web spider, Atrax robustus.Missing: Avicularia apparatus
[31]
Funnel-Web Spider Toxicity - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 26, 2024 · All FWS bites should be treated as potentially life-threatening, even though only 10% to 15% are venomous.Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Etiology · Treatment / Management
[32]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6844489/
[33]
Mygalomorphae; Theraphosidae) - PMC - PubMed Central
2010) and the presence of two pairs of book lungs in Mygalomorphae and Mesothelae vs. only one pair of book lungs in most Araneomorphae (exception ...
[34]
Comparative morphology of stridulating setae of Theraphosinae ...
Mygalomorph spiders from the family Theraphosidae, also known as tarantulas ... Spiders of the subfamily Theraphosinae have stridulating setae that aid ...
[35]
Four new species of the trapdoor spider genus Conothele Thorell ...
Jan 5, 2017 · Ctenizidae is a dispersal-limited, ground-dwelling lineage, members of which usually build underground silk lined burrows opening to the surface ...
[36]
Phylogeny, Evolution, and Biogeography of the North ... - BioOne
Oct 6, 2020 · The trapdoor spider family Euctenizidae Raven, 1985 (Araneae ... Their heavily silk-lined burrows have unbranched entrances and are covered with a ...
[37]
Trapdoor spiders - The Australian Museum
They can be distinguished from Funnel-web burrows by the absence of silk triplines around the entrance. Sigillate Trapdoor burrows are made with soil or litter ...
[38]
(PDF) Laboratory husbandry of arboreal tarantulas (Theraphosidae ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Unlike many spider families, theraphosid silk is not used for prey capture, but for building retreats, although any vibrations will alert the ...
[39]
EUAGRIDAE Curtain-web Spiders - Arachne.org
They are found in most habitats from rainforest to grassland throughout Australia except Tasmania. The highest diversity is probably in eastern Queensland. Of ...
[40]
BARYCHELIDAE Brush-footed trapdoors - Arachne.org
Some species occupy the intertidal zone, in trees or in amongst the mangroves. Most have a door to their burrow, sometimes two. Some species build burrows on ...
[41]
Ground-dwelling spider families and forest structure variables for ...
Jul 1, 2021 · The Nemesiidae are associated with undisturbed forest with a deep and moist layer of litter at the base of large trees where they build ...
[42]
The Australasian spiny trapdoor spiders of the family Idiopidae ...
Sep 20, 2017 · Idiopids exhibit a remarkable array of morphological and behavioural adaptations to different climates and substrates, and have evolved various ...
[43]
How does Tarantula Lasiodora parahybena Mello Leitto (Aranea ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Despite their size, tarantulas are generally limited to a "sit-and-wait" predation strategy. While other spiders use a variety of perception ...
[44]
Hunting Behavior in the Ctenizidae - Oxford Academic
Aug 1, 2015 · The Dipluridae finally are real web-builders, which depend on a sheet-web to catch their prey. Generally they do not dig a burrow but hide in a ...
[45]
Feeding Frequency, Prey Acceptance, and Natural Diet of the ...
Therefore, the objectives of this study were to study some of the species' predatory traits, such as feeding frequency and prey acceptance, and to assess its ...
[46]
(PDF) Predation by a Mygalomorphic Spider Xenesthis immanis ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Predation by a Mygalomorphic Spider Xenesthis immanis (Araneae: Theraphosidae) on a Stream-dwelling Frog, Rheobates palmatus (Anura: ...
[47]
[PDF] 85 Sexual behaviour of mygalomorph spiders - CONICET
Mygalomorphs have simple eyes and likely lack acute vision (Land 1985, Dippenaar-Schoeman 2002). Their courtship displays provide vibrational, substrate-borne ...
[48]
Mating behavior of the Sydney funnel‐web spider (Atracidae: Atrax ...
May 12, 2023 · Thirteen distinct behaviors are described for males, out of which at least two seem new to mygalomorphs, while four female behaviors are ...Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
[49]
[PDF] REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF URUGUAYAN THERAPHOSIDS ...
Oviposition and egg sac care were studied in the field and laboratory. Two complete cycles including female molting and copulation, egg sac construction and ...
[50]
[PDF] Postembryonic development of Actinopus cf. insignis and Diplura ...
The postembryonic development of two mygalomorph spiders, Actinopus cf. insignis (Actinopodidae) and Diplura paraguayensis (Dipluridae), is studied.
[51]
Trapped indoors? Long-distance dispersal in mygalomorph spiders ...
Jan 30, 2021 · Mygalomorphs can disperse terrestrially, and in some tarantulas, for example, spiderlings walk together in single files away from their maternal ...
[52]
[PDF] Sub-social behaviour in the diplurid Ischnothele caudata (Araneae ...
The mother fed her offspring in the same manner as described above and joint hunting and feeding could also be observed among groups of juvenile spiders. The ...
[53]
(PDF) Sexual behavior of Diplura macrura and Ischnothele annulata ...
Aug 7, 2025 · These solitary spiders only meet for mating during the reproductive season (Ghirotto and Guadanucci, 2021) and exhibit parental care, where ...
[54]
Tarantulas | National Geographic
There are hundreds of tarantula species found in most of the world's tropical, subtropical, and arid regions. They vary in color and behavior according to their ...
[55]
Hawaii's Invasive Species - Zoos in Japan
Sep 30, 2016 · Tarantula (Theraphosidae spp.) These creatures are usually brought into Hawaii as pets. They have no local predators, and if they established ...
[56]
Madagascar Spiders
NEMESIIDAE RECORDED FROM MADAGASCAR. By V. D. Roth, D. Silva Davila, D. Ubick, and C. E. Griswold. (complete synonymies and references at Platnick, N. I. 2003 ...
[57]
Phylogenomic analyses reveal a Gondwanan origin and ... - NIH
Apr 6, 2021 · We provide support for a dual colonization of Asia by two different tarantula lineages that occur at least 20 million years apart, as well as a Gondwanan ...
[58]
Historical biogeography of mygalomorph spiders from the ...
A panbiogeographical analysis of Mygalomorphae spiders was undertaken in order to determine generalized tracks and biogeographical nodes in the peripampasic ...Missing: isolation | Show results with:isolation
[59]
A large brush-footed trapdoor spider (Mygalomorphae: Barychelidae ...
Sep 15, 2023 · Here, we describe the first fossil barychelid spider (Araneae: Barychelidae) in the world and the second fossil mygalomorph spider from Australia.Missing: ambush | Show results with:ambush
[60]
Species conservation profiles of tarantula spiders (Araneae ...
Nov 8, 2019 · This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement ( CITES 2019 ) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Species conservation profiles of tarantula spiders (Araneae ...
Tarantulas are the common name given to spiders that belong to the family Theraphosidae Thorell, 1869. The vast majority can be found in tropical and semi ...<|separator|>
[62]
https://bdj.pensoft.net/article/39342/
[63]
[PDF] A TRIASSIC MYGALOMORPH SPIDER FROM THE NO RTH ERN ...
The fossil is a tuberculote, ground-dwelling spider, *Rosomygale*, from the Anisian Ores of the northern Vosges, France, and is the oldest fossil mygalomorph ...
[64]
[PDF] FIRST BRITISH MESOZOIC SPIDER, FROM CRETACEOUS ...
Cretamygale chasei, a new genus and species of spider, is described from a single specimen preserved in amber of early Barremian age from the Isle of Wight.Missing: Myanmar | Show results with:Myanmar