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Sea surface microlayer

The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the thin uppermost boundary layer of the ocean, operationally defined as spanning the top 1–1,000 micrometers (μm) of seawater at the air-water interface.^[1]^[2] This interface covers approximately 70% of Earth's surface and hosts distinct physicochemical gradients, including accumulations of surfactants, dissolved organic matter, and particulate material that differentiate it from underlying bulk water.^[3] Biologically, the SML often exhibits elevated concentrations of bacteria, viruses, and phytoplankton, forming a neuston community that drives localized metabolic processes.^[2] Despite comprising a minuscule fraction of the ocean's volume, the SML exerts outsized influence on air-sea interactions, modulating the transfer of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂), heat, and momentum through viscoelastic properties induced by organic films.^[3]^[2] Empirical assessments of its effective thickness, derived from surfactant distribution and sampling artifacts, yield values around 50 ± 10 μm under typical conditions.^[4] These characteristics position the SML as a critical regulator of marine biogeochemical cycles, aerosol formation, and potentially climate feedbacks, though its heterogeneity—varying with wind speed, biological productivity, and pollution—complicates uniform characterization.^[1]^[3]

Definition and Physical Characteristics

Thickness and Operational Definition

The sea surface microlayer (SML) is operationally defined as the uppermost ocean layer exhibiting distinct physicochemical properties from underlying bulk seawater, with a thickness conventionally ranging from 1 to 1000 micrometers.^[3]^[1] This range reflects the absence of a fixed boundary, as the SML's extent is practically determined by sampling techniques rather than a universal physical demarcation.^[5] Sampling methods, such as glass plate dipping or mesh screens, yield apparent thicknesses tied to the volume collected per unit area; for instance, glass plate methods often correspond to an effective depth of approximately 50 ± 10 micrometers.^[6]^[7] These operational definitions prioritize measurable enrichment of surface-active substances, like surfactants, over arbitrary depth cuts, ensuring the captured layer aligns with gradients in surface tension and organic matter concentration.^[8] Direct in situ measurements using microelectrodes have quantified the SML thickness more precisely, identifying abrupt property changes—such as in pH—at around 60 micrometers, underscoring the microlayer's role as a dynamic interface influenced by molecular diffusion and advection.^[3] Variability in reported thicknesses, from tens to hundreds of micrometers, arises from environmental factors like wind speed and biological activity, which modulate the layer's stability and enrichment processes.^[9] In calmer conditions, the SML may extend to effective sampling depths of 40–100 micrometers, while turbulent mixing can compress it to thinner profiles.^[10]

Formation Mechanisms and Surface Tension

The sea surface microlayer (SML) primarily forms through the thermodynamic enrichment of surface-active substances (surfactants), such as amphiphilic organic molecules including lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides, which preferentially adsorb at the air-sea interface to minimize the system's free energy.^[2] These surfactants, derived from phytoplankton exudates, microbial decomposition, and terrestrial inputs, create a coherent organic film that stabilizes the uppermost ~1–1000 μm layer, distinct from the turbulent subsurface waters.^[2] ^[11] This passive accumulation is enhanced under low-wind conditions (<4 m/s), where reduced mixing allows surfactants to compress into monolayers, though enrichment persists up to wind speeds of ~13 m/s before disruption by turbulence.^[2] Physical processes further contribute to SML formation via bubble-mediated transport during wave breaking, where ascending air bubbles from whitecaps scavenge subsurface organics and deposit them upon bursting at the surface, injecting film-forming materials into the interface.^[2] This mechanism, dominant in moderate seas, can yield enrichment factors exceeding 10 for gel particles like transparent exopolymer particles (TEPs) under calm conditions, as bubbles facilitate upward advection against diffusive loss.^[2] Surface compression from converging flows or Langmuir circulation also concentrates insoluble surfactants, forming visible slicks where organic films dampen capillary waves and reduce near-surface turbulence.^[2] Biological activity sustains SML formation through in situ production of surfactants by neuston communities, including bacterioneuston that exude lipopolysaccharides and proteins, fostering a self-reinforcing biofilm-like structure.^[2] Phytoplankton-derived exudates coagulate abiotically into gels, amplifying enrichment, particularly in productive coastal zones where subsurface organic gradients drive diffusive flux to the interface.^[2] These biogenic inputs interact with physical forcing, as microbial metabolism responds to the stabilized microenvironment, though wind-driven renewal limits persistence in open ocean settings.^[11] Surface tension in the SML is characteristically reduced by adsorbed surfactants, lowering values from ~72 mN/m in bulk seawater (comparable to pure water at 20°C) to 50 mN/m or less in slicked areas, with non-slick regions showing depressions of ~0.9–2.5 mN/m.^[1] ^[12] This reduction arises from surfactant orientation, where hydrophobic tails project into air and hydrophilic heads into water, forming a viscoelastic skin that resists deformation and suppresses gas transfer velocities by up to 55% at winds <11 m/s.^[2] Measurements via Wilhelmy plate or atomic force microscopy confirm these gradients, with spreading pressures in films rarely exceeding a few tenths of a mN/m in unslicked seas but amplifying to multi-mN/m scales in biologically active patches, thereby modulating air-sea momentum and scalar exchange.^[1] ^[12] Such alterations underscore the SML's role as a dynamic barrier, where tension gradients drive Marangoni flows that further homogenize the film.^[2] ![Transport processes across the sea surface microlayer][float-right]

Spatial and Temporal Variability

The sea surface microlayer (SML) exhibits pronounced spatial variability influenced by underlying water mass characteristics, such as productivity gradients and hydrological fronts. In upwelling filaments off Mauritania, total organic carbon concentrations were higher within the filament (93.9 ± 13.2 μM) compared to surrounding waters (86.0 ± 5.4 μM), with enrichment factors relative to subsurface water averaging 1.2 ± 0.1.^[13] Surfactant concentrations also varied spatially, reaching 0.28 ± 0.11 mg TX-100 equivalents L⁻¹ inside filaments versus 0.22 ± 0.18 mg L⁻¹ outside, corresponding to enrichment factors of 1.5 ± 0.7 and 1.3 ± 0.6, respectively.^[13] Microbial abundances showed contrasting patterns, with Synechococcus spp. cells elevated outside filaments (49 ± 39 × 10³ cells mL⁻¹) relative to inside (4.7 ± 2.2 × 10³ cells mL⁻¹), and picoeukaryotic-like cells exhibiting enrichment factors of 1.7 ± 0.8 outside versus 1.0 ± 0.5 inside.^[13] Coastal regions generally display greater organic enrichment than oligotrophic open oceans due to elevated nutrient inputs and primary production, though quantitative differences in dissolved organic matter partitioning remain comparable to subsurface variability across Beaufort wind scales of 0–4.^[14] Temporal variability in SML properties arises from hydrodynamic forcing, biological cycles, and diurnal environmental shifts. At the Boknis Eck time series station in the Baltic Sea (April 2012–November 2013), total combined carbohydrates ranged from 2.0–7.8 μmol L⁻¹, with enrichment factors up to 1.4 that inversely correlated with wind speed (r² = 0.38, P = 0.04), peaking during phytoplankton blooms when chlorophyll a reached 4.3 μg L⁻¹ in spring and 9.0 μg L⁻¹ in autumn.^[15] Total hydrolysable amino acids varied from 1.0–4.4 μmol L⁻¹, achieving enrichment factors up to 2.4 and correlating with chlorophyll a (r² = 0.74, P < 0.05), reflecting post-bloom degradation dominated by glycine and fucose.^[15] Low wind speeds promote SML accumulation by favoring viscous stress over wave disruption, while higher winds and microbreaking enhance dispersion, reducing enrichments in UV-absorbing phenolics.^[3] Diurnal patterns include elevated sea-surface CO₂ concentrations in early afternoon due to photosynthetic drawdown minima and warming effects, contrasting pre-dawn lows.^[16] Seasonal blooms drive organic matter succession, with transparent exopolymer particles accumulating up to 388 mm² L⁻¹ in area during productive periods, underscoring the SML's responsiveness to transient biological and physical drivers.^[15]

Chemical and Biogeochemical Properties

Organic Matter Composition and Enrichment

The sea surface microlayer (SML) is characterized by a heterogeneous organic matter composition dominated by carbohydrates, proteinaceous material, and lipids, with carbohydrates often comprising the largest fraction of total organic carbon (TOC), up to 80% in some coastal and open ocean samples.^[17] ^[18] Protein-like substances, including amino acids, and lipid compounds such as surfactants contribute significantly to the surface-active properties, while polysaccharides form exopolymeric particles like transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and carbohydrate-rich surface particles (CSP).^[19] ^[20] Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the SML includes humic-like and fluorescent components, though particulate organic matter (POM) predominates in many analyses.^[2] ^[21] Enrichment of organic matter in the SML relative to underlying waters (ULW) is widespread, with factors varying by compound type, location, and environmental conditions; POM typically shows higher enrichment (ratios >2-10) than DOM due to surface adsorption and aggregation processes.^[2] ^[19] Organic carbon and amino acids exhibit pronounced enrichment in open ocean SML, often exceeding 10-fold compared to ULW, while coastal sites display reduced factors (1-5) influenced by terrestrial inputs and mixing.^[19] ^[22] CSP and TEP demonstrate consistent enrichment, with factors of 1.4-2.4 for CSP, enhancing the gel-like matrix that traps other organics.^[20] ^[23] Recent meta-analyses confirm preferential accumulation of nitrogen-enriched POM in the SML, linked to biogenic production, with enrichment persisting even under moderate winds but intensifying above 10 m s⁻¹ due to wave-driven upwelling of subsurface organics.^[24] ^[25] Surfactant activity, driven by lipids and proteins, shows spatial variability across latitudes, with higher levels in productive regions supporting overall organic layering.^[26] These patterns underscore the SML's role as a concentrated organic film, though enrichment diminishes rapidly with turbulence or pollution gradients.^[27] ^[28]

Inorganic Ions and Trace Metals

The concentrations of major inorganic ions, such as magnesium, chloride, potassium, calcium, and bromide, in the sea surface microlayer (SML) typically exhibit concentration factors (defined as the ratio of SML to underlying bulk seawater concentrations) ranging from 0.54 to 2.2, indicating no systematic large-scale enrichment or depletion relative to subsurface waters.^[29]^[30] These variations arise from physical processes like evaporation, precipitation, or minor ionic interactions with surface-active organic films, but conservative ions generally maintain near-equilibrium with bulk seawater due to rapid mixing across the thin SML.^[29] In contrast, trace metals including copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and cadmium (Cd) are frequently enriched in the SML, with enrichment factors often exceeding those of major ions and varying from 1.5- to 50-fold or higher depending on the metal and environmental conditions.^[31]^[32] For instance, studies in coastal and open ocean settings have reported SML enrichments of Fe up to 1000 times in the Mediterranean Sea, driven by scavenging from atmospheric dust or aerosols.^[33] Similarly, dissolved trace metals correlate positively with organic matter abundance in the SML, as metals bind to ligands like humic substances or proteins that accumulate at the air-water interface.^[34]^[35] Mechanisms contributing to trace metal enrichment include adsorption onto floating particles, complexation with surface-active organics, and flotation via rising bubbles that carry particle-attached metals to the surface.^[36]^[37] In polluted or dust-influenced regions, such as the Aegean Sea or Florida Keys, seasonal measurements show elevated SML concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, and others relative to subsurface waters, reflecting inputs from anthropogenic sources or aeolian deposition.^[38]^[39] This passive association with organic aggregates underscores the SML's role as a biogeochemical hotspot, though enrichment is not universal and can be modulated by factors like wind speed, biological activity, and upwelling.^[1]^[40]

Role in Photochemical Processes

The sea surface microlayer (SML) serves as a distinct photochemical reactor owing to its enrichment in photosensitizing chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM), surfactants, and transition metals, which absorb ultraviolet (UV) and visible solar radiation to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) including singlet oxygen, superoxide, and hydroxyl radicals.^[41]^[42] These species drive oxidation reactions that degrade higher-molecular-weight organics into low-molecular-weight carbonyl compounds, such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, with production rates in the SML often exceeding those in underlying subsurface waters by factors of 2–10 due to concentrated substrates and prolonged photon exposure at the interface.^[41]^[43] Interfacial photochemistry at the SML-air boundary produces volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including oxygenated species like glyoxal and methylglyoxal, at global scales estimated to rival or exceed biologically mediated marine emissions, with annual fluxes on the order of 10–100 Tg C yr⁻¹ based on surfactant coverage models spanning ~10–70% of ocean surfaces.^[44] Photosensitized reactions involving CDOM triplet states further yield isoprene at rates up to 0.1–1 nmol L⁻¹ h⁻¹ under simulated sunlight, challenging prior attributions of marine isoprene solely to phytoplankton and suggesting SML contributions could adjust global budgets by 10–20%.^[45] Photodegradation processes in the SML also modulate surfactant dynamics; UV exposure breaks down CDOM, releasing amphiphilic fragments that elevate surfactant activity by 20–50% in sunlit estuarine and coastal waters, thereby influencing air-sea gas transfer velocities for CO₂ and O₂.^[42] While bulk water photochemistry shares mechanistic similarities, SML enrichment amplifies ROS yields and product volatilization, though microbial quenching and vertical mixing can attenuate net effects, with diel cycles showing peak activity midday when UV flux exceeds 100 W m⁻².^[1]^[41] These reactions link oceanic surfaces to tropospheric oxidant cycles, potentially enhancing secondary aerosol formation via VOC oxidation products.^[44]

Biological Communities

Bacterioneuston and Microbial Dynamics

The bacterioneuston refers to the community of bacteria inhabiting the sea surface microlayer (SML), distinct from the underlying bacterioplankton due to exposure to air-water interface conditions such as elevated surfactants, UV radiation, and meteorological forcing.^[2] These communities often exhibit enrichment in specific taxa adapted to organic-rich films, with processes including heterotrophic respiration and organic matter decomposition driving biogeochemical cycles at the ocean surface.^[46] Bacterial abundances in the SML typically range from 4.6 × 10⁵ to 1.8 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹, comparable to subsurface waters, though enrichment factors for total cells vary widely from 0.5 to 191 across studies, influenced by sampling methods and conditions.^[46] ^[47] Under low wind speeds, enrichment occurs, particularly in high-pCO₂ scenarios, fostering distinct bacterioneuston formation; high winds (>8 m s⁻¹) disrupt this, preventing differentiation from subsurface communities.^[48] Organic carbon enrichment in the SML, often exceeding 10-fold under calm conditions, correlates with elevated community respiration rates compared to bulk water, though production may decrease in some cases due to nutrient limitations or UV stress.^[2] ^[23] Community composition features dominance by Bacteroidetes (e.g., Flavobacteriaceae, Cryomorphaceae) and Gammaproteobacteria (e.g., Alteromonadaceae, Rhodobacteraceae), with the SML showing selective enrichment of families like Flavobacteriaceae (enrichment factor ~1.22), linked to degradation of exopolymeric substances.^[47] ^[46] Diversity metrics such as Shannon indices often do not differ significantly from subsurface layers, indicating close coupling, yet terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses reveal non-random, distinct structures responsive to phytoplankton blooms and organic inputs.^[46] Meteorological factors, including wind and precipitation, modulate succession, with calm conditions promoting biofilm-like assemblages that enhance surfactant cycling and air-sea gas exchange modulation.^[2] The bacterioneuston thus acts as a metabolic hotspot, utilizing amino acids and carbohydrates preferentially, influencing trace gas fluxes like CH₄ (up to 12% enhancement in transfer velocity).^[2]

Virioneuston and Viral Ecology

The virioneuston consists of viruses inhabiting the sea surface microlayer (SML), the uppermost approximately 1 mm of the ocean where viruses interact with bacterial hosts in a distinct boundary environment.^[49] Viral abundances in the SML typically range from 10^6 to 10^8 particles per milliliter, often exhibiting enrichment relative to underlying subsurface waters, with factors varying from 0.4 to 15.4 depending on location and conditions such as organic matter availability and bubble-mediated transport.^[49] For instance, in the Arctic Ocean, SML viral abundances reached 9.6 × 10^6 mL⁻¹ compared to 3.3 × 10^6 mL⁻¹ in subsurface waters, while Antarctic SML values were 25.7 × 10^6 mL⁻¹ versus 8.1 × 10^6 mL⁻¹.^[50] Viral activity in the virioneuston is generally elevated, featuring higher production rates and infection frequencies than in subsurface layers. In Arctic and North Atlantic SML samples, viral production rates were 0.07 × 10^7 viruses mL⁻¹ d⁻¹, with infection rates of 20.2% of visibly infected microbial cells, exceeding subsurface values of 0.06 × 10^7 mL⁻¹ d⁻¹ and 7.3%, respectively; Antarctic rates showed even greater disparities, with SML infection at 97.4%.^[50] Burst sizes, indicating viruses released per lysed host, ranged from 12 to 59 in the Arctic and 50 to 126 in the Antarctic.^[50] Lysogenic infections, where viruses integrate into host genomes, occur at rates of 0.1% to 7.4% in the SML, potentially favored by stressors like ultraviolet radiation that may induce prophage activation or damage free virions.^[49] Interactions between virioneuston phages and bacterioneuston hosts drive key ecological processes, including selective lysis that regulates bacterial populations and contributes to the viral shunt, whereby organic carbon is recycled as dissolved organic matter rather than transferred to higher trophic levels.^[49] In the Central Arctic, prophages associated with SML bacteria encoded auxiliary metabolic genes for cryoprotection, such as ice-binding proteins, enhancing host survival in cold, UV-exposed conditions and influencing nutrient cycling.^[51] Enrichment of viruses correlates with prokaryotic host abundances (Pearson's r = 0.70), and bubble bursting facilitates upward transfer to sea foams, where concentrations can reach 300-fold higher, enabling aerosolization and atmospheric dispersal.^[52] This bidirectional flux underscores the virioneuston's role in connecting oceanic viral ecology to atmospheric processes, amplifying impacts on global biogeochemical cycles like carbon export limitation.^[52]^[50] Distinct viral communities in the SML, with up to 1154 viral operational taxonomic units identified in Arctic samples, highlight its function as a hotspot for phage-bacteria coevolution under extreme interfacial conditions.^[51]

Eukaryotic and Aeroplankton Components

The eukaryotic components of the sea surface microlayer (SML), often termed the euthyneuston, consist primarily of microbial protists and phytoplankton adapted to the air-water interface. These include autotrophic groups such as diatoms (e.g., Chaetoceros calcitrans) and dinoflagellates, alongside heterotrophic protists like ciliates and flagellates within broader alveolate and stramenopile clades. In coastal studies, autotrophic eukaryotic biomass in the SML shows marked enrichment relative to underlying waters, with chlorophyll a concentrations reaching up to 450 μg L⁻¹—over 30-fold higher than subsurface levels of approximately 14 μg L⁻¹—and small autotrophs (<50 μm) achieving densities of 2.6 × 10⁵ to 1.6 × 10⁶ cells mL⁻¹.^[9] Such accumulations arise from surface-active properties of organic exudates and reduced turbulence, fostering higher metabolic rates, including net community production ranging from -21.3 to 44.8 μmol O₂ L⁻¹ h⁻¹ in the SML versus -8.0 to 3.0 μmol O₂ L⁻¹ h⁻¹ below.^[9] Across larger scales, eukaryotic community structure in the SML mirrors that of underlying waters but displays transect-specific variations driven by nutrient gradients and hydrography. A 2021 east-west survey in the Mediterranean Sea revealed dominance by Alveolata (e.g., Syndiniales and other parasitic dinoflagellates) and Stramenopiles, with relative abundances of these groups comprising over 60% of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in both SML and subsurface samples, though picophytoplankton contributions declined eastward amid oligotrophic conditions.^[53] 18S rRNA analyses from mesocosm experiments further indicate reproducible eukaryotic diversity in the SML, including choanoflagellates and other nanoflagellates, with subtle shifts toward surface-adapted taxa under calm conditions.^[54] These communities contribute to biogeochemical cycling by modulating organic matter degradation and gas fluxes, though their metabolic influence on oxygen profiles remains minor compared to subsurface plankton (≤7% of observed gradients).^[9] Aeroplankton components originating from the SML encompass ejected eukaryotic microbes, including algal spores, fungal elements, and protozoan resting stages, propelled into the atmosphere via bubble bursting and sea spray during wave action. Marine-derived aeroplankton features hundreds of algal species and protozoan cysts, with sea spray aerosols transporting viable phytoplankton and microeukaryotes aloft, where they can persist as airborne particles before redeposition.^[55] This flux links the SML to atmospheric ecology, as evidenced by detections of marine microalgae in boundary-layer aerosols since the 19th century, influencing cloud nucleation and long-range dispersal over thousands of kilometers.^[56] Fungal spores and algal fragments from neuston communities dominate eukaryotic aeroplankton fractions, comprising up to 40% of bioaerosol diversity in coastal zones, with viability sustained by surface film hydration.^[55] Such transfers underscore the SML's role as a conduit for marine eukaryotes into global aerial circulation, potentially seeding distant ecosystems upon precipitation.^[56]

Key Processes and Interactions

Enrichment and Accumulation Mechanisms

The sea surface microlayer (SML) exhibits enrichment of organic and inorganic substances primarily through physicochemical adsorption driven by surface tension at the air-water interface, where amphiphilic molecules orient their hydrophobic moieties upward and hydrophilic ones downward, concentrating surface-active compounds.^[3] This passive accumulation is enhanced under low wind conditions, as calm seas minimize mixing with underlying waters, allowing diffusion gradients to favor net upward transport of dissolved organic matter (DOM) despite the thin layer's (~1 mm) resistance to bulk exchange.^[11] Bubble-mediated scavenging represents a key dynamic mechanism, wherein subsurface bubbles generated by wave breaking or biogenic gas ascend, adsorbing particles, microbes, and DOM en route, and deposit these materials upon bursting at the surface, often yielding enrichment factors (EFs) exceeding 10 for gel particles and bacteria.^[57] For instance, viral and bacterial abundances in the SML can surpass subsurface levels by factors of 5-10 due to this process, with further aerosolization amplifying concentrations.^[58] However, high winds (>7 m/s) disrupt this by promoting mixing, reducing EFs for fluorescent DOM (FDOM) to near unity or below.^[11] Biological processes contribute via extracellular exudation from phytoplankton and microbial colonization, forming biofilm-like structures that trap additional organics; photosynthetic stress under intense solar radiation (e.g., >500 W/m²) can elevate FDOM EFs up to 1.8 by stimulating release, though subsequent photochemical degradation may deplete surface pools.^[11] Inorganic ions and trace metals accumulate through complexation with enriched organics or particulate adsorption, as observed in estuarine systems where particle-reactive elements like lead show EFs correlated with organic carbon content, independent of salinity gradients.^[59] Atmospheric deposition adds particulates via wet and dry processes, enriching the SML in aerosols that serve as nucleation sites, while upwelling or water mass mixing modulates subsurface supplies, indirectly controlling surface EFs—e.g., lower underlying DOM concentrations yield higher relative enrichment.^[11] Overall, these mechanisms interact nonlinearly, with empirical studies indicating average DOM EFs of 1.1 ± 0.1 across diverse oceanic regimes, underscoring that enrichment is not ubiquitous but context-dependent on hydrodynamics and irradiance.^[11]^[3]

Air-Sea Gas and Momentum Exchange

The sea surface microlayer (SML) modulates air-sea gas exchange by hosting surface-active substances, primarily organic surfactants, that form monolayers at the ocean-atmosphere interface. These films dampen small-scale capillary waves and suppress near-surface turbulence, reducing the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness and thereby impeding molecular diffusion of gases such as CO₂ and O₂ into the bulk water or atmosphere.^[60] This effect is pronounced under low wind speeds (<5 m/s), where surfactants can decrease gas transfer velocities by creating a barrier that opposes convective renewal of subsurface water.^[61] Empirical measurements and modeling indicate that natural surfactants in the SML reduce global CO₂ transfer velocities by approximately 15% on an annual mean basis, with localized experimental reductions reaching 30% following surfactant enrichment.^[62] Similarly, oxygen profiles across the SML reveal supersaturation in the layer due to inhibited transfer, confirming the microlayer's role in altering gas equilibration rates influenced by microbial respiration and photochemical processes.^[9] For momentum exchange, the SML's organic enrichment lowers surface roughness, diminishing wave amplitude and the friction velocity at the interface, which in turn scales down wind-driven momentum transfer to the ocean mixed layer.^[1] The interplay between gas and momentum fluxes arises because gas transfer velocity often correlates with the square root of the friction velocity; thus, SML-induced damping of momentum input indirectly suppresses gas exchange efficiency across large ocean areas.^[63] Under high winds, however, disruption of the SML—such as through wave breaking—can transiently restore transfer rates by enhancing turbulence and exposing cleaner subsurface water.^[2] These dynamics highlight the SML's capacity to vary air-sea coupling, with implications for accurate parameterization in global climate models.^[3]

Influence on Aerosol and Cloud Formation

The sea surface microlayer (SML) contributes significantly to the production of primary marine sea spray aerosols (SSA) through mechanisms such as bubble bursting and wave breaking, which transfer enriched organic matter, surfactants, and biological components from the SML into the atmosphere.^[64] These processes generate submicron to supermicron particles, with the SML's organic enrichment—often 2-10 times higher than subsurface waters—altering SSA composition relative to bulk seawater-derived aerosols.^[65] Experimental studies demonstrate that microbial activity in the SML, including exudates from bacterioneuston, enhances SSA flux by up to a factor of 10 under high biological productivity conditions.^[65] Surfactants concentrated in the SML, such as lipids and proteins, reduce surface tension by 10-30% compared to pure seawater, influencing bubble film stability and SSA size distribution.^[66] This leads to a higher proportion of smaller droplets (radii <1 μm), potentially increasing aerosol number concentrations while decreasing mass flux.^[67] Sea surface temperature modulates these effects, with warmer conditions amplifying organic partitioning into SSA and enhancing their atmospheric lifetime through reduced hygroscopic growth suppression.^[66] SSA incorporating SML material acts as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), seeding marine low-level clouds and influencing droplet number concentration, effective radius, and albedo.^[68] Cloud chamber experiments on aerosolized North Atlantic SML samples reveal that sea salt dominates CCN activation at typical supersaturations (0.2-1%), with organic fractions suppressing activity by 10-20% at lower thresholds but not substantially altering overall cloud formation potential over open oceans.^[67] Enhanced SML enrichment from phytoplankton blooms correlates with elevated CCN numbers (up to 200 cm⁻³), linking oceanic biogeochemistry to regional cloud reflectivity and precipitation efficiency.^[68] However, the precise climatic forcing remains uncertain due to variability in SML composition and secondary processing of SSA.^[64]

Measurement and Observation Methods

In Situ Sampling Techniques

In situ sampling techniques for the sea surface microlayer (SML) involve direct collection of the thin uppermost oceanic film, typically 1-1000 µm thick, from natural marine environments to preserve its biochemical integrity and avoid contamination from subsurface waters.^[8] These methods prioritize minimal disturbance to the air-sea interface, with common approaches including plate, screen, and rotating drum samplers, each capturing layers of varying thickness influenced by sampler design and sea state.^[69] Glass plate samplers, among the most established, consist of vertically dipping clean glass plates (often 30-50 cm wide) into the water at a controlled speed of about 2-5 cm/s, allowing adhesion of the SML film, which is then scraped into collection vessels using squeegees or blades.^[70] This yields samples approximately 40-90 µm thick, suitable for microbiological and chemical analyses, though collection efficiency decreases in rough seas due to turbulence disrupting film adhesion.^[71] Screen samplers employ fine mesh screens (e.g., stainless steel or nylon with 150-250 µm openings) lowered to the surface and slowly raised, entraining a thicker microlayer of 200-300 µm via capillary action and surface tension, which drains into buckets upon withdrawal.^[8] Developed for hydrocarbon studies, these are robust for field use but prone to including subsurface contamination in wavy conditions, as evaluated in comparative trials showing higher particulate loads than plate methods.^[69] Rotating drum or cylinder samplers, such as those with partially immersed glass cylinders spinning parallel to vessel motion, enable continuous sampling at rates up to 1 L per 45 minutes, minimizing bow wave artifacts and providing real-time interfacial data for volatile organics and microbes.^[72] These hydrodynamic designs reduce shear-induced alterations, with drum speeds optimized at 1-2 rpm to match natural film renewal.^[73] Recent advancements incorporate unmanned platforms for high-resolution, low-contamination sampling, exemplified by catamaran-based systems like the Sea Surface Scanner (S3), a remote-controlled vessel equipped with rotating glass disks that skim the top 50-100 µm while simultaneously collecting subsurface water for enrichment contrasts.^[10] Deployed in fjords since 2017, such catamarans achieve spatiotemporal mapping with minimal human interference, addressing manual methods' labor intensity and vessel-induced biases.^[74] Autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs) like HALOBATES further automate SML retrieval using similar disk mechanisms, enabling prolonged deployments for dynamic interfaces under varying winds up to 10 m/s.^[75] Comparative field evaluations underscore that no single technique universally replicates the heterogeneous SML; instead, multi-method approaches, calibrated against sea state (e.g., Beaufort scale 0-3 for optimal calm conditions), are recommended to account for variability in thickness and composition.^[76] Pre-sampling protocols emphasize ultra-clean materials (e.g., pre-rinsed with methanol) and avoidance of surfactants to prevent artificial enrichment.^[8]

Laboratory and Analytical Methods

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a primary technique for characterizing the organic composition of sea surface microlayer (SML) samples, identifying dominant functional groups such as hydroxyl (50-90% of organic mass), alkanes, and amines, which reflect contributions from both autochthonous biological production and allochthonous inputs.^[77] Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-FTIR variants enable direct analysis of microlayer films to assess microbiological influences on chemical speciation, including saccharide proxies via quantitative machine learning models applied to spectral data.^[78] ^[79] Trace metal analysis involves acid digestion of filtered particulate and dissolved fractions followed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or atomic absorption spectroscopy to quantify elements like Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd, enabling calculation of enrichment relative to subsurface waters.^[80] ^[39] For organic pollutants such as organophosphate esters, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detects concentrations enriched up to 10-fold in the SML compared to underlying waters.^[81] Physical properties like surface tension, indicative of surfactant levels, are measured using tensiometers or atomic force microscopy (AFM) on lab-reconstituted SML interfaces, often showing reductions of 2-5 mN/m below pure water values due to organic films. Subsampling protocols address the low volumes (typically 0.1-1 mL) from in-situ collection, employing microscale filtration or centrifugation prior to multi-analyte assays to minimize contamination and variability.^[82] Microbial community analysis relies on metagenomic sequencing of extracted DNA from filtered SML biomass, revealing distinct bacterioneuston and virioneuston assemblages with higher diversity in slicks; 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing targets bacterial taxa, while shotgun metagenomics elucidates viral-bacterial interactions.^[83] ^[84] Complementary methods include flow cytometry for enumerating prokaryotic and viral abundances (often 10^5-10^6 cells/mL) and selective cultivation on media to isolate surfactant-degrading strains.^[83] Epifluorescence microscopy quantifies total microbial densities post-staining with dyes like DAPI or SYBR Green.^[76] For particulate matter like microplastics, visual microscopy identifies particles >10 μm, followed by FTIR or Raman spectroscopy for polymer confirmation (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene), with SML enrichments reported at 1-10 particles/L.^[85] Total organic carbon (TOC) analyzers provide bulk dissolved organic carbon (DOC) measurements via high-temperature catalytic oxidation, typically showing 1.5-3-fold SML enrichment over subsurface values.^[19] These methods collectively account for SML heterogeneity, with replicates recommended to capture diurnal or spatial variability observed in lab validations.^[76]

Remote Sensing and High-Resolution Tools

Satellite-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) detects sea surface microlayer (SML) slicks indirectly through reduced backscatter signals resulting from surfactant damping of capillary and short gravity waves, which smooths the ocean surface compared to surrounding areas.^[86] This method has quantified natural film distributions on global scales, distinguishing biogenic slicks from biogenic or anthropogenic origins based on backscatter patterns.^[86] Sentinel-1 SAR imagery in VV polarization, for instance, identifies extensive offshore slicks, with coverage exceeding 40% in regions like the English Channel, highlighting the SML's prevalence beyond coastal zones.^[87] Optical remote sensing complements SAR by exploiting sun glint effects in Sentinel-2 imagery, where slicks alter reflectance due to modified surface roughness, though existing spectral indices like chlorophyll-a or debris detectors underperform relative to glint-based approaches.^[87] Limitations include patchy slick distribution and resolution constraints, preventing precise global SML quantification without ground validation.^[87] Short-wave infrared (SWIR) polarimetry offers wind-independent retrievals of surface refractive index, providing insights into microlayer composition via multi-angular measurements.^[88] High-resolution in-situ tools address remote sensing gaps by profiling the SML at sub-meter scales. The HALOBATES autonomous surface vehicle employs a flow-through system with multiple conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) sensors (accuracy 0.0015°C and 0.0015 mS cm⁻¹) and an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) for 0.1 m vertical bins, resolving thermohaline structures below 1 m spatially and 1 min temporally.^[75] It samples the SML (<1 mm) using rotating glass disks (60 cm diameter, ~78 μm thickness) at 20 L h⁻¹, integrating meteorological data for comprehensive air-sea interface mapping.^[75] The Sea Surface Scanner (S3) catamaran facilitates autonomous high-resolution surveys of SML biochemical properties, such as fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) enrichment, enabling process studies like air-sea gas exchange at fine spatial scales.^[10] These platforms provide essential validation for satellite data, revealing variability in SML enrichment driven by physical and biological factors.^[11] Airborne systems, including drones, further bridge scales by lawn-mowing patterns over slicks, correlating local hyperspectral or radar data with broader remote observations.^[89]

Ecological and Environmental Significance

Habitat Function and Biodiversity Support

The sea surface microlayer (SML) functions as a distinct habitat at the ocean-atmosphere interface, where surfactants and organic exudates create a film enriched with nutrients that supports elevated abundances of microorganisms. Bacterial densities in the SML typically show enrichment factors of 5 to 10 compared to subsurface waters, with communities often dominated by genera such as Vibrio (comprising up to 68% of clones in some studies) and Pseudoalteromonas (up to 21%).^[58]^[90] These bacterioneuston assemblages exhibit lower alpha diversity than pelagic communities—for instance, only 9 operational taxonomic units versus 46 in underlying seawater—but feature specialized taxa adapted to surface conditions like UV exposure and organic pollutant degradation.^[90]^[58] Eukaryotic microbes, including phytoplankton and protozoa, also concentrate in the SML, contributing to a unique microbial food web that drives local productivity and carbon cycling. Viral-bacterial interactions in this layer amplify turnover rates, with viruses shaping community structure through lysis and gene transfer.^[83] The SML's role extends to supporting neuston, the collective surface-dwelling biota, which includes copepods, insect larvae, and early developmental stages of fish and invertebrates; it serves as a critical nursery for species like salmon and cod, where larvae aggregate due to buoyant organic rafts.^[91]^[92] Biodiversity in the SML sustains trophic linkages across realms, with neustonic organisms forming a substantial portion of diets for marine vertebrates—such as 80% of loggerhead turtle forage and nearly 30% for Laysan albatrosses in the North Pacific—and connecting pelagic, benthic, and aerial ecosystems.^[91] While microbial diversity metrics like Shannon indices remain comparable to subsurface layers in some regions (e.g., 3.7 versus 3.6 in Antarctic coastal waters), the habitat's patchiness and enrichment foster endemic taxa and functional guilds, such as hydrocarbon-degraders responding to anthropogenic inputs.^[58] This distinctiveness underscores the SML's underappreciated contribution to global marine biodiversity, despite challenges from pollutants that selectively alter community composition.^[93]

Pollutant Trapping and Natural Attenuation

The sea surface microlayer (SML) functions as a primary interface for pollutant accumulation, where hydrophobic organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) adsorb onto enriched surface-active organic films, leading to enrichment factors of 1 to over 100 relative to subsurface waters in contaminated coastal and urban areas.^[94] This trapping is driven by the SML's high concentrations of surfactants and dissolved organic matter, which partition non-polar pollutants from the water column, preventing their immediate dispersion into deeper layers or the atmosphere.^[95] In harbors and industrialized regions, such as the Venice Lagoon, PAH levels in the SML have been measured up to 10-50 times higher than in sub-surface water, reflecting atmospheric deposition and runoff as key input vectors.^[96] Trace metals display heterogeneous trapping dynamics; dissolved forms of copper, lead, and zinc often enrich in the SML due to complexation with organic ligands, with reported enrichment ratios exceeding 10 in polluted estuaries, whereas particle-bound iron and manganese undergo depletion through gravitational settling of mineral aggregates.^[97] Organophosphate esters, emerging contaminants from urban sources, similarly accumulate in the SML with factors up to 20-30 in nearshore environments, highlighting the layer's role as a concentrated reservoir for semi-volatile pollutants.^[81] These patterns underscore the SML's capacity to sequester anthropogenic inputs, potentially mitigating short-term subsurface contamination but amplifying local bioaccumulation risks for neuston communities.^[58] Natural attenuation in the SML proceeds via microbial biodegradation, photochemical degradation, and volatilization, with particle-associated bacteria exhibiting PAH degradation rates 2-5 times faster than subsurface counterparts, linked to specialized degradative gene abundances in SML microbiomes.^[98] UV exposure at the air-water boundary accelerates photolysis of surface-bound PAHs, reducing their persistence by up to 50% within hours under high solar irradiance, while bacterial consortia enriched in alkane monooxygenases facilitate oxidative breakdown of associated hydrocarbons.^[94] Volatilization contributes to attenuation of semi-volatile organics like PCBs, with flux estimates indicating 10-20% annual removal from the SML in temperate latitudes, though efficacy diminishes in biologically productive slicks where organic films suppress evasion.^[99] These processes collectively attenuate trapped pollutants, yet incomplete degradation can sustain ecotoxicological hotspots, as evidenced by elevated biomarker responses in SML-dwelling copepods exposed to accumulated contaminants.^[94]

Interactions with Anthropogenic Debris like Plastics

The sea surface microlayer (SML) serves as a dynamic interface where microplastics and other anthropogenic debris can accumulate due to physical trapping mechanisms, including surface tension gradients and organic film stabilization. Experimental studies have demonstrated that buoyant plastic particles can concentrate in the SML through interactions with surfactants and biogenic films, potentially enhancing their retention compared to underlying bulk waters.^[100] However, field observations indicate variability, with no consistent enrichment of microplastics in the SML across diverse marine environments; for instance, simultaneous sampling of air, SML, and underlying water in Norwegian fjords revealed elevated microplastic levels primarily in anthropogenically influenced urban and industrial areas rather than a universal SML-specific accumulation.^[101] In estuarine systems, microfibers—a common form of anthropogenic debris—show rapid accumulation in the SML, driven by tidal dynamics and hydrophobic properties that favor adherence to the organic-enriched surface film.^[70] Microbial colonization of plastics within the SML forms the "plastisphere," a biofilm community that alters debris persistence and biogeochemical cycling. Globally, approximately 1% of microbial cells in the SML are estimated to colonize marine plastic debris, facilitating processes like biofouling and potential degradation via extracellular enzymes from hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria.^[102] This interaction enriches the SML with proteinaceous and carbohydrate-like gel compounds, increasing biomass production and modifying the organic matter composition, as observed in mesocosm experiments where added microplastics boosted transparent exopolymer particle (TEP) formation—key aggregators in the SML.^[103] Such biofilms may enhance vertical transport of plastics through aggregation with phytoplankton or detritus, though empirical data suggest this is context-dependent, coinciding with TEP or coherent surface slicks in productive waters.^[104] Anthropogenic debris in the SML influences physical ocean processes, including air-sea exchange and radiative transfer. Microplastics scatter and attenuate incoming solar radiation, potentially contributing to localized warming or cooling of the near-surface water column depending on particle size, concentration, and optical properties.^[105] Additionally, elevated microplastic loads can dampen wave breaking and modify surfactant enrichment, affecting sea spray aerosol formation and momentum transfer across the interface—effects amplified in oligotrophic conditions where SML films are more pronounced.^[106] Buoyant plastics also interact ecologically with SML pelagic organisms, such as neuston communities, potentially disrupting food webs through ingestion or habitat alteration, though quantitative impacts remain underexplored beyond correlative evidence from high-debris zones like Osaka Bay, where microparticle abundances reached 903 items/kg in the SML, dominated by polymethyl methacrylate fragments under 53 μm.^[107]^[108] These interactions underscore the SML's role as a hotspot for debris-microbe feedbacks, warranting further empirical validation to distinguish causal effects from passive accumulation.

Role in Global Change and Climate

Contributions to Ocean-Atmosphere Coupling

![Transport processes across the sea surface microlayer][float-right] The sea surface microlayer (SML) serves as the primary interface for exchanges of momentum, heat, gases, and particles between the ocean and atmosphere, influencing ocean-atmosphere coupling through its enriched composition of surfactants, organic matter, and microbes.^[3] Surfactants in the SML reduce surface tension and dampen capillary waves, decreasing surface roughness and thereby lowering wind stress transfer to the underlying water, with reductions in gas transfer velocities up to 54% observed at wind speeds below 8.5 m/s.^[109] This damping effect is particularly pronounced under low wind conditions, where the viscoelastic properties of the SML stabilize the surface and suppress turbulence essential for efficient momentum flux.^[110] In air-sea gas exchange, the SML modulates the transfer of climate-relevant gases such as CO2 and O2 by acting as a diffusion barrier, with organic films slowing exchange rates especially during calm seas; studies indicate that persistent organic compounds in the SML can control gas fluxes under low wind regimes.^[111] Empirical measurements from wind-wave tanks demonstrate that natural surfactants reduce CO2 transfer velocities globally, with implications for carbon cycle models that often overlook SML effects.^[112] Heat transfer is similarly impeded, as the SML's reduced turbulence limits vertical mixing at the interface.^[1] The SML contributes to aerosol formation by enriching sea spray particles with surface-active organics and biological material during wave breaking and bubble bursting, altering aerosol hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nuclei activity.^[2] Sea spray aerosols generated from the SML exhibit elevated organic content, influencing their acidity and atmospheric lifetime, with freshly emitted particles acidifying rapidly upon transfer to the air.^[113] Additionally, the SML facilitates selective flux of bacteria and viruses to the atmosphere, enhancing microbial contributions to aerosol composition and potentially atmospheric biogeochemical cycles.^[114] ![Ocean mist and spray 2][center] These processes underscore the SML's role in modulating ocean-atmosphere interactions, with evidence from laboratory simulations and field observations highlighting discrepancies between models assuming clean interfaces and reality where SML heterogeneity prevails.^[37]

Responses to Environmental Perturbations

The sea surface microlayer (SML) responds to physical perturbations like wind and wave action through rapid disruption and reformation processes. High wind speeds exceeding 5-10 m/s generate turbulence, wave breaking, and bubble entrainment, dispersing surface-active organic materials and inhibiting the accumulation of distinct microbial communities such as bacterioneuston.^[115] In controlled wind-wave channel experiments, wind speeds ranging from 3.6 to 13.6 m/s reduced the abundance of larger gel particles (transparent exopolymer particles, TEP, and cohesive sticky particles, CSP) in the SML, shifting size distributions toward smaller fractions due to enhanced fragmentation and mixing with subsurface waters.^[116] Post-disruption, the SML reforms via convergent circulations and resurfacing of organic films, typically within minutes to hours under calm conditions, restoring its barrier function against gas exchange.^[37] Chemical perturbations, particularly oil spills and pollutant inputs, lead to enrichment and altered composition in the SML. Hydrophobic contaminants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentrate in the SML at ratios up to 10-100 times subsurface levels, facilitated by reduced surface tension and surfactant properties of spilled oil, which dampen waves and prolong persistence.^[117] ^[118] Oil spills directly impair SML microbial assemblages, reducing bacterial diversity and exudation of exopolysaccharides, while promoting photo-oxidation and volatilization pathways that transfer toxins to the atmosphere.^[3] Atmospheric deposition of microplastics and nutrients further perturbs the SML, with enrichments observed during events like Saharan dust outbreaks, exacerbating organic matter aggregation and potential for biofilm disruption.^[101] ^[119] Climatic perturbations such as ocean warming, acidification, and intensified UV exposure elicit shifts in SML biogeochemical dynamics. Under projected warming scenarios (e.g., +2-4°C surface temperatures), increased microbial exudation elevates dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the SML, accelerating its photochemical and biological turnover while altering air-sea fluxes of CO2 and dimethyl sulfide.^[3] ^[120] Ocean acidification (pH decline to 7.8-8.0) modifies SML acidity gradients, enhancing organic film solubility and reducing iodine emissions by up to 50% compared to unacidified conditions, as observed in mesocosm studies.^[121] ^[122] These responses amplify the SML's sensitivity to global change, potentially feedback into cloud formation and radiative forcing via altered sea spray aerosol composition.^[2]

Empirical Evidence vs. Modeling Predictions

Empirical measurements of sea surface microlayer (SML) thickness reveal a functional layer often around 60 μm based on pH gradients, though operational sampling yields 1–1,000 μm depending on method.^[123] Models typically assume thicker viscous or thermal sublayers (50–1,500 μm) or a stagnant film of approximately 1 mm for gas transfer calculations, leading to discrepancies in resolving fine-scale gradients critical for climate-relevant fluxes.^[2] These differences arise because models prioritize bulk parameterizations over direct in situ profiling, which shows sharper chemical discontinuities than predicted.^[2] Observations consistently demonstrate SML enrichment in surfactants and organic matter, with enrichment factors exceeding 10 for proteins and gel particles, particularly under low wind conditions.^[2] This enrichment suppresses air-sea gas transfer velocities (k_w) by 10–55%, as measured in field studies across upwelling filaments and open ocean, where surfactants reduced CO₂ exchange by about 12% in enriched zones.^[13] ^[2] In contrast, standard climate models like those using wind-speed relationships (e.g., Wanninkhof parameterization) often overlook dynamic surfactant effects, overestimating k_w and inflating oceanic CO₂ uptake by up to 15–50% in surfactant-prone regions.^[2] ^[62] Mesocosm experiments report even higher surfactant enrichment factors (up to 15.3) than open-ocean observations (0.5–7.2), highlighting potential model underestimation of biological hotspots but also underscoring the challenge of extrapolating controlled data to global scales.^[124] Earth system models rarely incorporate SML dynamics explicitly, relying on empirical adjustments that fail to capture spatiotemporal variability, such as post-bloom DOC peaks or microbial shifts influencing trace gas emissions.^[124] Recent parameterizations linking surfactants to total organic carbon offer pathways to reconcile observations with predictions, potentially refining projections of ocean-atmosphere coupling under warming scenarios.^[13] Persistent gaps include the lack of coupled biophysical models, limiting accurate forecasting of SML feedbacks on aerosol formation and radiative forcing.^[2]

Research History and Advances

Early Observations and Conceptual Foundations

Natural sea slicks, characterized by visibly calmer patches on the ocean surface due to suppressed capillary waves from reduced surface tension, have been observed by mariners for centuries in regions of high biological productivity, such as coastal waters and upwelling areas. These phenomena provided the initial empirical basis for recognizing a distinct surface layer enriched with organic matter, though systematic scientific study awaited mid-20th-century advancements.^[125] In 1965, John McN. Sieburth and John T. Conover published the first detailed analysis linking slicks to biological processes, documenting their association with blooms of the cyanobacterium Trichodesmium in the Sargasso Sea. They measured elevated concentrations of carbohydrates in slick samples relative to underlying waters, attributing this enrichment to direct excretion by the cyanobacteria, which produced surface-active surfactants that lowered surface tension and stabilized the microlayer. This work established the sea surface microlayer (SML) as a biologically mediated interface, typically spanning the top 1–1000 μm, distinct from bulk seawater in composition and function.^[125] Conceptual foundations for the SML drew from principles of physical chemistry and air-sea interaction models predating specific oceanographic focus. Surface-active organic molecules naturally accumulate at the air-water interface to minimize free energy, forming a thin film where diffusion, rather than turbulence, governs transport—a concept formalized in the stagnant film theory of gas exchange proposed by Thomas E. Higgins in 1923 and refined by Lewis and Whitman in 1924. This model posited an immobile boundary layer of fixed thickness (often ~10–100 μm) across which molecular diffusion controls flux, providing a causal framework for understanding how organic films in the SML could impede or modulate gas, heat, and momentum transfer between ocean and atmosphere. Early sampling innovations, such as the rotating drum collector introduced in 1966 to harvest the top ~60 μm layer, enabled empirical verification of these enrichments and transport barriers.^[126]^[127]

Key Milestones in Measurement and Study

Early scientific investigations into the sea surface microlayer (SML) emerged in the mid-20th century, building on longstanding observations of calm sea slicks. A pivotal study by Sieburth and Conover in 1965 documented elevated concentrations of carbohydrates and surfactants in surface films linked to Trichodesmium blooms in the Sargasso Sea, providing empirical evidence of biological enrichment and distinct physicochemical properties at the ocean-air interface compared to subsurface waters.^[125]^[128] This work highlighted the SML's role as a concentrated layer of organic exudates, marking the onset of targeted microbiological and chemical analyses. Advancements in measurement techniques followed, addressing challenges in isolating the thin (~1 mm) SML without contamination. In 1972, Harvey and Burzell introduced the glass plate sampler, a method involving the slow withdrawal of clean glass plates through the surface to capture adherent microlayer material, enabling reproducible collection for bacterial enumeration and organic content assays.^[8] This technique, alongside emerging screen samplers, facilitated quantitative comparisons of SML enrichment factors, typically showing 2- to 10-fold increases in microbial abundance and dissolved organics relative to underlying water.^[76] By the 1980s, conceptual frameworks solidified, with Hunter's 1980 review operationalizing the SML's thickness as 1–1,000 μm and emphasizing its variability due to wind and surfactants.^[2] Sieburth's 1983 model further advanced understanding by characterizing the SML as a dynamic, hydrated gel matrix of tangled macromolecules and colloids, supported by microscopic and rheological measurements that explained reduced gas transfer rates.^[128] These milestones enabled interdisciplinary studies, transitioning from qualitative observations to integrated assessments of SML dynamics in air-sea exchange.

Recent Developments and Open Questions

Recent studies have demonstrated that surfactants accumulated in the sea surface microlayer (SML) suppress emissions of methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from Arctic Ocean surface waters, with microlayer samples showing up to 50% lower transfer velocities for these gases compared to underlying waters, attributed to reduced gas exchange efficiency due to surface film damping.^[129] Photochemical processes in the SML have been quantified in mesocosm experiments simulating ocean acidification, revealing elevated production of reactive oxygen species and triplet states in SML relative to subsurface waters, influenced by organic matter enrichment and UV exposure.^[130] A 2025 meta-analysis of global datasets confirmed consistent organic matter enrichment factors of 1.5–4 times in the SML, highlighting its role as a biogeochemical hotspot but varying with hydrographic conditions like wind speed and productivity.^[24] Advances in microbial ecology have identified selective bacterial fluxes across the ocean-atmosphere interface, with Pacific SML communities enriching aerosol-associated taxa capable of atmospheric survival, comprising up to 10% of viable airborne microbes during low-wind conditions.^[114] Coastal SML samples from 2024 revealed elevated abundances of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including genes for multi-drug efflux pumps and beta-lactamases, at concentrations 2–5 times higher than bulk waters, linked to anthropogenic inputs and posing risks for aerosol-mediated dispersal.^[131] Biogeochemical dynamics in productive upwelling regions showed SML carbon fixation rates exceeding subsurface by 20–30%, driven by distinct microbial assemblages, as measured in 2025 field campaigns.^[132] Sampling methodologies have progressed with subsampling protocols for microlayer analysis, enabling high-resolution chemical profiling without contamination, applied to surfactants and organics in 2024 estuarine studies.^[82] Despite these, open questions persist regarding the SML's global-scale variability, as wind and wave action disrupt films unpredictably, complicating parameterization in climate models where SML effects on gas transfer remain underrepresented.^[133] Causal links between SML perturbations—such as plastic-derived surfactants—and altered air-sea fluxes of climatically active substances like dimethyl sulfide lack longitudinal data, hindering predictions of feedback in warming oceans.^[1] High-resolution, autonomous in situ sensors for open-ocean SML metrics are needed to resolve diurnal and seasonal dynamics, currently limited by methodological artifacts in manual collection.^[134]

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May 29, 2018 · Global sea surface microlayer coverage. Since VOC formation from interfacial photochemistry will only occur in the presence of surfactants, our ...
[45]
Photochemical Isoprene Production at the Sea Surface - PMC
Here, we show that photosensitized reactions involving the sea-surface microlayer lead to the production of significant amounts of isoprene. It is suggested ...
[46]
Comparison of Bacterioneuston and Bacterioplankton Dynamics ...
In this study we monitored the dynamics of the bacterioneuston and the bacterioplankton in mesocosms of fjord surface water during an artificially induced ...
[47]
Bacterial Community Composition in the Sea Surface Microlayer Off ...
Nov 14, 2018 · The bacterioneuston and bacterioplankton communities were similar, suggesting a close spatial coupling.
[48]
High wind speeds prevent formation of a distinct bacterioneuston ...
Bacteria inhabiting the sea-surface microlayer are enriched and prone to community changes in response to wind speed conditions and pCO2 levels.
[49]
The Virioneuston: A Review on Viral–Bacterial Associations at Air ...
Feb 22, 2019 · To provide a broad picture of the viral–bacterial dynamics in surface microlayers, this review compiles insights on the challenges that viruses ...
[50]
Enhanced Viral Activity in the Surface Microlayer of the Arctic and ...
Feb 4, 2021 · Our results suggest that viral activity greatly contributes to the functioning of the microbial food web in the SML, which could influence the biogeochemical ...
[51]
Surface microlayer-mediated virome dissemination in ... - Microbiome
Oct 24, 2024 · Activity and abundance of virioneuston, compared to virioplankton, were found to be enhanced in the Arctic (Norwegian Sea and North of Svalbard) ...
[52]
Marine viruses disperse bidirectionally along the natural water cycle
Oct 10, 2023 · Virus enrichment in the 1-mm thin surface microlayer and sea foams happened selectively, and variant analysis proved virus transfer to aerosols ...<|separator|>
[53]
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[54]
Eukarya 18S rRNA gene diversity in the sea surface microlayer
Dec 10, 2009 · We have previously shown that there is a consistent and reproducible bacterioneuston community in the surface microlayer during a fjord mesocosm experiment.Missing: review | Show results with:review
[55]
Microbes in the Upper Atmosphere and Unique Opportunities for ...
Comparisons between microbes in Earth's atmosphere (aeroplankton) and microbes in Earth's oceans (phytoplankton) are appealing. Chemically, both ...<|separator|>
[56]
The importance of cyanobacteria and microalgae present in ...
The presence of microalgae and cyanobacteria in atmospheric aerosols has been known since about 1844, when Ehrenberg was the first to discover those organisms ...
[57]
The sea surface microlayer as a source of viral and bacterial ...
We found a 15–25-fold enrichment in bacteria and viruses during transport from subsurface waters to the SML, and then into the atmosphere. The majority of ...
[58]
Large Enrichment of Anthropogenic Organic Matter Degrading ...
The sea surface microlayer as a source of viral and bacterial enrichment in marine aerosols. ... Enrichment of microbial abundance in the sea-surface ...
[59]
Mechanisms for trace metal enrichment at the surface microlayer in ...
Research paper. Mechanisms for trace metal enrichment at the surface microlayer in an estuarine salt marsh.
[60]
The role of the sea-surface microlayer in the air–sea gas exchange ...
It is known that organic films, as part of the sea-surface microlayer (SML), can retard gas exchange to the atmosphere for water-soluble gases, i.e. CO2 (Frew, ...
[61]
The role of the sea-surface microlayer in the air-sea gas exchange ...
It is shown that the SML plays an important role in the control of air-sea gas exchange of OCs, particular under a low prevailing wind regime and with an ...
[62]
Global reduction of in situ CO2 transfer velocity by natural ... - Journals
Feb 12, 2020 · For decades, the effect of surfactants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML) on gas transfer velocity (k) has been recognized; however, ...Abstract · Introduction · Method · Results and discussion<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
Investigation of transport processes across the sea surface ...
Aug 20, 2004 · Heat is used as a proxy tracer for gases to study the transport processes across the sea surface microlayer.
[64]
Sea Spray Aerosol: Where Marine Biology Meets Atmospheric ...
Atmospheric aerosols have long been known to alter climate by scattering incoming solar radiation and acting as seeds for cloud formation.Beyond Sea Salt · Chemical Complexity · Single Particle Experimental...
[65]
The influence of marine microbial activities on aerosol production: A ...
Aug 2, 2015 · Here we experimentally investigate links between biological activity in seawater and sea spray aerosol (SSA) flux, a relationship of potential ...
[66]
Underestimated role of sea surface temperature in sea spray ...
Nov 6, 2024 · SST may affect the organic enrichment in SSA particles by influencing processes like organic pre-enrichment in the sea surface microlayer ...
[67]
Role of Sea Surface Microlayer Properties in Cloud Formation
Overall, the surface tension measurements of the SML and DSML samples were small variations from the surface tension of pure water (72.8 mN/m). This result ...
[68]
Influence of open ocean biogeochemistry on aerosol and clouds
Jul 29, 2024 · Here we report recent advances in our understanding of how open ocean aerosol sources are modulated by ocean biogeochemistry and how they, in turn, shape cloud ...2.2. 4. Other Vocs From... · 2.3. Biogeochemical Sources... · 5. Marine Ccn And Inps
[69]
A field evaluation of plate and screen microlayer sampling techniques
Field studies of surface microlayer sampling methods involving simultaneous use of glass plates and two depths of screens have been conducted.
[70]
A rapid method for assessing the accumulation of microplastics in ...
Jun 21, 2018 · Sea surface microlayer: A field evaluation of teflon plate, glass plate and screen sampling techniques. Part 1. Thickness of microlayer samples ...
[71]
[PDF] Sea surface microlayer: a field evaluation of teflon plate, glass plate ...
The thinnest water layer, 10 µm on average was collected with a teflon plate (TPM), 90 µm thick samples were collected with a glass plate (GPM) and 250 µm ...
[72]
Description of and results from a new surface microlayer sampling ...
The sampler consists of a partly immersed rotating glass cylinder oriented parallel to the direction of travel. The orientation eliminates build-up of surface ...
[73]
Characterization of adsorbed microlayer thickness on an oceanic ...
The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the upper thin interfa- cial boundary (≤ 1000 µm in thickness) between ocean water and atmospheric air.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[74]
The First Simultaneous Data Set for Air, Sea Surface Microlayer, and ...
The S3 is an electric-powered and remotely controlled catamaran equipped with sampling gear to collect high-volume samples from the SML and ULW. Continuously ...
[75]
HALOBATES: An Autonomous Surface Vehicle for High-Resolution ...
The autonomous operation and fully automated sampling enable high-resolution mapping of the sea surface microlayer (SML), i.e., the upper < 1-mm layer and the ...<|separator|>
[76]
Sampling Constraints and Variability in the Analysis of Bacterial ...
Jun 27, 2021 · The sea surface microlayer (SML) is a unique ecosystem, which is defined as the interfacial film at the uppermost 1,000 μm of the interface ...Abstract · Introduction · Materials and Methods · Discussion
[77]
Characterization of Sea Surface Microlayer and Marine Aerosol ...
Jun 15, 2022 · These measurements suggest that the sea surface microlayer organic composition contributes to the range of submicron atmospheric aerosol organic functional ...
[78]
ATR–FT-IR Investigation of the Ocean Surface - Spectroscopy Online
Feb 1, 2017 · The impact of ocean microbiological activity on the chemical species present in the sea surface microlayer (SSML) was investigated using ...
[79]
[PDF] 1 Saccharide concentration prediction from proxy-sea surface ...
The chemical complexity of the SSML is explored via ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and quantitative machine learning approaches to develop a simpler method of analysis.
[80]
Sampling and analysis of the sea surface microlayer for dissolved ...
This paper describes the development of a microlayer sampling technique that is then used to study dissolved and particulate Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, ...
[81]
Enrichment of Organophosphate Esters in the Sea Surface ...
Aug 16, 2024 · Here we report the concentrations of organophosphate esters (OPEs), widely used flame retardants and plasticizers, in the SML and underlying waters.
[82]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725020303
[83]
Ecogenomics and cultivation reveal distinctive viral-bacterial ...
Sep 18, 2023 · Sea foams are ephemeral hotspots for distinctive bacterial communities contrasting sea-surface microlayer and underlying surface water. FEMS ...
[84]
Full article: Analysis of surfactant-associated bacteria in the sea ...
Jan 19, 2020 · The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the upper 1 mm of the ocean, where Earth's biogeochemical processes occur between the ocean and ...<|separator|>
[85]
Anthropogenic Microparticles in Sea-Surface Microlayer in Osaka ...
Nov 7, 2023 · MPs' abundance was microscopically assessed; and polymer types of MPs were identified by a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR).Missing: spectroscopy | Show results with:spectroscopy
[86]
Satellite detection of natural films on the ocean surface - Espedal
Nov 1, 1996 · Satellite based Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) may prove very useful, and perhaps the only way, to quantify global scale film distribution. In ...
[87]
Monitoring the Sea Surface Microlayer (SML) on Sentinel images
May 10, 2023 · Sentinel images show large areas of natural slicks on the ocean surface, far offshore. · Surfactant slicks have only been reported covering small ...
[88]
Remote sensing of the ocean surface refractive index via short-wave ...
Multi-angular SWIR polarimetry retrieves the ocean surface refractive index. The retrievals are straightforward and wind-speed-independent.
[89]
Studying the Sea-Surface Microlayer 2 - Schmidt Ocean Institute
The sea surface microlayer is but a tiny slice of the ocean – only the top millimeter at most; however, this thin boundary serves as a mediator of air-sea gas ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[90]
Bacterial diversity in the bacterioneuston (sea surface microlayer)
The bacterioneuston was found to have a significantly lower bacterial diversity than the pelagic seawater, with only nine clone types (ecotaxa) as opposed to 46 ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
[91]
The mysterious ecosystem at the ocean's surface - PMC
Apr 28, 2021 · The mysterious 'neuston' ecosystem at the ocean's surface includes keystone organisms like the golden seaweed Sargassum that makes up the Sargasso Sea.
[92]
Chlorinated pesticides and PCBs in the sea-surface microlayer and ...
The SML is considered to be a unique ecosystem with a high biodiversity of organisms, and is a critical habitat for the early-life stages of many fish and ...<|separator|>
[93]
Enrichment of microbial abundance in the sea-surface microlayer ...
The higher microbial abundance in the SML over coral reefs may enhance gaseous exchange and carbon flow in the food web through the air–sea interface. KEY WORDS ...
[94]
A review of pollutants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML)
The SML is highly contaminated in many urban and industrialized areas of the world, resulting in severe ecotoxicological impacts.
[95]
A review of pollutants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML) - PubMed
The sea-surface microlayer (uppermost 1-1000 microm layer) forms the ... Concentration ranges and enrichment factors of pollutants in the SML in ...
[96]
PCBs and PAHs in sea-surface microlayer and sub-surface water ...
The main aims of this study are to provide updated data about PCB and PAH concentrations in sea-surface microlayer and sub-surface waters to complete the ...
[97]
Processes affecting particulate trace metals in the sea surface ...
Both Fe and Mn are strongly depleted in the microlayer, evidently as a result of gravitational settling of Fe- and Mn-bearing mineral particles out of the ...
[98]
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Degradation in the Sea-Surface ...
Jul 14, 2022 · Particle-associated bacteria inhabiting the sea-surface microlayer showed a faster capacity to degrade PAH than subsurface bacteria.
[99]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15172807
[100]
Plastic Accumulation in the Sea Surface Microlayer: An Experiment ...
Jan 29, 2019 · The SML is naturally enriched in organic matter and, thus, organic carbon compounds. However, while bulk dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is not ...
[101]
The First Simultaneous Data Set for Air, Sea Surface Microlayer, and ...
In this study, a remote-controlled research catamaran simultaneously sampled air, SML, and underlying water (ULW) in Swedish fjords of variable anthropogenic ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[102]
Plastic-microbe interaction in the marine environment
A recent study estimated that 1 % of all microbial cells in the ocean surface microlayer colonise marine plastic debris globally (Zhao et al., 2021), suggesting ...
[103]
Marine plastics alter the organic matter composition of the air-sea ...
Jan 20, 2023 · Our study shows that microplastics increased both biomass production and enrichment of carbohydrate-like and proteinaceous marine gel compounds in the sea- ...
[104]
What influences the distribution of microplastics in the marine ...
Feb 10, 2025 · MP enrichment occurred in four out of seven SML samples, coinciding with the enrichment of either TEP or CSP (Fig. 2). The behavior of the ...
[105]
Can plastics affect near surface layer ocean processes and climate?
Plastics can contribute to the warming or cooling of the water column by scattering and attenuating incoming solar radiation.
[106]
Impact of microplastic pollution on breaking waves - AIP Publishing
Jul 16, 2024 · Our results suggest that microplastic could influence oceanic processes essential for air–sea interaction, sea spray formation, and albedo.
[107]
On the interaction of buoyant plastic debris and sea-surface layer ...
Apr 29, 2025 · This article addresses emerging and underexplored ecological impacts of the plastic problem by focusing on the interaction of the sea surface layer pelagic ...
[108]
Anthropogenic Microparticles in Sea-Surface Microlayer in Osaka ...
Nov 7, 2023 · Identification of tidal trapping of microplastics in a temperate salt marsh system using sea surface microlayer sampling. Sci. Rep. 2020;10 ...
[109]
Air-Sea CO2-Exchange in a Large Annular Wind-Wave ... - Frontiers
With wind speeds up to 8.5 ms−1, surfactants in the SML can reduce the gas transfer velocity by 54%. Wind-wave tank experiments in combination with modeling are ...
[110]
Biological modification of mechanical properties of the sea surface ...
Mar 16, 2018 · This flux of CO2 passes through the barrier of the sea surface microlayer (SML), here considered to be the top 50(±10) µm (Zhang et al., 1998).
[111]
The role of the sea-surface microlayer in the air–sea gas exchange ...
It is shown that the SML plays an important role in the control of air–sea gas exchange of OCs, particular under a low prevailing wind regime.
[112]
Global reduction of in situ CO2 transfer velocity by natural ... - NIH
Feb 12, 2020 · The effect of surfactants at low wind speed is associated with microscale wave breaking through their individual contributions to mean square ...
[113]
Acidity across the interface from the ocean surface to sea spray ...
Dec 29, 2020 · Here we show that freshly emitted sea spray aerosol particles become highly acidic within minutes as they are transferred across the ocean−air interface.
[114]
Selective Ocean–Atmosphere Bacterial Flux Through the Pacific ...
Apr 8, 2025 · This study improves our understanding of the role of the SML in ocean–atmosphere exchanges of marine bacteria and highlights how microbial communities travel.
[115]
High wind speeds prevent formation of a distinct bacterioneuston ...
High pCO2 levels further intensified the bacterial enrichment in the SML during low wind speed. In addition, low wind speed and pCO2 induced the formation of a ...
[116]
Effect of wind speed on the size distribution of gel particles in ... - BG
Jun 15, 2018 · Here, we present results on the effect of different wind speeds on the accumulation and size distribution of TEP and CSP during a wind wave ...
[117]
Occurrence and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ...
The SML has been considered to play a role in both the transport and transformation of contaminants in the marine environment and to have a potential importance ...
[118]
Organic matter composition and pollutant enrichment of sea surface ...
A close relationship appears between pollutant accumulation and the lowering of surface tension in slicks. This has a direct consequence: the dampening effect ...Missing: perturbations | Show results with:perturbations
[119]
Variabilities of biochemical properties of the sea surface microlayer
Sep 10, 2022 · ... sea surface microlayer (SML), the uppermost millimeter of the sea surface. ... Surface films can also undergo unique photochemical reactions ...
[120]
The biogenic composition of the sea-surface microlayer in response ...
Furthermore, organic compounds in the SML contribute to organic enrichment of bursting bubbles at the sea-surface, creating droplets that later dry out in the ...
[121]
Influence of the Sea Surface Microlayer on Oceanic Iodine Emissions
Sep 25, 2020 · This result strengthens our conclusion that I2 emissions are reduced in seawater compared to artificial seawater due to the enhanced solubility ...
[122]
Acidity across the interface from the ocean surface to sea spray ...
Dec 29, 2020 · Once in the atmosphere, sea spray aerosol influences cloud formation, serves as microenvironments for multiphase atmospheric chemical reactions, ...Results · Discussion · Acidity Across The Interface
[123]
[PDF] Sea surface microlayer in a changing ocean – A perspective
Jun 21, 2017 · The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the boundary interface between the atmosphere and ocean, covering about 70% of the Earth's surface.
[124]
Biogeochemical Dynamics of the Sea-Surface Microlayer in a ...
May 5, 2025 · The sea-surface microlayer (SML) represents the thin uppermost layer of the ocean, typically less than 1,000 µm in thickness. As an interface ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[125]
Sea surface microlayers: A unified physicochemical and biological ...
The sea surface microlayer (SML) covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface and is the boundary layer interface between the ocean and the atmosphere.
[126]
[PDF] Air-Sea Gas Exchange - SOEST Hawaii
Stagnant Film Model (Whitman, 1923; Lewis and Whitman, 1924). • Film thickness is independent of gas. • k only change as a function of diffusion coefficient.
[127]
MICROLAYER COLLECTION FROM THE SEA SURFACE: A NEW ...
A newly constructed collecting device can remove large quantities of a thin layer (approximately 60 µ thick) from the sea surface. Samples obtained by means ...
[128]
Microbiology of aquatic surface microlayers - Oxford Academic
Because of the intense exposure of the sea surface microlayer to UV radiation discussed earlier, the virioneuston could be inactive or at least UV disrupted.
[129]
[PDF] Surfactants in the Sea-Surface Microlayer Reduce CH4 and N2O ...
Sep 17, 2025 · The sea-surface microlayer (SML) describes the less than 1 mm thick boundary layer between the ocean and the atmosphere (Liss & Duce, 1997) and ...
[130]
[PDF] Photochemistry of the sea-surface microlayer (SML) influenced by a ...
Aug 29, 2025 · These metals have pronounced photochemical activity, and synergistic effects are known to play significant roles in their redox chemistry ( ...
[131]
Occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the sea surface ...
Nov 15, 2024 · The sea surface microlayer (SML) is poorly studied for antibiotic resistance of the inhabiting bacteria. Therefore, we examined the antibiotic ...
[132]
[PDF] Biogeochemical Dynamics of the Sea-Surface Microlayer in a ...
May 5, 2025 · The sea-surface microlayer (SML) represents the thin uppermost layer of the ocean, typically less than 1,000 µm in. 15 thickness. As an ...
[133]
Scratching the ocean surface: Researchers want to better ...
Aug 17, 2023 · There is still much to learn about neustonic communities that thrive in the mysterious habitat created by the ocean's surface microlayer.
[134]
[PDF] Sea Surface Microlayer
The viscous, thermal, and diffusive sublayers close to the ocean surface that exist as characteristic features of the air–sea momentum, heat, and mass transport ...