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Neuston

Neuston encompasses the diverse assemblage of organisms that inhabit the air-water interface in aquatic environments, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and ponds, where they are primarily supported by surface tension. These communities are broadly categorized into epineuston, which live on the upper surface exposed to air, and hyponeuston, which reside on the underside of the surface film.^[1] This unique ecological niche, the surface microlayer typically spanning the top millimeter to a few centimeters (though some communities extend to ~1 m), hosts a mix of algae, invertebrates, and insects adapted to the physical stresses of waves, UV radiation, and nutrient gradients.^[1]^[2] In marine settings, neuston forms critical floating ecosystems, particularly in subtropical gyres and open oceans, where keystone species like the golden seaweed Sargassum create vast habitats such as the Sargasso Sea, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at billions of dollars annually.^[1] Notable marine neuston includes gelatinous cnidarians like the Portuguese man o' war (Physalia physalis) and by-the-wind sailors (Velella velella), as well as snails (Janthina spp.), nudibranchs (Glaucus atlanticus), and floating barnacles (Dosima fascicularis), which collectively serve as a vital food source for predators including seabirds, sea turtles, and fish.^[1] These organisms connect disparate habitats, linking surface waters to deeper ocean layers and even aerial ecosystems through predation and nutrient cycling.^[1] Freshwater neuston, found in lentic (still) and lotic (flowing) systems, features distinct communities dominated by insects such as water striders (Gerridae) and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae), alongside surface-associated algae like chlorophytes (Pediastrum spp.) and diatoms (Asterionella spp.).^[2] In ponds and lakes, neustonic algal abundances can rival or exceed those in the underlying water column, influenced by light availability and nutrient enrichment, and play roles in primary production and food web dynamics.^[2] Unlike marine counterparts, freshwater neuston often experiences greater seasonal variability due to temperature fluctuations and lower salinity.^[2] Ecologically, neuston communities are understudied yet essential, acting as indicators of environmental health and facing severe threats from anthropogenic pressures. Recent research (as of 2025) has highlighted neuston's potential role in global carbon cycling and increased microplastic uptake, underscoring the urgency of study.^[3] Marine neuston is particularly vulnerable to plastic pollution, with trillions of microplastic particles entangling or ingesting organisms in garbage patches, and oil pollution, with an estimated 741,000 tonnes released annually from natural and human sources (as of 2003), including spills that concentrate at the surface and harm neustonic organisms.^[1] Climate change exacerbates these risks through intensified storms and altered ocean circulation, potentially disrupting the delicate balance of this surface biome.^[1] Ongoing research highlights the need for conservation, as neuston supports global fisheries and biodiversity hotspots.^[1]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Neuston refers to the assemblage of organisms that inhabit the air-water interface in various aquatic environments, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and ponds. These organisms are adapted to life at this boundary, where they exploit the unique conditions of the surface film for feeding, reproduction, and dispersal.^[4] The term "neuston" was coined by limnologist Carl Naumann in 1917 to describe species associated with the surface layer of freshwater habitats, initially within the field of early 20th-century limnology. Over time, its application expanded through contributions such as those by Zaitsev in 1971, who extended the concept to marine ecosystems, evolving into a key term in modern aquatic ecology for the surface-dwelling biotic community.^[5] Although the terms neuston and pleuston are sometimes used interchangeably, neuston broadly encompasses the entire community of surface-associated organisms, including microscopic forms within the surface microlayer (SML), while pleuston typically denotes larger, macroscopic floating organisms that straddle the air-water boundary. The neustonic habitat is generally limited to the uppermost 1-2 mm of the water column, incorporating both epineustonic forms on the surface and hyponeustonic forms immediately below it.^[5]^[6]

Key Characteristics

The neustonic habitat is defined by its unique physical properties at the air-water interface, primarily the sea surface microlayer (SML), a thin film typically 1–1000 μm thick that acts as a semi-permeable barrier due to surface tension. This layer exhibits high viscosity and reduced turbulence compared to the underlying water, creating a stable yet dynamic environment influenced by wind, wave action, and exposure to atmospheric elements. Organisms in this zone are directly subjected to air, intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and temperature fluctuations, with UV-B attenuating rapidly in the upper water layers but capable of penetrating several meters in clear oceanic waters.^[1]^[7] The SML's thinness—often around 60 μm based on pH gradients—facilitates rapid responses to environmental changes but also renders it vulnerable to disruption by waves or wind. Chemically, the neustonic habitat is characterized by significant enrichment in organic matter, surfactants, nutrients, and pollutants, often accumulating through atmospheric deposition, evaporation, and adsorption processes. Surfactants reduce surface tension, promoting the formation of a coherent film that traps particulates and dissolved substances, with pollutant concentrations up to 500 times higher than in the bulk water column.^[1] Steep gradients exist in key parameters such as oxygen (supersaturated near the surface due to photosynthesis and gas exchange), pH (varying with organic acid accumulation), and salinity (influenced by evaporation in marine settings). These enrichments support heightened biogeochemical activity but also expose the habitat to contaminants like hydrocarbons. Biologically, the neuston features exceptionally high microbial densities, with bacterial abundances typically in the range of 10^5 to 10^6 cells per milliliter and enrichment factors generally 2-20 times greater than in subsurface waters, dominated by algae and bacteria that form dense biofilms.^[8] These communities exhibit hydrophobicity, enabling adhesion to the surface film, and are shaped by diurnal cycles (e.g., solar-driven photochemical reactions) and tidal influences that affect stability and nutrient influx. Organisms must adapt to extreme conditions, including potential desiccation during low water levels, temperature swings from diurnal heating, and predation risks from both aerial and aquatic sources, fostering specialized traits like UV resistance and surface tension exploitation.^[1] The habitat supports distinct epineustonic (upper surface) and hyponeustonic (subsurface) communities, though these are unified by the SML's overarching properties.

Classification and Types

Epineuston

Epineuston refers to the subset of neuston organisms that inhabit the very top of the water surface film, where they are supported primarily by surface tension rather than buoyancy alone. These organisms are typically exposed to air on their dorsal side and interact directly with the air-water interface, distinguishing them from those positioned below the film.^[9] Morphological adaptations in epineuston enable them to exploit surface tension for locomotion and stability. Many insects, such as water striders and whirligig beetles, possess hydrofuge hairs or specialized legs coated with water-repellent microstructures that prevent wetting and allow them to skate across the surface without breaking the film. Whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae) feature divided compound eyes, with the upper portion adapted for aerial vision to detect predators from above and the lower for underwater threats, alongside a streamlined, dorsoventrally flattened body that minimizes drag at the interface. In marine epineuston, ocean skaters (Halobates spp.) exhibit superhydrophobic cuticles and reduced body size, which enhance their ability to remain atop turbulent ocean surfaces by minimizing contact with water. Some epineustonic organisms also utilize gas-filled structures, such as air bubbles trapped by hydrofuge setae, to aid buoyancy and respiration.^[10]^[11]^[12] Behavioral traits of epineuston are finely tuned to their precarious surface habitat. Rapid, erratic movements, such as the whirling or zigzagging of whirligig beetles when disturbed, serve to evade predators by creating unpredictable trajectories and capillary waves that obscure their position. These beetles often aggregate in large groups on calm waters, which may enhance collective vigilance and foraging efficiency while reducing individual exposure to threats. Ocean skaters like Halobates spp. similarly employ quick skating motions powered by middle and hind legs, grouping in downwind accumulations of organic debris for protection and prey access. In contrast, hyponeuston dwell immediately below the surface film in a more submerged position.^[13]^[9] The diversity of epineuston is dominated by insects, including hemipterans (e.g., water striders) and coleopterans (e.g., Gyrinidae), but also encompasses microscopic algae and protozoans that adhere to the surface film via mucilage or tension-dependent flotation. These organisms play a key role in surface scavenging, feeding on trapped organic debris, dead insects, and small plankton that accumulate at the interface; for instance, whirligig beetles primarily scavenge drowned terrestrial arthropods, while Halobates prey on other neustonic invertebrates and floating detritus. This scavenging function recycles nutrients at the surface and supports the base of neustonic food webs.^[14]^[9]

Hyponeuston

Hyponeuston refers to the community of organisms inhabiting the immediate subsurface layer of aquatic environments, typically extending up to a few centimeters below the air-water interface, where they are attached to or suspended beneath the surface film.^[15] These organisms exploit the nutrient-rich sea surface microlayer (SML) while remaining partially submerged, distinguishing them from deeper planktonic forms.^[16] Morphological adaptations in hyponeuston enable access to atmospheric oxygen and efficient navigation in this thin boundary layer. Many species possess gill-like structures or siphons that pierce the surface film for respiration, such as the breathing tube in mosquito larvae (family Culicidae) that allows them to hang inverted from the underside in freshwater habitats. Flattened or streamlined bodies reduce hydrodynamic drag, facilitating attachment via surface tension; examples include aquatic worms like the California blackworm (Lumbriculus variegatus), which use mucous coatings and ciliated hindguts for flotation and gas exchange. In marine settings, small copepods such as those in the genus Pontella exhibit similar dorsoventral flattening to maintain position near the interface.^[16] Behaviorally, hyponeuston often position themselves by hanging or clinging to the film's underside, employing filter-feeding mechanisms to capture organic particles and microbes concentrated in the SML.^[17] This orientation supports passive suspension and active ventilation, but renders them vulnerable to disruptions like rainfall, which can break the surface tension and dislodge individuals. Such behaviors are evident in freshwater mosquito larvae, which periodically adjust their siphon to renew air access while feeding on surface organics.^[17] The diversity of hyponeuston encompasses a range of zooplankton, insect larvae, and small crustaceans, alongside microbial components. Prominent groups include dipteran larvae like mosquitoes in freshwater and calanoid copepods (e.g., Anomalocera patersonii) in marine waters, which form dense assemblages in the upper subsurface.^[18] Hyponeuston also includes microbial components such as bacterioneuston and small metazoans like rotifers, which thrive in high densities due to elevated organic substrates, with bacteria exhibiting enhanced metabolic activity in this layer.^[15]

Habitats

Freshwater Environments

Freshwater neuston primarily inhabit the surface microlayer (SML) of inland aquatic systems such as lakes, ponds, and slow-moving rivers, where lower salinity levels prevail compared to marine environments, but conditions exhibit high variability due to seasonal runoff and precipitation events.^[12] These habitats feature calmer water surfaces than oceanic ones, enabling neuston to exploit the surface tension for support and movement, though they are subject to disruptions from terrestrial inputs like nutrients and sediments.^[19] The SML in these systems is often enriched with organic matter, fostering distinct microbial and macrofaunal communities. Key examples of freshwater neuston include macroinvertebrates such as water striders (family Gerridae), which glide across the surface using hydrophobic hairs and specialized legs to detect prey via ripples, and whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae), which exhibit divided eyes for above- and below-water vision and paddle-like legs for rapid propulsion.^[12] At the microbial scale, diatoms (e.g., Nitzschia acicularis and Asterionella ralfsii) and cyanobacteria (e.g., Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) can be prominent in neuston assemblages, with abundances varying by site—diatoms prevailing in lake neuston and cyanobacteria in pond settings.^[2] Adaptations to freshwater conditions include tolerance to temperature fluctuations, achieved through physiological adjustments like enhanced metabolic flexibility in insects and UV-protective melanization in neustonic daphniids, allowing persistence across seasonal changes.^[20] Eutrophication, common in nutrient-enriched lakes and ponds, supports higher neuston densities by boosting algal growth in the SML, though it can alter community composition toward eutrophication-tolerant taxa like certain cyanobacteria. Floods play a dual role, promoting dispersal of neuston propagules across connected systems while disrupting communities through high-velocity scouring of the SML, which removes surface films and resets local assemblages. Neuston are ubiquitous in both lentic (standing water like ponds and lakes) and lotic (flowing water like slow rivers) systems, with overlaps in pool-like sections of streams where surface conditions mimic lentic habitats.^[12] Populations often exhibit seasonal peaks during summer, coinciding with warmer temperatures that enhance surface activity and reproduction in insects and algae.

Marine Environments

Marine neuston inhabit the surface microlayer of oceanic environments, characterized by high salinity levels typically ranging from 32 to 37 practical salinity units, where physical forces such as winds and ocean currents play a dominant role in their distribution and aggregation.^[1] In open ocean settings, neuston are prevalent in vast expanses like the Sargasso Sea and subtropical gyres, where convergent currents trap floating organisms and debris, leading to accumulations in areas such as the North Pacific Garbage Patch.^[21] Estuarine habitats, serving as transitional zones between rivers and seas, also support neustonic communities, though these are more influenced by tidal mixing and salinity gradients compared to the stable, high-salinity conditions of the open sea.^[1] Prominent examples of marine neuston include floating Sargassum rafts, formed by species such as Sargassum natans and S. fluitans, which create expansive, drifting ecosystems in the North Atlantic gyre and support associated invertebrates.^[1] Other notable epineustonic organisms are the hydrozoan Velella velella, known as the by-the-wind sailor, which drifts in large aggregations across temperate and subtropical waters, and the siphonophore Physalia physalis, the Portuguese man o' war, a colonial organism that preys on small fish while floating via its gas-filled pneumatophore.^[1] Invertebrate neuston, such as marine isopods and small crabs like Portunus sayi and Planes minutus, often colonize these rafts or plastic debris, exemplifying the diverse taxa adapted to surface life.^[1] Adaptations to marine conditions enable neuston survival in this harsh interface, including high salt tolerance through osmoregulatory mechanisms that maintain internal balance in hypersaline surface waters.^[22] UV protection is achieved via pigments and behavioral strategies, as ultraviolet-B radiation penetrates only the top meter of water, necessitating shielding against intense solar exposure in clear oceanic waters.^[1] In nutrient-poor gyres, neuston form resilient floating communities, often relying on symbiotic relationships, such as zooxanthellae in Velella velella, to sustain productivity amid oligotrophic conditions.^[1] Neuston's distribution is global across all major ocean basins, from polar to tropical regions, but with pronounced hotspots in subtropical convergence zones where downwelling and wind-driven Ekman transport concentrate populations.^[22] These organisms exhibit vertical migration synchronized with wave dynamics and diel cycles, rising to the surface at night for feeding and descending slightly during the day to avoid predation and UV stress.^[1] Examples of epineuston, such as the ocean skater Halobates micans, underscore this adaptive mobility in open marine habitats.^[1]

Ecological Significance

Role in Food Webs

Neuston organisms occupy diverse trophic levels within aquatic food webs, functioning as primary producers, grazers, and predators. Neustonic algae and phytoplankton contribute to primary production at the air-water interface, forming the base of the neustonic food web alongside bacterial films and allochthonous inputs.^[17] Insects and zooplankton graze on these primary producers, while neuston predators, such as chaetognaths and certain copepods (e.g., Corycaeidae and Pontellidae), consume submerged prey like copepods, fish eggs, and larvae.^[23] This structure reflects omnivory and opportunism, with stable isotope analyses (δ¹⁵N) revealing varying trophic positions across marine provinces, from detritivores in oligotrophic regions to carnivores in productive areas.^[23] As a critical food source, neuston links surface communities to broader aquatic systems, serving as prey for fish larvae, seabirds, amphibians, and sea turtles. In marine environments, neuston supports up to 30% of the diet for species like Laysan albatrosses and 80% for loggerhead turtles, while also providing essential nutrition for larval fish in areas like the Sargasso Sea.^[24] This role extends to bridging pelagic and benthic systems through vertical flux, where neustonic organisms facilitate energy transfer as larvae migrate downward and adults access surface resources.^[23] In freshwater habitats, neuston similarly nourishes amphibians and fish, with vertical transport of organic matter enhancing connectivity between surface and deeper layers.^[25] Neustonic communities exhibit dynamic predator-prey interactions that foster biodiversity hotspots in the surface microlayer (SML), supporting higher trophic levels. For instance, water striders (Gerridae) prey on trapped insects and mosquito larvae at the surface, aiding natural mosquito control in freshwater ponds and streams.^[17] In marine settings, interactions among neuston species, such as Janthina preying on Physalia, create interconnected webs that vary regionally, with higher diversity in productive zones like the Southern Adriatic Sea compared to oligotrophic areas.^[24]^[26] These dynamics underscore neuston's role in maintaining trophic stability, as evidenced by niche overlaps indicating flexible feeding strategies in response to environmental variability.^[23]

Biogeochemical Processes

Neuston communities in the sea surface microlayer (SML) play a pivotal role in nutrient cycling by concentrating organic matter, which enhances decomposition processes and facilitates nutrient release into the water column. Dissolved organic matter (DOM), including total hydrolyzable amino acids (THAA) and total dissolved carbohydrates (TDCHO), is significantly enriched in the SML, with enrichment factors (EFs) averaging 2.24 for THAA and 1.98 for TDCHO compared to subsurface water, promoting fresher, more bioavailable substrates for microbial degradation.^[27] This accumulation arises from mechanisms such as bubble scavenging and in situ primary production, leading to elevated levels of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) and various phosphorus forms in the SML, which exceed subsurface concentrations and support algal growth.^[28] Enhanced heterotrophic activity in the SML, driven by bacterioneuston, accelerates the breakdown of these organics, releasing inorganic nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the system, thereby influencing local biogeochemical fluxes.^[29] Algae within the neuston, including cyanobacteria, contribute to nutrient cycling through uptake and potential nitrogen fixation, concentrating phosphorus and nitrogen in the SML to levels higher than in underlying waters.^[30] Neuston also mediate gas exchange at the air-water interface, affecting the transfer of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) through diffusive processes modulated by SML properties. The SML's organic films and neustonic biofilms can act as both barriers and enhancers to gas diffusion; for instance, surfactants in the SML reduce the diffusive boundary layer thickness, potentially suppressing O₂ transfer rates by up to 50% under calm conditions, while biological activity in the neuston drives net community production (NCP) that influences O₂ profiles.^[31] Microbial respiration and photosynthesis within neustonic communities contribute to temporal variations in O₂ concentrations, with NCP rates up to 44.8 μmol O₂ L⁻¹ h⁻¹ in the SML, though these rarely alter air-sea O₂ fluxes significantly due to the layer's thinness (~1.1 mm).^[31] For CO₂, neustonic biofilms exhibit properties that may impede exchange, but enhanced primary production by algae can increase uptake, linking SML dynamics to broader atmospheric carbon regulation.^[32] In carbon dynamics, neuston serves as a potential sink through the export of organic material to the deep sea, exemplified by Sargassum mats that sink and deposit carbon in abyssal sediments. Surface-dwelling Sargassum algae contribute up to 0.4 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ to deep-sea carbon flux in the North Atlantic, representing about 10% of total particulate organic matter input and supporting benthic biodiversity through degraded biomass.^[33] Microbial respiration by neuston communities in the SML further shapes carbon cycling, with community respiration rates 1.7 to 28 times higher than in subsurface waters, leading to net heterotrophy and local oxygen depletion that can foster hypoxic microzones within the layer.^[29] This respiration consumes up to 8.2 μmol O₂ L⁻¹ d⁻¹, converting organic carbon to CO₂ and influencing the SML's role in the ocean's biological carbon pump.^[29] Neuston's interactions with pollutants significantly affect water quality, as the SML acts as a concentrator for contaminants that bioaccumulate in neustonic organisms. Pollutants such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals enrich in the SML by factors up to 500 relative to bulk water, due to the layer's lipid-rich organic films that sorb these compounds.^[34] Recent studies (as of 2024) on neuston in plastic accumulation zones like the North Pacific Garbage Patch show conflicting results, with some reporting higher densities potentially using plastics as habitat and others finding no elevation in hotspots.^[35]^[36] This enrichment leads to bioaccumulation in neuston biota, with bacteria showing 10²–10⁴-fold increases and microalgae 1–10²-fold, resulting in ecotoxicological effects like developmental abnormalities in larvae and reduced fishery recruitment.^[34] Consequently, neuston-mediated pollutant dynamics degrade local water quality, particularly in industrialized coastal areas, by facilitating transfer of toxins into the marine food web.^[34]

Threats and Conservation

Major Threats

Neuston communities face significant threats from anthropogenic pollution, particularly plastic debris that accumulates in ocean gyres and directly harms surface-dwelling organisms. In the North Pacific Garbage Patch, floating plastic debris co-occurs with neuston, leading to ingestion by species such as Velella velella, which has been identified as a bioindicator of microplastic pollution. Oil spills exacerbate this vulnerability by coating the sea surface microlayer (SML), where hydrophobic oil components concentrate at levels orders of magnitude higher than in underlying waters, causing toxicity, mortality, and developmental abnormalities in neustonic species.^[37]^[38]^[24]^[39] Climate change poses additional pressures by altering the physical and chemical properties of neuston habitats. Ocean warming disrupts SML stability through changes in surface tension and organic enrichment, potentially reducing the habitat's integrity and exposing neuston to greater turbulence and dispersal. Increased storm frequency and intensity, linked to warming, further fragment neustonic assemblages by enhancing wind-driven mixing and wave action at the air-water interface.^[40]^[41]^[42] Other environmental pressures compound these risks, including elevated ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which penetrates the thin SML and damages neustonic microbes and invertebrates lacking robust protective pigments. In freshwater systems, eutrophication promotes excessive algal overgrowth in surface films, smothering epineuston and altering the SML's microbial composition through nutrient-driven hypoxia. Efforts to mitigate plastic pollution, such as large-scale ocean cleanup using towed nets, inadvertently entangle epineustonic organisms like Velella and Porpita, potentially decimating local communities during operations in gyres.^[43]^[44] The cumulative effects of these threats amplify through bioaccumulation, as neuston ingest or absorb toxins like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil and persistent pollutants sorbed to microplastics, magnifying concentrations up the food chain to higher trophic levels such as fish and seabirds. This process, observed in neustonic zooplankton, leads to sublethal effects like reduced reproduction and heightened toxicity transfer, underscoring the SML's role as a conduit for pollutant propagation in marine ecosystems.^[45]^[46]

Conservation Strategies

Conservation strategies for neuston focus on integrating specialized monitoring, targeted pollution controls, habitat safeguards, and global policy frameworks to address their vulnerability at the air-water interface. Efforts emphasize non-invasive sampling techniques, such as manta nets, which are designed to collect surface-dwelling organisms without disturbing the microlayer, enabling accurate assessment of neuston diversity and abundance in both marine and freshwater systems.^[47]^[48] These tools have been standardized for neuston research, supporting baseline data collection that informs adaptive management.^[49] Furthermore, incorporating neuston habitats into marine protected areas (MPAs) is advocated to safeguard critical surface ecosystems, with initiatives like the Neuston Net Research Collective using citizen science to map distributions and guide MPA designations.^[50] Pollution mitigation prioritizes reducing plastic inputs to minimize entanglement and habitat alteration for neuston communities. International policies, such as those under the UN Environment Programme, promote upstream plastic reduction through bans on single-use items and improved waste management, indirectly benefiting neuston by lowering surface debris accumulation. As of November 2025, ongoing negotiations for the UN Global Plastics Treaty, which adjourned without consensus in August 2025 and are set to resume, aim to establish a comprehensive life-cycle approach to plastic pollution, potentially providing stronger protections for neuston habitats.^[51]^[52] For cleanup technologies, adjustments to systems like The Ocean Cleanup's arrays, implemented after 2019 ecological concerns, include bycatch monitoring and safety mechanisms to limit neuston entrainment, with peer-reviewed studies confirming low incidental capture rates in targeted zones.^[53]^[54] These refinements ensure that plastic removal efforts reduce long-term pollution impacts without disproportionate harm to surface biota.^[37] Habitat protection strategies target coastal and freshwater zones to preserve the stability of the surface microlayer (SML), where neuston thrive. Reducing coastal development through zoning regulations and buffer zones helps mitigate runoff and physical disruption, preserving neuston aggregation sites in nearshore areas.^[37] In freshwater environments, restoration of tidal wetlands enhances SML integrity by improving hydrological connectivity and reducing sediment loads, as evidenced by increased neuston catch per unit effort (CPUE) in monitored restored sites. Such projects, often part of broader estuary restoration programs, support neuston as key prey in food webs by fostering diverse surface habitats.^[55] International efforts underscore the need for neuston inclusion in biodiversity frameworks, with calls to integrate surface ecosystems into the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) Descriptor 1 on biodiversity.^[56]^[57] Advocacy from scientific bodies promotes neuston-specific provisions in pelagic habitat protections, emphasizing their role in global carbon cycling and connectivity.^[24] Educational initiatives, including workshops and public outreach by organizations like the International SeaKeepers Society, raise awareness of neuston's understudied status to build support for research funding and policy enforcement.^[50]^[58]

History and Research

Historical Development

The concept of neuston originated from early 19th-century observations by naturalists documenting surface-dwelling insects, such as water striders (Gerridae) and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae), which exploit the air-water interface in freshwater ponds and streams for locomotion and predation. These informal accounts highlighted the unique adaptations of such organisms to the surface film, laying groundwork for later systematic studies, though the term itself was not yet formalized. The term "neuston" was coined in 1917 by limnologist Einar Naumann to describe organisms specifically associated with the surface layer of freshwater habitats, distinguishing them from subsurface plankton.^[4] Naumann's work in German limnology emphasized the neuston's role as a distinct biotic zone, initially focused on algae, protozoans, and insects in lakes like Plönsee.^[5] This freshwater-centric definition dominated early 20th-century research, with contributions refining sampling methods for surface communities in ponds and rivers. By the mid-20th century, the neuston concept expanded to marine environments, driven by advancing plankton research that revealed analogous surface assemblages in oceans. In 1971, Yuvenaly Zaitsev extended the term to seas through his seminal "Marine Neustonologie," identifying diverse neustonic populations including copepods, fish eggs, and insects on open ocean surfaces. Hempel and Weikert's 1972 review further solidified this marine application, surveying neuston in the North-eastern Atlantic and classifying it as pelagic organisms adapted to the uppermost water layer. During the 1960s and 1970s, studies introduced distinctions between epineuston (organisms on the surface film) and hyponeuston (those immediately below, up to 5 cm depth), building on earlier proposals by Geitler in 1942 to better delineate vertical zonation. Key milestones in the 1980s shifted attention to the microbiology of the sea surface microlayer (SML), with research revealing enriched bacterioneuston and phytoneuston communities influenced by atmospheric inputs and surfactants.^[4] Pioneering work by Hardy in the early 1980s used microscopic and culturing techniques to quantify algal and bacterial abundances in the SML, establishing its biogeochemical distinctiveness. This evolution reflected broader influences from limnological origins toward an oceanographic emphasis, spurred by interdisciplinary plankton ecology.^[59]

Current Research

Recent advances in neuston research since the 2010s have increasingly employed genomic approaches to elucidate the microbial communities inhabiting the sea surface microlayer (SML). High-throughput sequencing has revealed distinct bacterial and eukaryotic diversity in neustonic assemblages, with studies post-2010 highlighting unique viral-bacterial interactions and functional gene compositions in the SML compared to underlying waters. For instance, ecogenomic analyses of SML samples from the Baltic Sea have identified specialized metabolic pathways in neustonic bacteria, underscoring their role in surface biogeochemistry. Similarly, metatranscriptomic profiling has shown declines in active neustonic bacterial populations under varying environmental conditions, providing insights into their adaptive responses.^[60]^[61]^[62] Methodological innovations have enhanced the study of neuston distribution and dynamics, particularly through remote sensing techniques and large-scale sampling efforts. Remote sensing via short-wave infrared polarimetry has enabled non-invasive mapping of SML properties, such as refractive index variations, which influence neuston habitats and are independent of wind speed. Complementing this, global sampling expeditions from 2005 to 2012 have provided foundational phylogeographic data on neustonic taxa, revealing evolutionary patterns across oceanic provinces. These approaches have facilitated broader monitoring of SML heterogeneity, integrating satellite data with in situ collections to track neuston responses to environmental gradients.^[63]^[64] The proliferation of plastic pollution has spurred investigations into its effects on neuston, especially following debates around large-scale cleanup operations initiated around 2019. Research in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) has quantified neuston abundances relative to floating plastics, finding that while some taxa show elevated densities in plastic hotspots, overall impacts include habitat alteration and ingestion risks. Assessments from 2021 onward indicate that cleanup efforts, such as those by The Ocean Cleanup, may inadvertently affect neustonic communities by removing floating substrates, though plastic removal generally benefits marine life more than it harms through incidental neuston capture. Recent studies (2021–2024) have used biodiversity surveys to evaluate these dynamics, emphasizing the need for targeted mitigation to preserve neuston in polluted gyres. A 2025 assessment of cleanup efforts in the NPGP suggests that plastic removal could benefit neustonic communities by minimizing pollution disruptions.^[65]^[36]^[66]^[37] Emerging research frontiers include detailed biodiversity evaluations in garbage patches. In the GPGP, studies from 2019 to 2024 have documented neustonic densities amid plastics, including pigmented bacterial strains on debris.^[36]^[67]^[68] Despite progress, significant research gaps persist, particularly in neuston's underrepresentation within conservation frameworks and the scarcity of data from tropical and subtropical regions. Current studies reveal limited integration of neuston into marine protected area designs, with calls for expanded monitoring to address this oversight. Moreover, while temperate and gyre-centric data abound, tropical/subtropical neuston communities remain underexplored, hindering global biodiversity assessments and resilience projections.^[24]^[23]^[69]

References

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001046
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The neuston is composed of organisms associated with the surface film region of freshwater and oceanic habitats (Naumann 1917; Welch 1935; Geitler 1942; ...
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Aquatic surface microlayers are unique microbial ecosystems found at the air–water interface of all open water bodies and are often referred to as the neuston.
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### Historical Development of the Neuston Concept (19th Century to 1990s)
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None
Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Whirligig beetles (Coleoptera: Gyrinidae) are semi-aquatic insects with a morphology and propulsion system highly adapted to their life at the air–water ...
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[14]
Neuston - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The term neuston refers to the assemblage of organisms associated with the surface film of lakes, oceans, and slow-moving portions of streams. It generally ...
[15]
Flotation of aquatic worms and other hyponeuston - ResearchGate
Individual blackworms adapt to hypoxic environments through respiration via their mucous body wall and posterior ciliated hindgut, which they wave above them. ...Missing: traits | Show results with:traits
[16]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723071085
[17]
From water striders to water bugs: the molecular diversity of aquatic ...
May 2, 2018 · In this study we tested the effectiveness of a DNA barcode library to discriminate species of the Gerromorpha and Nepomorpha of Germany.
[18]
The Intercontinental phylogeography of neustonic daphniids - Nature
Feb 4, 2020 · As the freshwater neuston is a required habitat for the immature stages of mosquitoes, humans have targeted the layer for widespread ...
[19]
[PDF] The Impact of Extreme Events on Freshwater Ecosystems
Flood disturbance acts to counter this progression, creating new aquatic habitats such as riffles and pools, which add to the diversity of habitats across the ...
[20]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58743-8
[21]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001646
[22]
Trophic Structure of Neuston Across Tropical and Subtropical ...
The marine neuston, organisms living in the vicinity of the ocean surface, is one of the least studied zooplankton groups.
[23]
The mysterious ecosystem at the ocean's surface - PMC
Apr 28, 2021 · Organisms that live freely at the surface, termed “neuston,” include keystone organisms like the golden seaweed Sargassum that makes up the ...
[24]
Neuston in Aquatic Ecosystems | Request PDF - ResearchGate
The epineuston depend on the surface tension of the water to maintain their position on the surface, whereas the migratory patterns and life stages of the ...
[25]
Spatial variation in biodiversity patterns of neuston in the Western ...
Neuston - comprising a diverse assemblage of organisms living in the surface layer of the water column - plays a unique ecological role in marine life.
[26]
Controls on the Distribution, Enrichment, and Degradation of ...
Dec 8, 2022 · In this study, the distribution, enrichment and potential links between neuston abundances with the dissolved organic matter (DOM) ...
[27]
Role of aquatic surface microlayer in the dynamics of nutrients and ...
The origin and mechanisms of formation of aquatic surface microlayers are reviewed, and processes within the layer responsible for enrichment of inorganic.Missing: decomposition | Show results with:decomposition
[28]
Enhanced heterotrophic activity in the surface microlayer of the ...
Jun 20, 2025 · At all study sites, community respiration in the SML exceeded that in the sub- surface water (SSW) by factors between 1.7 and 28. The abundance ...Missing: hypoxia | Show results with:hypoxia
[29]
Nitrogen and phosphorus in surface microlayers of an estuarine ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Higher nutrients concentrations were observed into the surface microlayer then in the subsurface of estuarine, shallow lake water.
[30]
Oxygen Profiles Across the Sea-Surface Microlayer—Effects of ...
Feb 3, 2019 · Gas exchange across the air-water interface is strongly influenced by the uppermost water layer (<1 mm), the sea-surface microlayer (SML).
[31]
The Virioneuston: A Review on Viral–Bacterial Associations at Air ...
Feb 22, 2019 · Biofilm-like properties of the sea surface and predicted effects on air-sea CO2 exchange. ... sea-surface microlayer-effects of diffusion and ...
[32]
Potential contribution of surface-dwelling Sargassum algae to deep ...
Deep-sea ecosystems, limited by their inability to use primary production as a source of carbon, rely on other sources to maintain life.Missing: SML | Show results with:SML
[33]
A review of pollutants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML)
The SML is highly contaminated in many urban and industrialized areas of the world, resulting in severe ecotoxicological impacts.Missing: bioaccumulation quality
[34]
Relative Abundance of Floating Plastic Debris and Neuston in the ...
Jun 2, 2021 · Removing floating plastic debris from the surface ocean can minimize potentially adverse effects of plastic pollution on the neuston, as well as ...Missing: microlayer | Show results with:microlayer<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Microplastic ingestion and Phthalate ester levels as plastic tracers in ...
V. velella emerges as a promising bioindicator of MPs pollution in the pelagic areas of the Mediterranean Sea and the other seas and oceans worldwide.
[36]
Influence of oil contamination on the sea surface microlayer
Accumulation of organic pollutants from petroleum in the SSM has ecotoxicological impacts to the neustonic community including mortality, developmental ...
[37]
Sea surface microlayer in a changing ocean – A perspective
Jun 21, 2017 · The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the boundary interface between the atmosphere and ocean, covering about 70% of the Earth's surface.Introduction And Definition · Air-Sea Gas And Heat... · Marine Pollutants
[38]
Eco-physiological responses of copepods and pteropods to ocean ...
Mar 18, 2019 · With ongoing ocean acidification, marine calcifying organisms such as pteropods will be exposed more frequently to low quality pelagic ...
[39]
Global Synthesis of the Status and Trends of Ocean Acidification ...
Oct 30, 2023 · Pteropods are vulnerable to ocean acidification, with up to 60% severe shell dissolution in the Arctic, and 40-50% in the Southern and North ...Missing: neuston | Show results with:neuston
[40]
Scratching the ocean surface: Researchers want to better ...
Aug 17, 2023 · There is still much to learn about neustonic communities that thrive in the mysterious habitat created by the ocean's surface microlayer.
[41]
Ultraviolet radiation, ozone depletion, and marine photosynthesis
Concerns about stratospheric ozone depletion have stimulated interest in the effects of UVB radiation (280-320 nm) on marine phytoplankton.
[42]
Variabilities of biochemical properties of the sea surface microlayer
Sep 10, 2022 · This study showed that AD can affect the short-term scale enrichments of organic matter in the SML, especially when accompanied by BB emissions.
[43]
Mysterious marine ecosystem threatened by plastic cleanup - DW
Aug 14, 2020 · Marine biologists fear this community of organisms living on the ocean surface could be decimated as nets sweep up plastic pollution.A World Between Worlds · Plastic And Marine Life Are... · Is The Solution Inshore?
[44]
Effects of Crude Oil Exposure on Bioaccumulation of Polycyclic ... - NIH
Some of the components of crude oil, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), can be highly toxic to zooplankton and be accumulated and transferred up ...
[45]
Marine microplastics as vectors of major ocean pollutants and its ...
Jan 22, 2021 · Microplastic has been reported to act as vectors by sorbing pollutants and contributing to the bioaccumulation of pollutants, particularly in ...
[46]
Neuston and Bongo Plankton Nets - NOAA Fisheries
Jun 6, 2019 · The Neuston net, also commonly known as the manta net due to its shape like a manta ray, samples the very surface layer of the ocean, also known as the neuston ...
[47]
Manta Net: The Golden Method for Sampling Surface Water ...
The principal difference between the Neuston nets consists in the height of the sampled water layer: Manta generally samples the first 15–25 cm while the ...Overview of the Characteristics... · Characteristics of the Net... · Proposition of...
[48]
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.811112/full
[49]
Neuston Net Research Collective - International SeaKeepers Society
Little is known about the surface ecosystem and the collection of this data may help inform the creation of new Marine Protected Areas to protect this ...
[50]
Plastic pollution solutions: emerging technologies to prevent and ...
Between the years 2000 and 2019, at least 28 international policies were established to reduce plastic pollution, three of which are binding to member states: ...Review Article · 3. Results · 4. DiscussionMissing: neuston | Show results with:neuston
[51]
The Ocean Cleanup and Neuston | Updates
Feb 6, 2019 · ... pleuston, while neuston is a broader term, referring generally to the sea-surface ecosystem”. One of the most common species of the neuston ...
[52]
System 002: Mid-Term Evaluation | Updates | The Ocean Cleanup
Jan 10, 2022 · Also, we don't find neuston bycatch in every extraction, indicating – contrary to some beliefs – that neuston and plastic concentrations do not ...System 002: Mid-Term... · Bycatch Assessment · Protected Species...
[53]
Export of macroinvertebrate prey from tidal freshwater wetlands ...
Mar 17, 2023 · We conclude that macroinvertebrate prey exported from varied tidal freshwater wetlands likely provide significant benefits to juvenile salmon.
[54]
[PDF] Pelagic habitats under MSFD D1: current approaches and priorities
Mar 9, 2021 · This report reviews the current situation as regards to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Descriptor 1 (Biodiversity) for ...
[55]
[PDF] Towards the Identification and Reference List of Pelagic Habitat ...
Jun 17, 2013 · The output of the workshop was intended to support the efforts by the Convention on. Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Ad Hoc Open-ended ...
[56]
Tutorial for Neuston Net Sampling - SeaKeepers - YouTube
Jan 25, 2024 · ... academic world and the international yachting community in an effort to conserve ... Neuston Nets. Neuston Nets are fine mesh nets often ...Missing: education | Show results with:education
[57]
The Ocean's Vital Skin: Toward an Integrated Understanding of the ...
The second major biological component of SML ecosystems is phytoneuston, historically studied using microscopes (Hardy and Valett, 1981; Hardy, 1982), and more ...
[58]
12 - Neuston of seas and oceans - Cambridge University Press
Sep 24, 2009 · Neuston can be divided into epineuston and hyponeuston. The epineuston includes more than 40 species of water striders, Halobates ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[59]
Ecogenomics and cultivation reveal distinctive viral-bacterial ...
Sep 18, 2023 · In this work, we provide new insights on viral-bacterial diversity and interactions in the SML of a natural surface slick from the Baltic Sea—a ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[60]
High-throughput sequencing reveals neustonic and planktonic ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Neustonic organisms inhabit the sea surface microlayer (SML) and have important roles in marine ecosystem functioning.
[61]
Comparative metatranscriptomics reveals decline of a neustonic ...
Oct 20, 2016 · Here, we use a comparative in situ metatranscriptomics approach to reveal the functional genomic composition of metabolically active neustonic ...
[62]
Remote sensing of the ocean surface refractive index via short-wave ...
Multi-angular SWIR polarimetry retrieves the ocean surface refractive index. The retrievals are straightforward and wind-speed-independent.
[63]
[PDF] Evolutionary History and Global Phylogeography of the Neuston
The ecological base of the neuston community is an endosymbiosis involving cnidarian hosts (Porpitidae) and their dinoflagellate photosymbionts. Porpitids are ...
[64]
Neuston in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and the Impact of Cleanup
Jun 3, 2021 · This new research allows us to better evaluate which neustonic species might be affected by our cleanup operations in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP).Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[65]
Densities of neuston often not elevated within plastic hotspots ...
Jul 11, 2024 · These findings indicate that neuston may be particularly vulnerable towards plastic pollution, as well as towards cleanup efforts targeting ...
[66]
Evaluating the environmental impact of cleaning the North Pacific ...
May 27, 2025 · Our analysis shows that removing legacy macroplastic pollution already accumulated in the NPGP benefits marine life in the area, even when ...<|separator|>
[67]
High concentrations of floating neustonic life in the plastic-rich North ...
May 4, 2023 · Floating life (obligate neuston) is a core component of the ocean surface food web. However, only 1 region of high neustonic abundance is known ...
[68]
Hunting for pigments in bacterial settlers of the Great Pacific ...
Jun 20, 2024 · We observed a variety of pigmentation in 67 strains that were directly cultivated from plastic pieces sampled from the Garbage Patch. The ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity<|separator|>
[69]
(PDF) Densities of neuston often not elevated within plastic hotspots ...
Jul 11, 2024 · Targeting open-ocean cleanups on such plastic hotspot territories inside the garbage patch can therefore minimize interactions with neuston ...<|control11|><|separator|>