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National Reconciliation Week

National Reconciliation Week is an annual Australian event observed from 27 May to 3 June, intended to encourage public reflection on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures, and contributions while promoting dialogue on reconciliation with the non-Indigenous majority.^[1] The dates specifically mark the 1967 federal referendum, which amended the Constitution to include Indigenous peoples in population counts and enable Commonwealth laws addressing their affairs, and the 3 June 1992 High Court Mabo ruling, which rejected the terra nullius doctrine and recognized native title.^[2]^[3] The observance traces its roots to the 1993 Week of Prayer for Reconciliation, organized by faith groups during the United Nations International Year for the World's Indigenous People, and was expanded into a national framework in 1996 by the federally established Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation.^[4] Established to implement the 1991 Corowa Statement advocating formal reconciliation processes, the council's efforts culminated in Reconciliation Australia, a nonprofit that coordinates modern NRW activities focused on relationship-building and truth-telling initiatives.^[5] Key milestones include the 2000 Sydney Harbour Bridge walk, where an estimated 250,000 participants demonstrated public support for reconciliation, representing one of Australia's largest protest or awareness gatherings.^[6] Subsequent years have featured themes like "Bridging Now to Next" in 2025, emphasizing ongoing truth-telling amid persistent challenges, though empirical indicators such as high rates of Indigenous over-incarceration and health disparities suggest limited causal progress in socioeconomic equity despite heightened awareness.^[1]^[7] Critics, including some Indigenous commentators, contend that NRW functions primarily as symbolic ritualism, diverting attention from structural failures like inadequate policy reforms, as evidenced by the 2023 Voice referendum's defeat—which rejected constitutional enshrinement of Indigenous advisory mechanisms—and stagnant metrics on discrimination and bias in national surveys.^[8]^[9]^[10] This perspective underscores a broader skepticism toward institutionally driven reconciliation efforts, often viewed as insufficiently accountable to verifiable outcomes over performative gestures.

Origins and Historical Context

Establishment of the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation

The Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established as a statutory authority by the Australian Parliament's unanimous passage of the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act 1991 (Cth) on 2 September 1991.^[5]^[11] The legislation created a 10-year framework for advancing reconciliation, with the Council mandated to cease operations on 1 January 2001, coinciding with the centenary of Australian Federation.^[12] This cross-party supported initiative aimed to promote mutual understanding, respect, and equity between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the non-Indigenous Australian population, addressing longstanding historical divisions stemming from colonization and dispossession.^[13]^[12] The Council's core functions, as outlined in the Act, included educating the Australian public on Indigenous histories and cultures, consulting with Indigenous communities to identify barriers to reconciliation, and developing key documents such as a national strategy and a formal agreement or "document of reconciliation" by 2000.^[14] Its founding vision articulated a goal of "a united Australia which respects this land of ours; values the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage; and provides justice and equity for all," emphasizing recognition of Indigenous custodianship and redress for past inequities without prescribing specific policy outcomes.^[15] Initial appointments to the Council included representatives from government, Indigenous organizations, and civil society, with the body holding its first meeting in 1992 to commence consultations and public awareness efforts.^[13] The establishment reflected a parliamentary commitment to a structured, time-bound process amid contemporaneous inquiries like the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, though the Act itself focused on symbolic and educational reconciliation rather than legal or reparative mandates.^[16]

Launch and Early Years of NRW

National Reconciliation Week (NRW) evolved from the Week of Prayer for Reconciliation, first observed in 1993 by Australia's major faith communities as part of the International Year of the World's Indigenous Peoples.^[1] This precursor initiative sought to encourage prayer and reflection on Indigenous issues but remained limited in scope.^[17] In 1996, the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation (CAR), established by federal legislation in 1991 to advance reconciliation ahead of the 2001 centenary of Federation, formally launched Australia's inaugural National Reconciliation Week from 27 May to 3 June.^[5] The dates were selected to align with the anniversary of the 1967 constitutional referendum on 27 May, which extended federal legislative powers over Indigenous affairs. The launch expanded the prayer week into a nationwide platform for public engagement, emphasizing education on historical injustices and fostering dialogue between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.^[18] CAR coordinated initial activities through partnerships with community organizations, focusing on awareness-raising events such as seminars, exhibitions, and local forums held across states and territories.^[1] The early years of NRW, from 1996 to 2000, saw gradual growth in participation, with CAR promoting it as a focal point for reconciliation strategies outlined in its Australian Declaration Towards Reconciliation, adopted in 1997.^[5] Events emphasized factual acknowledgment of past policies like forced child removals, highlighted in the 1997 Bringing Them Home report, though NRW itself prioritized voluntary community involvement over mandated actions.^[5] A landmark occurrence was the 28 May 2000 Walk for Reconciliation across Sydney Harbour Bridge, organized during NRW and attended by an estimated 250,000 people, representing the largest public demonstration for Indigenous reconciliation to that date.^[19] This event underscored emerging public momentum but also exposed divisions, as some Indigenous leaders declined participation pending a formal government apology for the Stolen Generations.^[19] By 2001, as CAR's statutory term concluded without achieving a treaty or comprehensive settlement, NRW transitioned to oversight by the newly formed Reconciliation Australia, which continued the week's framework amid ongoing debates over its effectiveness in addressing socioeconomic disparities.^[1] Early observances registered modest attendance compared to later years, with official reports noting hundreds of localized events but limited measurable policy impacts.^[1]

Key Dates and Symbolic Foundations

The 1967 Referendum

The 1967 Australian referendum, conducted on 27 May 1967, proposed amendments to sections 51(xxvi) and 127 of the Constitution to eliminate discriminatory exclusions applying to Aboriginal people.^[20] Section 51(xxvi), known as the "race power," originally permitted the Commonwealth Parliament to make laws for "the people of any race, other than the aboriginal race in any State," thereby limiting federal authority over Aboriginal affairs to territories while leaving states with primary control.^[21] Section 127 deemed Aboriginal people not to be counted in the census for purposes of determining electoral representation, effectively rendering them invisible in national population figures.^[20] These changes were driven by mid-1960s activism, including the 1965 Freedom Ride exposing segregation and the 1966 Wave Hill walk-off highlighting pastoral industry exploitation, amid broader civil rights influences.^[20] The campaign, coordinated by the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders (FCAATSI) under leaders like Faith Bandler and supported by parliamentarians such as Gordon Bryant, emphasized equality and federal responsibility without an organized opposition case.^[21] It garnered unprecedented support, with 90.77% of valid votes (5,183,113 yes against 527,007 no) approving the amendments, achieving majorities in every state: New South Wales (91.46%), Victoria (94.68%), Queensland (89.21%), Western Australia (80.95%), South Australia (86.26%), and Tasmania (90.21%).^[22] The alterations took effect via the Constitution Alteration (Aboriginals) 1967, assented on 10 August 1967, marking the highest affirmative vote in any federal referendum.^[21] Contrary to common misconceptions, the referendum did not confer voting rights or citizenship on Aboriginal people, as federal enfranchisement had been legislated in 1962 (with Queensland aligning in 1965) and citizenship granted variably by states earlier.^[20]^[21] It instead empowered the Commonwealth to enact laws specifically for Aboriginal advancement, facilitating subsequent policies like the 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act, though it also centralized control without addressing land ownership or self-determination directly.^[20] In the context of reconciliation, the referendum symbolized national acknowledgment of Aboriginal inclusion, shifting public and governmental perspectives toward Indigenous agency and enabling federal initiatives to address disparities.^[22] Its date, 27 May, anchors the start of National Reconciliation Week, commemorating this as a foundational step in bridging divides, despite not resolving underlying discrimination or granting substantive rights like native title.^[20] The outcome underscored broad consensus for reform but highlighted ongoing needs for structural change, as evidenced by persistent socioeconomic gaps post-referendum.^[21]

The Mabo Decision and Native Title

The Mabo case, formally Mabo v Queensland (No 2), originated in 1982 when Eddie Koiki Mabo, a Meriam man born on 29 June 1936 on Mer (Murray Island) in the Torres Strait, along with plaintiffs David Passi, Sam Passi, James Rice, and John Kabore, challenged the Queensland government's assertion of sovereignty over the Murray Islands under the doctrine of terra nullius.^[23]^[24] The plaintiffs argued that their traditional laws and customs, including rights to land use, inheritance, and spiritual connection, had continuously subsisted since before British annexation in 1879, predating and surviving colonial assertion.^[23] Queensland's 1985 Coast Islands Declaratory Act sought to retroactively extinguish any such rights, prompting the High Court's invalidation of that legislation in Mabo (No 1) (1988) on racial discrimination grounds under the Racial Discrimination Act 1975.^[25] On 3 June 1992, the High Court of Australia delivered its judgment in a 6-1 majority, rejecting terra nullius as inapplicable to inhabited lands like the Murray Islands and affirming the existence of native title as a common law recognition of indigenous rights and interests derived from pre-sovereignty laws and customs.^[25]^[26] The ruling specified that native title could be extinguished only by valid acts of the Crown incompatible with its continued existence, such as freehold grants, but persisted where traditional connections remained unbroken.^[23] Justice Brennan's leading opinion emphasized that acquisition of sovereignty did not automatically wipe out proprietary interests of indigenous inhabitants, marking a departure from prior assumptions of absolute Crown ownership.^[25] The decision applied specifically to the Meriam people's rights over Murray Island, recognizing their ownership subject to Crown sovereignty, but established a broader precedent for native title claims nationwide.^[23] In response, the Commonwealth Parliament passed the Native Title Act 1993 on 24 December 1993, effective 1 January 1994, to codify the Mabo principles, validate past non-indigenous land dealings potentially invalidated by the decision, and establish a tribunal process for native title determinations.^[27]^[28] The Act created the National Native Title Tribunal to mediate claims, requiring evidence of continuous traditional association, and balanced recognition with protections for existing pastoral, mining, and other interests through "future acts" provisions allowing development with negotiation or compensation.^[29] By 2025, over 500 native title determinations had been registered, covering approximately 35% of Australia's land mass, though success rates vary due to evidentiary burdens and extinguishment by historical grants.^[30] The Mabo decision's anniversary on 3 June concludes National Reconciliation Week (27 May to 3 June), symbolizing a pivotal legal acknowledgment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander land rights as a foundation for reconciliation by overturning colonial legal fictions and enabling restorative claims.^[3]^[25] Reconciliation Australia highlights it as a catalyst for shifting policy from terra nullius-based dispossession to frameworks recognizing enduring connections, though implementation has faced criticism for procedural delays and conflicts with economic interests.^[31]^[3] The ruling's empirical impact includes spurring over 400 registered native title bodies corporate by 2023, yet substantive outcomes remain contested, with some analyses noting limited socioeconomic benefits for claimants amid ongoing disputes.^[30]

Organization and Annual Framework

Role of Reconciliation Australia

Reconciliation Australia, founded in 2001 as the successor organization to the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, acts as the primary national body advancing reconciliation efforts between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non-Indigenous Australians.^[32] Operating as an independent not-for-profit entity, it receives funding from government sources, including $10.8 million allocated by the Australian government over three years starting in 2020, alongside corporate partnerships and donations.^[33] Its mission centers on fostering relationships, respect, and trust through programs that influence policies, organizations, and public attitudes toward Indigenous histories and achievements.^[34] Within the framework of National Reconciliation Week (NRW), Reconciliation Australia holds a central coordinating role, providing leadership to promote nationwide reflection on shared cultural narratives and historical events.^[1] It disseminates practical resources, including posters, t-shirts, coloring sheets, and materials translated into 13 languages, to facilitate community events and educational activities during the annual observance from 27 May to 3 June.^[35] The organization also curates event calendars, supports initiatives like the Voices for Reconciliation choir performances—involving nearly 700 groups in 2025 singing "Solid Rock"—and announces yearly themes, such as "Bridging Now to Next" for 2025, which emphasizes connections across past, present, and future.^[1] Reconciliation Australia's involvement extends to historical milestones tied to NRW, which originated as the Week of Prayer for Reconciliation in 1993 and was formalized in 1996 under its predecessor council, culminating in events like the 2001 Sydney Harbour Bridge walk attended by approximately 300,000 participants.^[1] These efforts aim to commemorate key dates, including the 1967 constitutional referendum on Indigenous rights and the 1992 Mabo High Court decision overturning terra nullius, while encouraging broader public participation in reconciliation dialogues.^[1] Critics, including Indigenous-led organizations, have argued that Reconciliation Australia's programs, including those for NRW, prioritize symbolic gestures over measurable reductions in socioeconomic gaps, such as health and employment disparities, potentially limiting their causal effectiveness in addressing entrenched inequalities.^[36] Despite self-reported gains in awareness—such as 92% of surveyed RAP participants viewing reconciliation as important—the organization's influence remains debated amid persistent empirical indicators of Indigenous disadvantage.^[37]

Themes and Structure of the Week

National Reconciliation Week is observed annually from 27 May to 3 June, bookended by the anniversary of the 1967 constitutional referendum on 27 May, which enabled federal laws for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the High Court's Mabo decision on 3 June 1992, which overturned terra nullius and recognized native title.^[1]^[31] This fixed structure, established by the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation in 1996, provides a dedicated period for nationwide reflection on Indigenous histories and contributions to Australian society.^[31] Each year, Reconciliation Australia announces a specific theme to frame discussions and activities, drawing on historical context to promote ongoing relational progress between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. The 2025 theme, "Bridging Now to Next," highlights the continuous linkage of past events, current realities, and future aspirations in reconciliation efforts.^[1] Earlier examples include the 2024 theme "Now More Than Ever," which stressed the immediate need for intensified action amid persistent disparities, and the 2023 theme "Be a Voice for Generations," focusing on amplifying Indigenous perspectives across time.^[38]^[39] Themes are selected to align with Reconciliation Australia's broader objectives of truth-telling and relationship-building, though their impact relies on voluntary participation rather than mandated outcomes.^[1] The week's organization centers on decentralized events coordinated through Reconciliation Australia and local groups, including educational sessions, cultural performances, and community gatherings in schools, workplaces, and public spaces.^[1] Supporting resources encompass downloadable posters, t-shirts, and materials translated into 13 languages to broaden accessibility, alongside initiatives like the Voices for Reconciliation, which in 2025 featured around 700 choirs performing the song "Solid Rock" to symbolize collective unity.^[1] This framework encourages participants to explore shared histories, cultures, and achievements, with an emphasis on practical contributions such as developing Reconciliation Action Plans, though engagement levels vary by region and institution.^[31]

Activities and Public Engagement

Typical Events and Initiatives

National Reconciliation Week encompasses diverse public and organizational events focused on educating Australians about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures, and contributions to national life. Reconciliation Australia promotes activities such as community choirs performing songs like "Solid Rock," exemplified by the 2025 Voices for Reconciliation initiative involving nearly 700 groups across the country.^[1] These performances serve to symbolize unity and reflection during the week, which spans May 27 to June 3 annually. Workplaces and schools commonly organize talks featuring First Nations authors, cultural tours guided by Traditional Owners, and screenings through the Reconciliation Film Club, which curates titles addressing reconciliation themes.^[40]^[41] Sports leagues hold Indigenous Rounds to recognize Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander athletes, while community groups may host gigs by Indigenous artists or reconciliation book clubs to deepen engagement.^[40] Initiatives emphasize centering Indigenous voices without overburdening participants, including discussions on remuneration for speakers and tailoring events to local contexts.^[40] Reconciliation Australia advises organizers to prioritize knowledge-building and relationship-strengthening, such as through exhibitions or day trips supporting First Nations enterprises, to advance equitable outcomes.^[40] Public calendars list hundreds of such events, from morning teas to performances, encouraging broad participation in workplaces, educational settings, and communities.^[42]

Reconciliation Day Observance

Reconciliation Day, observed on 27 May each year, marks the beginning of National Reconciliation Week and commemorates the 1967 Australian constitutional referendum, a pivotal event in the nation's history of Indigenous relations. The referendum, conducted on that date, proposed two amendments: repealing Section 127, which had excluded Aboriginal people from being counted as part of the Australian population in the census, and altering Section 51 to remove restrictions preventing the federal Parliament from making laws specifically for Aboriginal Australians. These changes symbolically integrated Indigenous peoples into the national framework, enabling greater federal involvement in addressing their welfare, though they did not confer voting rights—already granted federally in 1962—or establish land rights. The proposal received overwhelming support, with 90.77% of voters approving it nationally and majorities in every state, representing the highest affirmative vote in Australian referendum history.^[20]^[21]^[31] In the Australian Capital Territory, Reconciliation Day is recognized as a public holiday, typically observed on the first Monday on or after 27 May since its establishment in 2018, providing an opportunity for reflection on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and reconciliation progress. Nationally, the day features a range of community-led and institutional activities coordinated by organizations like Reconciliation Australia, including educational seminars on the referendum's context, cultural exhibitions showcasing Indigenous histories, and public gatherings such as flag-raising ceremonies and reflective walks. For instance, initiatives often incorporate performances like choral renditions of songs significant to reconciliation themes, as seen in the 2025 "Voices for Reconciliation" event involving nearly 700 choirs singing "Solid Rock" to highlight shared narratives.^[43]^[1]^[44] These observances emphasize learning about the 1967 referendum's tangible outcomes—such as improved data for policy-making and federal funding for Indigenous programs—while encouraging participants to consider its limitations in achieving substantive equality, without altering state-level discriminatory practices at the time. Schools, workplaces, and local councils commonly host workshops, storytelling sessions, and discussions to build awareness of pre-referendum exclusions, drawing on resources from Reconciliation Australia to promote factual engagement over symbolic gestures alone. In Canberra, events frequently include live music, food stalls with Indigenous cuisine, and interactive displays at sites like Commonwealth Park, fostering direct interaction between diverse communities.^[1]^[45]^[20]

Reconciliation Action Plans and Institutional Involvement

Development and Adoption of RAPs

Reconciliation Action Plans (RAPs) were developed by Reconciliation Australia in 2006 as a programmatic framework to translate organizational commitments to reconciliation into specific, measurable actions focused on fostering relationships, respect, and opportunities with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.^[46] The initiative was launched on July 3, 2006, by then-Prime Minister John Howard and Yawuru leader Professor Mick Dodson, marking a shift from symbolic gestures toward practical implementation, with eight pilot organizations initially participating.^[47] This development responded to the broader reconciliation movement post-Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, aiming to embed Indigenous advancement within corporate, government, and community strategies without relying solely on government policy.^[48] Adoption involves organizations partnering with Reconciliation Australia to select from four progressive RAP types—Reflect, Innovate, Stretch, and Elevate—each tailored to varying maturity levels in reconciliation efforts, with plans typically spanning two to four years before review or advancement.^[46] Entities must outline targeted commitments, such as cultural competency training, supplier diversity, or employment initiatives, which are endorsed upon alignment with Reconciliation Australia's guidelines, ensuring accountability through annual reporting and progress audits.^[49] Early adopters included major firms like National Australia Bank, which implemented its first RAP in 2008, setting precedents for sector-wide uptake.^[49] Since inception, RAP adoption has expanded steadily, averaging 72 new participants annually in the early years with peaks of 114, reaching over 1,000 organizations by the mid-2010s and encompassing approximately 20% of Australia's workforce.^[47] By the July 2023 to June 2024 period, 2,283 organizations had active RAPs, spanning corporations, government bodies, and nonprofits, with the broader network reported at around 3,200 entities influencing 5.4 million Australians daily.^[51]^[52] This growth reflects voluntary institutional buy-in, though participation remains concentrated in urban and larger entities, with smaller or regional organizations adopting at lower rates due to resource constraints.^[53]

Reported Outcomes from RAP Programs

Reconciliation Australia's annual RAP Impact Reports compile self-reported data from participating organizations, highlighting activities such as procurement and representation as key outcomes. In the 2024 report, covering July 2023 to June 2024, 2,283 organizations contributed data, reflecting a claimed collective effort across sectors. These reports emphasize economic contributions, including $4.81 billion in goods and services procured from First Nations-owned businesses and 25,237 contracts awarded to Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander enterprises.^[51] Representation metrics from the same report indicate 733 First Nations individuals serving on boards of RAP organizations and 740 in executive leadership roles, presented as evidence of increased inclusion in decision-making. Organizations report these figures as direct results of RAP commitments to relationships and opportunities, though the data relies on voluntary annual surveys without independent verification.^[51] Cultural and relational outcomes are frequently cited, with RAP participants claiming enhanced awareness through training and engagement initiatives. For instance, surveys associated with the program suggest that over 1.9 million employees and students in RAP organizations experience greater contact with First Nations peoples, correlating with reduced prejudice and more positive attitudes, as measured by Reconciliation Australia's biennial Australian Reconciliation Barometer. However, these attitudinal shifts are self-assessed within adopting entities and may reflect pre-existing inclinations rather than causal program effects.^[54] Challenges in quantifying broader impacts persist, as noted in individual organizational evaluations; for example, the Northern Australia Infrastructure Facility's RAP review acknowledged difficulties in resource allocation and precise measurement of long-term reconciliation progress. Independent empirical studies on RAP effectiveness remain scarce, with available research focusing more on disclosure practices and corporate social responsibility frameworks than on rigorous causal analysis of socio-economic outcomes for Indigenous communities.^[55]^[56]

Empirical Impact and Achievements

Awareness and Cultural Recognition Gains

Participation in National Reconciliation Week events has expanded significantly, with 9,200 registered activities reported in 2024, marking a 40% increase from prior years and engaging diverse communities in educational and cultural programs focused on Indigenous histories and contributions.^[57] This growth in events, including public walks, seminars, and cultural exhibitions, has facilitated direct interactions that promote familiarity with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives, as evidenced by historical precedents such as the 300,000 participants in the 2000 Sydney Harbour Bridge walk organized in conjunction with the week's themes.^[1] Reconciliation Australia's 2024 Australian Reconciliation Barometer documents heightened cultural understanding among younger demographics, with Australians aged 18-34 exhibiting more positive attitudes toward unity and Indigenous cultural protocols than older cohorts, a trend attributed in part to sustained exposure through annual reconciliation initiatives like National Reconciliation Week.^[58] The survey, drawing from over 2,500 respondents, indicates that multicultural Australians also demonstrate stronger relational commitments to reconciliation, correlating with increased participation in truth-telling and cultural learning activities during the week.^[58] Broader institutional involvement, such as Reconciliation Action Plans adopted by organizations employing or educating 5.6 million Australians, has amplified National Reconciliation Week's reach, fostering workplace and educational settings where cultural recognition is embedded through themed events and resources that emphasize shared histories.^[57] These efforts have contributed to reported gains in public acknowledgment of Indigenous achievements, though metrics remain primarily self-reported via organizational surveys from Reconciliation Australia, an entity dedicated to advancing such programs.^[59] Despite extensive reconciliation initiatives, including annual observances like National Reconciliation Week, empirical data on Indigenous Australian socioeconomic outcomes reveal persistent disparities. The Closing the Gap framework, which aligns with broader reconciliation objectives by targeting improvements in health, education, employment, and justice, indicates limited progress: as of July 2025, only 4 of 19 targets were on track, with several regressing.^[60] For instance, the life expectancy gap remains at 8.8 years for males and 8.1 years for females (2020–2022 data), with Indigenous males at 71.9 years and females at 75.6 years, compared to non-Indigenous counterparts at 80.6 and 83.7 years, respectively.^[61]^[62] Economic metrics show modest gains in some areas but underscore ongoing challenges. Indigenous unemployment stood at approximately 12–16.6% in recent years (2021–2023), compared to the national rate of around 4%, with employment rates varying regionally from 58% in major cities to 32% in very remote areas.^[63]^[64]^[65] The Closing the Gap employment target (Target 8) is on track, reflecting improvements in workforce participation, though youth engagement (Target 7) is improving but not meeting benchmarks.^[60] Social indicators highlight stagnation or decline in key domains. Racism experiences among Indigenous people rose to 54% in 2024 from 39% in 2014, with 56% viewing Australia as racist—higher than the 41% in the general community.^[66] Justice outcomes have worsened, with adult imprisonment (Target 10) and youth detention (Target 11) rates regressing, alongside developmental vulnerabilities in children (Target 4).^[60] Education targets like preschool enrollment (Target 3) are on track, but Year 12 attainment (Target 5) and tertiary qualifications (Target 6) lag. Family violence reduction (Target 13) remains unassessable due to data deficiencies.^[60] These metrics, tracked independently of specific events like National Reconciliation Week, suggest that while attitudinal support for reconciliation is high, causal links to tangible socioeconomic advancements are not empirically established in available studies.^[67]

Criticisms, Controversies, and Debates

Questions of Effectiveness and Symbolic Nature

Critics have questioned the effectiveness of National Reconciliation Week (NRW) in achieving substantive reconciliation, pointing to the absence of demonstrable causal links between its activities and improvements in Indigenous socioeconomic outcomes. Despite NRW's annual observances since 1997, key metrics under the National Agreement on Closing the Gap reveal persistent or worsening disparities, with the Productivity Commission's 2025 Annual Data Compilation Report indicating that outcomes continue to deteriorate in four targets: adult imprisonment rates (Target 10), children in out-of-home care (Target 12), suicide rates (Target 14), and youth detention (Target 9).^[60] As of July 2025, only 10 of 15 targets with available data show any improvement nationally, but none attribute gains directly to NRW or similar awareness campaigns, underscoring a lack of empirical evidence for behavioral or policy shifts driven by the week's events.^[68] The symbolic emphasis of NRW—centered on reflection, cultural recognition, and gestures like acknowledgments of country—has drawn scrutiny for prioritizing optics over practical interventions addressing root causes such as intergenerational welfare dependency, family breakdown, and remote community dysfunction. Reconciliation Australia's own 2024 Reconciliation Barometer reports increased experiences of racism among First Nations peoples (54% of respondents), yet frames progress in attitudinal shifts rather than measurable reductions in disparities like the 8.2-year life expectancy gap or incarceration rates over ten times the national average.^[66] Independent analyses argue that such initiatives often manifest as performative actions, including corporate photo-ops and institutional statements, without translating into systemic reforms that could foster self-reliance or accountability.^[69]^[70] Post-2023 Voice referendum defeat, public sentiment has shifted further against symbolic reconciliation efforts, with surveys indicating declining favor for gestures amid stagnant outcomes. An Ipsos report from July 2025 highlights that symbolic measures are "losing favour" as Australians prioritize tangible progress, reflecting broader skepticism about reconciliation frameworks that fail to yield causal improvements in health, education, and justice metrics after decades of similar programming.^[71] This critique aligns with observations that NRW, while fostering short-term awareness, does not address underlying causal factors like policy incentives perpetuating disadvantage, rendering it more ritualistic than transformative.^[72]^[73]

Political and Cultural Pushback

Shadow Minister for Indigenous Australians Jacinta Nampijinpa Price described the messaging on the official National Reconciliation Week website in 2024 as "disappointing" and negative, arguing it failed to inspire unity and instead emphasized division.^[74] Opposition Leader Peter Dutton has opposed elements associated with reconciliation initiatives, including Welcome to Country ceremonies at Anzac Day dawn services and on commercial flights, stating in April 2025 that a majority of veterans did not want them at such events.^[75] Dutton's broader stance includes plans to review and reduce expenditures on symbolic practices like Welcomes to Country, viewing them as non-essential amid fiscal priorities.^[76] The Coalition's rejection of the 2023 Indigenous Voice to Parliament referendum, which garnered 60% No votes nationally, reflected political resistance to constitutional changes framed as reconciliation steps, with Dutton labeling the process as divisive and ineffective for addressing Indigenous disadvantage.^[77]^[78] Price has advocated shifting focus from symbolic gestures to practical measures, asserting that disparities in Indigenous outcomes stem more from geographic and socioeconomic factors like remote living than race alone, critiquing rituals such as Welcome to Country as divisive rather than unifying.^[79]^[80] Culturally, the Voice referendum defeat amplified public skepticism toward reconciliation symbolism, with some councils interpreting the outcome as a signal to scale back Indigenous acknowledgments and related observances.^[81] Instances of backlash included a Victorian lawyer facing racism accusations in September 2024 for refusing a Welcome to Country at a bar council meeting, highlighting tensions over mandatory participation in such protocols.^[82] Heated debates during the 2025 federal election campaign further questioned the role of Welcome to Country in public events, contributing to perceptions of NRW as emblematic of elite-driven initiatives detached from tangible socioeconomic improvements.^[83] Post-referendum polarization led to reports of increased racism and abuse toward Indigenous Australians, with crisis lines noting a 108% rise in related calls during 2024 Reconciliation Week, underscoring cultural fatigue with perceived performative reconciliation.^[84]

Recent Developments and Future Directions

Post-2023 Referendum Context

The failure of the 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum on October 14, 2023, in which 60.06% of voters nationally rejected the constitutional proposal to establish an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice to Parliament, prompted immediate reflection and division within reconciliation initiatives, including National Reconciliation Week. Indigenous leaders responded by calling for a week of silence and introspection, with prominent figures declaring "reconciliation is dead" in light of the decisive No vote, which succeeded in every state and territory. This outcome, the first national referendum defeat since 1999, underscored public skepticism toward symbolic constitutional recognition, contrasting with advocacy from groups like Reconciliation Australia that had supported the Yes campaign. Reconciliation Australia, the primary organizer of National Reconciliation Week, maintained that the referendum's rejection did not undermine the broader reconciliation framework but necessitated intensified grassroots efforts. In statements marking the referendum's first anniversary on October 14, 2024, the organization asserted that the loss had "strengthened our will to work harder and better for a just, equitable, and reconciled nation," framing ongoing programs like Reconciliation Action Plans as essential despite the electoral rebuff. However, empirical analyses of voter behavior, including post-referendum surveys, indicated that while a majority opposed the specific Voice model—often citing concerns over divisiveness and lack of detail—support for general reconciliation and Indigenous welfare persisted at around 70-80% in pre- and post-vote polling, suggesting the defeat targeted institutional mechanisms rather than interpersonal or cultural bridge-building central to National Reconciliation Week. The referendum's aftermath amplified debates over the efficacy of reconciliation symbolism amid persistent socioeconomic disparities, with critics attributing the No vote's success to perceptions of elite-driven advocacy disconnected from practical outcomes. Organizations aligned with Reconciliation Australia emphasized continuity, adopting the 2024 National Reconciliation Week theme "Now More Than Ever" to rally non-partisan participation, yet reports highlighted waning corporate enthusiasm for Reconciliation Action Plans, with some firms scaling back commitments post-referendum due to polarized public sentiment. This context positioned National Reconciliation Week as a focal point for reconciling electoral reality—where No votes correlated with lower exposure to Indigenous advocacy narratives—with calls for evidence-based alternatives, such as targeted policy reforms over constitutional experiments.

2024-2025 Themes and Events

The theme for National Reconciliation Week 2024, "Now More Than Ever," underscored the continued pursuit of justice and rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples amid challenges following the October 2023 referendum's rejection of constitutional recognition via an Indigenous Voice to Parliament.^[85] Announced by Reconciliation Australia in December 2023, the theme aimed to rally Australians toward truth-telling, treaty-making, and cultural understanding despite the political setback.^[85] The week, observed from 27 May to 3 June, featured nationwide events including smoking ceremonies, community barbecues, rooftop gatherings, and educational sessions hosted by local councils, universities, and organizations such as the State Library of Queensland, which emphasized shared histories and living cultures.^[86]^[87] Reconciliation Australia promoted resources like posters and a film club to facilitate participation, with events focusing on resilience and forward momentum in reconciliation efforts.^[1] In 2025, the theme shifted to "Bridging Now to Next," highlighting the interplay of historical lessons, current realities, and future actions in Australia's reconciliation trajectory, particularly amid ongoing uncertainty after the referendum.^[1] Reconciliation Australia described it as a call for collective progress, urging Australians to connect past achievements—like the 1967 referendum—with present-day initiatives.^[88] Observed from 27 May to 3 June, events included flagship quizzes at institutions like the University of Queensland to promote cultural knowledge, walks for reconciliation on 28 May, and community exhibitions drawing on the theme's emphasis on continuity.^[89]^[90] The National Indigenous Australians Agency noted specific commemorations, such as the 27 May anniversary of the 1967 referendum, alongside broader activities like resource distribution at Officeworks stores starting 5 May.^[35] Reconciliation Australia's event calendar listed ongoing submissions and exhibitions, reflecting sustained but localized engagement across states and territories.^[42]

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May 30, 2022 · This research found 75% of participants held a negative or unconscious bias against Indigenous people. This correlation between negative bias ...
[10]
A year after the referendum, Voice is as important as ever
Oct 12, 2024 · Well before the referendum, critics of reconciliation had held that the process lets the Australian state off the hook for its own violent and ...
[11]
Our vision is for a united Australia… - Reconciliation Australia
Sep 2, 2021 · The CAR was established as a statutory authority on 2 September 1991 under the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act. The CAR's vision ...
[12]
Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation
The third Council was appointed on 18 December 1997. Under a sunset clause included in the Act, the Council ceases to exist on 1 January 2001. The Council's ...
[13]
[PDF] Reconciliation and its Key Issues - Making multicultural Australia
The Council for Aboriginal. Reconciliation was established by an Act of. Parliament in 1991 with cross-party support. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ...<|separator|>
[14]
Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation
Achieve recognition and respect for the unique position of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the Indigenous peoples of Australia through a ...
[15]
2021: 20 Years of Reconciliation Australia
Jan 19, 2021 · The intention was for the Council to have achieved reconciliation in ten years' time—by the centenary of the Federation in 2001. CAR's vision ...Missing: founding | Show results with:founding
[16]
(PDF) Indigenous Rights and the 1991-2000 Australian ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The formal reconciliation process in Australia was conducted between 1991 and 2000 and aimed to reconcile Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples ...
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What is Reconciliation Week and why are the dates significant? - SBS
National Reconciliation Week (NRW) is a time for Australians to learn about shared histories, cultures, and achievements.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[18]
Reconciliation Week - Deadly Story
NRW began officially in 1996 when the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation launched Australia's first National Reconciliation Week. The dates were chosen as ...
[19]
Walk for reconciliation | National Museum of Australia
May 27, 2025 · The march was a public expression of support for meaningful reconciliation between Australia's Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples.
[20]
The 1967 Referendum | AIATSIS corporate website
The 1967 Referendum sought to change two sections of the Constitution in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. 90.77 per cent of Australian ...
[21]
The 1967 Referendum | naa.gov.au
The 1967 referendum did not give Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples the right to vote. This right had been legislated for Commonwealth elections in ...
[22]
1967: Indigenous Affairs - Australian Referendum Recap
To this day the 1967 referendum is recognised as a landmark moment – a hugely significant symbol for Indigenous Australians of survival, power and being heard.Missing: details | Show results with:details
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The Mabo Case | AIATSIS corporate website
May 23, 2025 · The High Court decision in the Mabo v. Queensland (No.2) altered the foundation of land law in Australia and the following year the Native Title ...
[24]
Eddie Koiki Mabo and the Mabo Case | naa.gov.au
Edward Koiki Mabo was born on 29 June 1936. He was a Meriam man and grew up on Mer, part of the Murray Island Group in the Torres Strait.
[25]
The Mabo decision - Parliament of Australia
On 3 June 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its landmark ruling on Mabo v Queensland No. 2 establishing the principle of native title rights in ...
[26]
Mabo v Queensland (No 2) [1992] HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1
By a majority of 4-3, the High Court held that the Queensland Coast Islands Declaratory Act was invalid because it was inconsistent with the RDA. It ...
[27]
Native Title Act 1993 - Federal Register of Legislation
Native Title Act 1993 ... We acknowledge the traditional owners and custodians of country throughout Australia and acknowledge their continuing ...
[28]
Native title - Attorney-General's Department
Following the decision in Mabo No. 2, the government enacted the Native Title Act 1993, which commenced on 1 January 1994. The Act has a number of functions. ...
[29]
Native title, rights and interests - PBC
The NTA was passed in 1993. It established a process for claiming and recognising native title over lands and waters in Australia. The NTA aims to balance ...
[30]
About native title | AIATSIS corporate website
Nov 2, 2022 · The Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) (NTA) states that when a native title determination is made, native title holders must establish a corporation ...
[31]
[PDF] National Reconciliation Week
3 June marks the historic 1992 Mabo decision in which the High Court of Australia recognised native title—the recognition that Aboriginal and Torres Strait ...
[32]
What we do - Reconciliation Australia
We are an independent not-for-profit organisation which promotes and facilitates reconciliation by building relationships, respect and trust.
[33]
Reconciliation Australia funding confirmed for three years | Indigenous
May 25, 2020 · The Morrison Government has committed $10.8 million over three years for Reconciliation Australia to continue their valuable work in shaping ...
[34]
Reconciliation Australia | NIAA
We fund Reconciliation Australia to help build this relationship. Reconciliation Australia focuses on influencing organisations, people and policies through the
[35]
NRW2025 Poster & Resources - Reconciliation Australia
From Monday 5 May, you can collect a free National Reconciliation Week 2025 A2 poster from one of the 172 Officeworks stores nationwide. The posters will be ...
[36]
The fundamental flaws of Reconciliation Action Plans - Barayamal
May 27, 2021 · The major issue with them is that they fail to deliver a real impact to help close the disparity gaps between Aboriginal and Torres Strait ...
[37]
Engaging in Reconciliation in Australia, and the Challenge of ...
Feb 6, 2024 · Through its voluntary Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) program, it engages thousands of government agencies, businesses and community ...
[38]
NRW Archives - Reconciliation Australia
Across the country, reconciliation supporters brought to life the National Reconciliation Week 2024 theme, 'Now More Than Ever'. A group of reconciliation ...
[39]
National Reconciliation Week - ERA for Change
National Reconciliation Week ran from 27 May to 3 June. The theme for 2023 was: "Be a Voice for Generations." Reconciliation Australia further expands:<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
Organising An Event For National Reconciliation Week
May 1, 2024 · Read on for tips on how to make sure your NRW event, big or small, is contributing to a just, equitable, and reconciled Australia.
[41]
https://www.reconciliation.org.au/new-reconciliation-film-club-titles-for-2025/
[42]
NRW Events Calendar 2025 - Reconciliation Australia
National Reconciliation Week (NRW) is from May 27 to June 3. Events are hosted by various groups, and the calendar is not the responsibility of Reconciliation ...
[43]
Reconciliation Day 2026 in Australia - Time and Date
Reconciliation Day is a public holiday in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). First observed in 2018, it celebrates Aboriginal Australian culture.
[44]
Reconciliation Day 2025 | National Capital Authority
Reconciliation Day 2025 is on June 2nd, 10am-3pm at Commonwealth Park, with live music, cultural performances, and food.
[45]
15 things to do in Canberra to celebrate National Reconciliation ...
May 27, 2025 · Here are 15 things to do in Canberra this Reconciliation Week to celebrate and honour the histories, cultures, and futures of our First Nations people.
[46]
Reconciliation Action Plans
Reconciliation Action Plans (RAPs) have enabled organisations to sustainably and strategically take meaningful action to advance reconciliation.
[47]
Reconciliation Action Plans: Origins, innovations and trends - Informit
This article tells the remarkable history of the Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) program for the first time. Since its founding in 2006, more than one ...
[48]
[PDF] THE STATE OF RECONCILIATION IN AUSTRALIA
The Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) is amended based on Prime Minister John Howard's 10-point plan. ... The RAP program began in 2006 with eight organisations, ...
[49]
Reconciliation Action Plans—Creating Shared Value
The goal of a RAP is to turn good intentions into measurable actions that support Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people achieve equality in all aspects ...
[50]
The Impact of RAPs - Reconciliation Australia
2024 RAP Impact. This report collected data from 2,283 organisations with a Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP), covering the July 2023 – June 2024 period. The ...
[51]
Workplace RAP Barometer 2024
May 6, 2024 · Reconciliation Australia's Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP) network of 3,200 organisations directly impacts 5.4 million Australians every day, ...
[52]
[PDF] Advancing Organisations' Reconciliation Action Plans
Endorsed by Reconciliation Australia, this program is based and measured on five dimensions: historical acceptance; race relations; equality and equity; ...
[53]
[PDF] 1 Understanding Indigenous Reconciliation Action Plans from a ...
These findings provide a new empirical understanding embedded within theoretical perspectives of CSR, to support further integration of RAPs across industry and ...
[54]
NAIF's RAP: Key achievements, challenges and learnings
Reconciliation Action Plan: Outcomes ; Achievements · Enhanced Cultural Awareness · Strengthened Relationships ; Challenges · Resource Allocation · Measuring Impact.
[55]
Understanding Indigenous Reconciliation Action Plans from a ...
This paper examines RAP reporting practices over a thirteen year period, as well as how firms disclose reconciliation activities into their sustainability ...
[56]
National Reconciliation Week 2025 | Acuity
May 26, 2025 · With its theme of Bridging Now to Next, this year's National Reconciliation Week provides an opportunity for learning and connection. In 2021, ...
[57]
Australian Reconciliation Barometer
More than half of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples surveyed as part of the 2024 ARB reported experiencing racial discrimination in the past six ...
[58]
Reports - Reconciliation Australia
Young Australians have more positive attitudes towards unity, cultural understanding, and the importance of truth-telling than older Australians. Learn More →.
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Closing the Gap Annual Data Compilation Report July 2025
Jul 30, 2025 · An assessment of progress is available for 15 targets. The PC has been able to assess progress for nine targets since the last ADCR:.
[60]
1.19 Life expectancy at birth - AIHW Indigenous HPF
Aug 28, 2024 · At birth, the life expectancy difference between First Nations males and females was around 3.8 years in the period 2020–2022. First Nations ...Key messages · Why is it important? · Data findings · Research and evaluation...
[61]
Deaths in Australia, Life expectancy
Apr 9, 2025 · The difference (gap) in life expectancy at birth between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians was 8.8 years for males and 8.1 ...
[62]
Employment of First Nations people
Oct 16, 2025 · The unemployment rate for First Nations people in 2022–23 was 16.6% (ABS 2024). In 2022–23, of the estimated 607,500 First Nations people aged ...Overview of First Nations... · How has First Nations... · Employment by education...
[63]
2.07 Employment - AIHW Indigenous HPF
Based on the 2021 Census, the unemployment rate among Indigenous Australians aged 15–64 was 12% (around 36,000 of 289,700 people, based on Census counts (Table ...
[64]
jobs needed on country to close unemployment gap for Indigenous ...
May 10, 2024 · In March of 2024, the national unemployment rate for Indigenous Australians was 12 percent, compared to three-point-nine percent for non ...
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2024 Australian Reconciliation Barometer: Racism and First Nations ...
Jun 18, 2025 · 56% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people believe Australia is a racist country (41% general community); First Nations peoples ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
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New survey shows overwhelming support for reconciliation
Jun 24, 2025 · Reconciliation Australia's latest survey has found strong support for reconciliation and truth-telling. 85% of Australians surveyed in the ...
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Closing the Gap Data Report | Ministers' media centre
Jul 31, 2025 · Data is available on progress in 15 of the 19 targets and shows that nationally 10 of those are improving. Outcomes are improving and targets on ...Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
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Reconciliation needs meaningful action from businesses, not photo ...
The work of reconciliation among organisations needs to move beyond “performative” displays and towards structural changes that truly make a difference to ...
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Moving from performative to substantive: non-Indigenous people ...
Aug 5, 2024 · Moving from performative to substantive: non-Indigenous people and organisations must engage genuinely in reconciliation.
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Reconciliation efforts face headwinds as symbolic gestures lose favour
Jul 22, 2025 · Reconciliation efforts in Australia are facing significant headwinds, with symbolic gestures losing favour among the public, according to the ...Missing: National | Show results with:National
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Reconciliation Week highlights how Indigenous injustice links to ...
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Rhetoric, reality and reconciliation: Where to now? - Monash Lens
Jun 3, 2020 · The theme for National Reconciliation Week 2020 was “In this together”, but rhetoric and hypocrisy can still be seen everywhere in the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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National Reconciliation Week website's negative message is ...
May 30, 2024 · Shadow Indigenous Australians Minister Jacinta Nampijinpa Price says the message on the National Reconciliation Week website is “disappointing”.Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
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Dutton claims majority of veterans don't want welcome to country at ...
Apr 28, 2025 · Peter Dutton has confirmed he does not believe welcome to country ceremonies are necessary at Anzac Day dawn services and on commercial flights.
[75]
Exclusive: Dutton set to revive Indigenous placenames fight
Dec 21, 2024 · Peter Dutton ends the year with detailed plans to wind back reconciliation, peppering departments with questions about the cost of Welcomes ...
[76]
The Voice: Australians vote No in historic referendum - BBC
Oct 14, 2023 · Australia has overwhelmingly rejected a plan to give greater political rights to Indigenous people in a referendum. All six states voted No to a ...
[77]
Peter Dutton opposes the Voice to Parliament — but not all Liberal ...
Sep 4, 2023 · Federal Liberal leader Peter Dutton has become one of the key figures in the No campaign in the Indigenous Voice to Parliament referendum.
[78]
Jacinta Nampijinpa Price says the gap in outcomes between ...
Oct 12, 2023 · Jacinta Nampijinpa Price says the gap in outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people is 'more about place than race'. Is that correct?
[79]
Yes campaigner accuses Jacinta Nampijinpa Price of 'hate' for First ...
Aug 13, 2023 · Jacinta Nampijinpa Price told The Australian that welcome to country ceremonies were "divisive" · Marcus Stewart says the No campaign is ...
[80]
Failure of Voice gives 'green light' to councils to roll back Indigenous ...
Jul 11, 2025 · The thing is though, it did seem like the Voice was about trying to absolve national guilt and make progressives feel good much more than ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
Lawyer accused of racism for refusing Welcome to Country - Daily Mail
Sep 29, 2024 · A top lawyer has hit back after being accused of racism for refusing to participate in an Acknowledgement to Country procedure at the Victorian Bar Council.
[82]
Aboriginal people feel Labor isn't listening to them after voice defeat ...
May 26, 2025 · She said Australia's brand of reconciliation was too limited to private actors and private action. “That of course has its place and like ...
[83]
Young Indigenous people share hurt, hopes for healing in first ...
May 30, 2024 · 13YARN, a national crisis support line for First Nations peoples, experienced a 108 per cent increase in callers reporting abuse, racism and ...
[84]
Now More Than Ever - NRW 2024 - Reconciliation Australia
Dec 14, 2023 · The #NRW2024 theme, Now More Than Ever reminds us that, no matter what, the fight for justice and the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people ...
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National Reconciliation Week 2024: Bringing the community ...
Sorry Day Smoking Ceremony and Community BBQ with Blak Pearl Studios Sunday 26 May 12pm to 3pm · Reconciliation on the Rooftop Monday 27 May 11am to 1pm
[86]
National Reconciliation Week - State Library of Queensland
27 May – 3 June 2024. Join us in recognition and support of National Reconciliation Week 2024. We proudly join the nationwide effort to honour and strengthen ...
[87]
National Reconciliation Week - The University of Melbourne
National Reconciliation Week (NRW) is a time for all Australians to learn about our shared histories, cultures and achievements, and to explore how each of us ...<|separator|>
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National Reconciliation Week 2025 - UQ Life
National Reconciliation Week (May 27-June 3) is for Australians to learn about shared histories, with the 2025 theme 'Bridging Now to Next'.
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Bridging Now to Next – National Reconciliation Week 2025 | NIAA
May 27, 2025 · The march was a public expression of support for meaningful reconciliation between Australia's Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. Read more ...