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Neutral fat

Neutral fat, also known as triglyceride or triacylglycerol, is a type of lipid composed of a glycerol backbone esterified with three fatty acid chains, rendering it electrically neutral due to the absence of charged groups.^[1] These molecules are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents, classifying them within the broader category of lipids that serve essential roles in biological systems.^[2] As the predominant form of stored energy in animals and plants, neutral fats function primarily as an efficient energy reservoir, providing more than twice the caloric yield per gram compared to carbohydrates or proteins upon oxidation. In humans and other vertebrates, they accumulate in adipose tissue, where they can be mobilized during fasting or exercise through hydrolysis into glycerol and free fatty acids for metabolic use.^[3] Neutral fats also play roles in thermal insulation, cushioning organs, and as a source of essential fatty acids when incorporated into the diet.^[4] The physical properties of neutral fats vary based on the degree of saturation in their constituent fatty acids: those with predominantly saturated chains are solid at room temperature and termed fats, commonly found in animal sources, while unsaturated variants remain liquid as oils, typical in plants.^[2] Triglycerides are synthesized in the liver and intestines from dietary carbohydrates, proteins, and fats via processes like de novo lipogenesis, and they circulate in the bloodstream as components of lipoproteins such as very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL).^[3] Excessive accumulation of neutral fats, however, is linked to metabolic disorders including obesity and cardiovascular disease, highlighting their dual significance in health and pathology.^[5]

Definition and Chemistry

Molecular Composition

Neutral fats, also known as triglycerides, are non-polar lipids formed as triesters of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains, distinguishing them from polar lipids like phospholipids that incorporate a phosphate group for amphipathicity.^[6]^[7] The general molecular formula of a neutral fat is (RCOO)_3C_3H_5, where each R denotes the hydrocarbon chain of a fatty acid, which may be saturated or unsaturated.^[8] Glycerol provides a three-carbon backbone with hydroxyl groups esterified at each position to the carboxyl groups of the fatty acids via dehydration synthesis.^[9] Fatty acids in neutral fats vary in chain length (typically 12–24 carbons) and saturation: saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid (C16:0), contain no double bonds; monounsaturated fatty acids, like oleic acid (C18:1), have one double bond; and polyunsaturated fatty acids, exemplified by linoleic acid (C18:2), feature multiple double bonds.^[6]^[7] The glycerol backbone exhibits stereochemistry defined by the stereospecific numbering (sn) system, with fatty acids attached to the prochiral carbons as sn-1 (top), sn-2 (middle), and sn-3 (bottom) positions when the molecule is oriented in the Fischer projection with the sn-2 hydroxyl to the left.^[10]^[11] Specific examples include tristearin, a simple triglyceride with three saturated stearic acid (C18:0) chains, and triolein, which comprises three monounsaturated oleic acid (C18:1) chains.^[2]^[12]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Neutral fats, or triglycerides, are non-polar molecules primarily composed of hydrocarbon chains, which confer hydrophobicity and result in their insolubility in water while allowing solubility in non-polar organic solvents such as chloroform, ether, and hexane.^[13] This non-polar nature stems from the ester linkages between glycerol and fatty acids, minimizing polar groups and enabling neutral fats to aggregate in aqueous environments.^[9] The physical state of neutral fats at room temperature depends on the saturation level of their fatty acid components: saturated variants, exemplified by animal fats like lard, are solid with melting points around 30°C, whereas unsaturated forms, such as vegetable oils, are liquid with melting points below 0°C.^[14] These differences arise from the straight-chain packing in saturated fats versus the kinks introduced by double bonds in unsaturated ones, affecting intermolecular forces. Neutral fats also exhibit a density of approximately 0.9 g/cm³, making them less dense than water, and low volatility due to their high molecular weight and lack of significant vapor pressure under standard conditions.^[15]^[16] Chemically, neutral fats are stable esters that resist hydrolysis in neutral or mildly acidic environments but react readily under acidic or basic catalysis to yield glycerol and free fatty acids.^[16] With strong bases like sodium or potassium hydroxide, they undergo saponification, a base-catalyzed hydrolysis that produces glycerol and alkali metal salts of fatty acids, commonly known as soaps.^[17] The extent of unsaturation is assessed via the iodine value, defined as the grams of iodine absorbed by 100 grams of fat to saturate double bonds; this value is typically higher in unsaturated vegetable oils (e.g., above 80) than in saturated animal fats (e.g., below 50), reflecting their reactive alkene sites.

Biosynthesis and Sources

Synthesis in Organisms

Neutral fats, also known as triacylglycerols (TAGs), are synthesized in organisms through coordinated biochemical pathways that integrate de novo fatty acid production with glycerol backbone esterification. De novo lipogenesis begins with the conversion of excess carbohydrates into fatty acids, primarily in the liver and adipose tissue, where glucose is metabolized to acetyl-CoA via glycolysis and pyruvate dehydrogenase. Acetyl-CoA is then carboxylated to malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), the rate-limiting enzyme, followed by iterative condensation and reduction catalyzed by fatty acid synthase (FAS) to produce palmitate, which can be elongated or desaturated for incorporation into TAGs. This process provides the fatty acyl-CoA substrates essential for TAG assembly, contributing significantly to lipid storage under nutrient-rich conditions. The core pathway for TAG synthesis, known as the Kennedy pathway or glycerol-3-phosphate pathway, predominates in most tissues and involves sequential esterification of glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) with fatty acyl-CoA molecules. G3P is primarily generated through glyceroneogenesis, where dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) from glycolysis or gluconeogenesis is reduced to G3P by cytosolic G3P dehydrogenase (GPD1). The first acylation step is catalyzed by glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), forming lysophosphatidic acid (LPA); this is followed by 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (AGPAT) to yield phosphatidic acid (PA). PA is then dephosphorylated by phosphatidic acid phosphatase (lipin) to diacylglycerol (DAG), and finally, acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) adds the third fatty acid to complete TAG formation. In the intestines, an alternative monoacylglycerol pathway utilizes monoacylglycerol acyltransferase (MGAT) and DGAT to re-esterify dietary lipids, but the G3P pathway remains central in liver and adipose tissue. In animals, TAG synthesis occurs primarily in the liver, adipose tissue, and small intestine, where the Kennedy pathway supports both endogenous lipid production and dietary fat reassembly. Hepatic and adipocytic synthesis relies heavily on de novo lipogenesis and glyceroneogenesis for G3P supply, enabling efficient TAG accumulation during fed states. In plants, analogous pathways operate in specialized oil-accumulating tissues such as seeds and fruits, particularly in oleaginous species like oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), where GPAT, AGPAT, and DGAT enzymes facilitate high-yield TAG production in the endoplasmic reticulum for seed oil storage. These processes are evolutionarily conserved, though plant DGAT isoforms exhibit unique substrate preferences for polyunsaturated fatty acids. TAG synthesis is tightly regulated by hormonal signals, with insulin playing a pivotal role in promoting the pathway during postprandial states. Insulin activates SREBP-1c transcription factor, which upregulates expression of ACC, FAS, and DGAT enzymes, enhancing de novo lipogenesis and esterification in liver and adipose tissue. This insulin-mediated coordination ensures TAG production aligns with energy availability, preventing futile cycling and supporting metabolic homeostasis across organisms.

Natural Sources

Neutral fats, primarily in the form of triglycerides, are abundant in animal adipose tissues, serving as energy reserves. Beef tallow, derived from rendered bovine fat, consists mainly of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as palmitic and oleic acids, making up approximately 50% and 45% of its composition, respectively.^[18] Pork lard, extracted from pig adipose tissue, similarly features a high proportion of oleic acid (around 41-47%) alongside palmitic and stearic acids.^[18] Milk fat, exemplified by butter from cow's milk, contains about 69% saturated fats, including short- and medium-chain varieties like butyric and caprylic acids, which contribute to its unique properties.^[19] Fish oils, obtained from species such as salmon and mackerel, are notable for their high content of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), often comprising 20-30% of total lipids.^[20] In plants, neutral fats are predominantly stored in seeds, nuts, and fruits, with fatty acid profiles varying by species to adapt to environmental conditions. Seed and nut oils, such as soybean oil from Glycine max seeds and sunflower oil from Helianthus annuus seeds, are rich in polyunsaturated fats; soybean oil contains about 58% linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid), while sunflower oil has approximately 60-70% of the same.^[19] Fruit-derived oils include olive oil from Olea europaea drupes, which is high in monounsaturated oleic acid (around 64-71%), and palm oil from Elaeis guineensis fruit mesocarp, featuring 48% saturated palmitic acid.^[19] These variations in composition, such as higher saturation in tropical species like palm, reflect adaptations to climate and storage needs.^[21] Microbial sources of neutral fats include oleaginous algae and yeasts, which accumulate triglycerides under nutrient-limited conditions for potential biodiesel production. Microalgae such as Chlorella and Nannochloropsis can produce up to 20-60% of their dry weight as lipids, primarily triacylglycerols rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids.^[22] Yeasts like Cryptococcus curvatus and Yarrowia lipolytica similarly synthesize neutral lipids, yielding 20-70% lipid content, often used as sustainable feedstocks for biofuel due to their rapid growth and high oil output.^[23] From an evolutionary perspective, neutral fat storage in plant seeds represents an adaptation for providing energy during germination in nutrient-scarce environments. In oilseeds like those of Arabidopsis thaliana, triglycerides are mobilized via β-oxidation and the glyoxylate cycle to supply carbon and energy for seedling emergence, enhancing survival rates in varying climates.^[24] This storage mechanism, conserved across angiosperms, allows unsaturated fatty acids in colder-adapted species to lower melting points, facilitating earlier germination and growth.^[25] Globally, vegetable oils from plant sources dominate dietary fat supply, accounting for approximately 80% of total production, driven by demand for food and industrial uses. Palm oil leads as the most produced, reaching about 77 million metric tons annually in 2023-2024, primarily from Indonesia and Malaysia, with production increasing to approximately 79 million metric tons as of the 2024/2025 marketing year.^[26]^[27] Overall vegetable oil output exceeded 220 million metric tons in the 2023/2024 marketing year, rising to about 224 million metric tons as of 2024/2025, underscoring their role as a primary natural source.^[28]^[27]

Metabolism and Digestion

Breakdown Processes

Neutral fats, primarily triglycerides (TAGs), undergo breakdown through distinct catabolic processes depending on their location and physiological context. In the digestive system, TAGs from dietary sources are emulsified by bile salts in the small intestine, which increases their surface area for enzymatic action. Pancreatic lipase then hydrolyzes these emulsified TAGs, primarily at the sn-1 and sn-3 positions, yielding 2-monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids as the main products.^[29] This process occurs mainly in the jejunum and is essential for preparing lipids for absorption.^[30] In adipose tissue, stored TAGs are mobilized via lipolysis, a process regulated by hormonal signals during energy demand. Adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) initiates the breakdown by hydrolyzing TAGs to diacylglycerols and free fatty acids, serving as the rate-limiting step. Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) subsequently cleaves diacylglycerols to monoacylglycerols and additional free fatty acids, while monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) completes the hydrolysis to glycerol and free fatty acids. This cascade is activated by hormones such as glucagon and epinephrine, which bind to β-adrenergic receptors, elevating cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels and activating protein kinase A (PKA). PKA phosphorylates HSL and perilipin on lipid droplets, facilitating enzyme translocation and ATGL activation via CGI-58.^[31]^[32] The released free fatty acids are transported into mitochondria for further degradation through β-oxidation. In the mitochondrial matrix, fatty acyl-CoA undergoes repeated cycles of dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and thiolysis, shortening the chain by two carbons per cycle and producing one acetyl-CoA, one FADH₂, and one NADH. These acetyl-CoA units enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle for complete oxidation, generating additional reducing equivalents for ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation. Each β-oxidation cycle yields approximately 4 ATP equivalents.^[30] The glycerol byproduct from both digestive and lipolytic hydrolysis follows a separate metabolic fate, primarily in the liver and kidneys. Glycerol is phosphorylated by glycerol kinase to form glycerol-3-phosphate, consuming one ATP. Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase then oxidizes it to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) using NAD⁺. DHAP, a gluconeogenic intermediate, can enter gluconeogenesis to produce glucose or be further metabolized through glycolysis and the TCA cycle.^[33]^[34] Complete breakdown of neutral fats provides substantial energy; for instance, the oxidation of one molecule of tripalmitin (a TAG with three palmitic acid chains) yields approximately 340 ATP molecules through β-oxidation, TCA cycle activity, and oxidative phosphorylation. This high yield underscores the role of neutral fats as an efficient energy reserve.

Absorption and Transport

Following the hydrolysis of dietary neutral fats, or triglycerides (TAGs), into monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids by pancreatic lipases in the intestinal lumen, these lipolytic products are solubilized by bile acids to form mixed micelles. This micelle formation is essential for enhancing the solubility of these hydrophobic molecules by 100- to 1000-fold, enabling their diffusion across the unstirred water layer and subsequent passive uptake into the brush border membranes of enterocytes, primarily through protein-mediated mechanisms involving transporters such as CD36 and FATP4, or by simple diffusion.^[29]^[35] Within the enterocytes, the absorbed monoacylglycerols and fatty acids are rapidly resynthesized into TAGs via the monoacylglycerol pathway in the endoplasmic reticulum, catalyzed by enzymes including monoacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 (MGAT2) and diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT). These TAGs are then packaged into chylomicrons, large lipoprotein particles (100-1000 nm in diameter) that incorporate apolipoprotein B-48 (apoB-48), phospholipids, and cholesterol esters, with the assembly process facilitated by microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP). Chylomicrons are formed in a two-step process: initial priming with apoB-48 followed by fusion with TAG-rich droplets.^[29]^[36]^[35] The newly formed chylomicrons are exocytosed from the basolateral membrane of enterocytes into the lamina propria and enter the lymphatic lacteals due to their large size, bypassing the portal vein. They are transported through the intestinal lymphatics and converge into the thoracic duct, which empties into the systemic bloodstream at the left subclavian vein, allowing distribution to peripheral tissues.^[36] In the bloodstream, lipoprotein lipase (LPL), anchored on capillary endothelia of adipose tissue, muscle, and heart, hydrolyzes the TAG core of chylomicrons, releasing fatty acids for local uptake and utilization while generating chylomicron remnants enriched in cholesterol. These remnants are subsequently cleared by the liver through receptor-mediated endocytosis, primarily via the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) and apoE recognition, preventing accumulation in circulation.^[29]^[36] Transport efficiency of chylomicrons differs markedly between fed and fasting states; during the postprandial (fed) state, lipid transport is severalfold greater than in fasting, achieved not by increasing chylomicron particle number but by enlarging particle size with similar apoB-48 content, thereby enhancing TAG delivery without proportional rises in lipoprotein production. In contrast, fasting conditions limit chylomicron secretion, shifting reliance to endogenous very-low-density lipoproteins from the liver.^[29]

Biological Functions

Energy Storage and Utilization

Neutral fats, primarily in the form of triglycerides, serve as the body's principal energy reserve due to their high caloric density of approximately 9 kcal per gram, in contrast to 4 kcal per gram for carbohydrates and proteins. This energy density facilitates compact storage within adipocytes of white adipose tissue, which acts as the main depot for long-term energy reserves in vertebrates. In contrast, brown adipose tissue employs stored neutral fats for non-shivering thermogenesis, where uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in the mitochondrial inner membrane dissipates the proton gradient generated by fatty acid oxidation, releasing energy as heat rather than ATP. This process is particularly vital in infants and hibernating animals for maintaining body temperature during cold exposure or energy conservation. During periods of fasting, once hepatic glycogen stores are depleted after about 24 hours, lipolysis in adipose tissue becomes the dominant mechanism for energy provision, with fat oxidation providing the majority (typically over 90%) of caloric needs, while protein breakdown contributes a minimal amount (less than 10%) to support essential gluconeogenesis, thanks to protein-sparing effects of ketones.^[37] Hormone-sensitive lipase initiates the hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol, which are released into the bloodstream for oxidation in peripheral tissues such as muscle and heart. This shift ensures sustained energy availability, sparing glucose for glucose-dependent tissues like red blood cells. In the liver, surplus fatty acids from lipolysis undergo β-oxidation to acetyl-CoA, which is then converted to ketone bodies—acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone—through ketogenesis, providing a water-soluble fuel source that crosses the blood-brain barrier. During prolonged starvation, ketone bodies can meet up to two-thirds of the brain's energy demands, reducing reliance on gluconeogenesis from muscle protein and conserving lean body mass. This adaptation highlights the metabolic flexibility of neutral fats in supporting survival under nutrient deprivation. The storage efficiency of neutral fats surpasses that of carbohydrates, as triglycerides yield roughly twice the energy per gram compared to glycogen (9 kcal/g versus 4 kcal/g) and incur far less osmotic burden, since glycogen binds approximately 3–4 grams of water per gram stored, whereas fats are stored in a nearly anhydrous form. This anhydrous nature allows animals to maintain substantial energy reserves—equivalent to thousands of kilocalories—without excessive weight gain from hydration, optimizing mobility and endurance.

Structural Roles

Neutral fats, primarily triglycerides, contribute to the structural integrity of organisms by providing insulation and mechanical protection. In mammals, subcutaneous adipose tissue rich in triglycerides forms a thermal barrier that minimizes heat loss, helping maintain core body temperature in varying environmental conditions. This insulation is particularly pronounced in marine mammals, where blubber—a specialized layer of triglycerides—adapts to cold aquatic habitats; for instance, bowhead whales in Arctic waters possess blubber up to 50 cm thick, with an outer stratified layer optimized for thermal resistance through lower-melting-point lipids. Thickness and composition vary by species, age, and season, enhancing survival in polar climates.^[38]^[39] Beyond insulation, triglycerides in adipose tissue offer cushioning to protect vital organs from physical trauma. Visceral fat deposits, such as the greater omentum in the abdominal cavity, consist of triglyceride-laden folds that drape over and support intestines and other organs, absorbing mechanical forces and providing structural stability. This protective role extends to surrounding delicate structures, like the eye, where orbital fat cushions against impact. In hibernating mammals, such as black bears, these fat reserves further serve structural functions by insulating against cold and safeguarding tissues during extended inactivity, preserving overall body architecture without external support.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] In plants, triglycerides stored in seed lipid droplets play a key role in structural protection during dormancy. These droplets line plasma membranes and tonoplasts in embryonic cells, sequestering toxic lipid intermediates like diacylglycerol and free fatty acids that arise from stress-induced membrane remodeling, thereby preventing cellular damage from desiccation. This mechanism enhances seed viability under dehydration, as seen in soybean seeds where lipid droplet integrity correlates with maintained desiccation tolerance post-imbibition. Although triglycerides are not major membrane components, their accumulation in lipid droplets facilitates associations with endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles, enabling these structures to act as signaling hubs that modulate cellular responses to environmental cues.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Health and Dietary Aspects

Role in Human Health

Neutral fats, primarily in the form of triglycerides (TAGs), play a critical role in human health by serving as the main component of adipose tissue and circulating lipoproteins, but their dysregulation can contribute to various pathological conditions. Elevated levels of TAGs in the blood, known as hypertriglyceridemia, are defined as concentrations greater than 150 mg/dL and are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease through mechanisms such as atherogenic dyslipidemia and endothelial dysfunction.^[47] Furthermore, severe hypertriglyceridemia, particularly when levels exceed 500 mg/dL, heightens the risk of acute pancreatitis by promoting pancreatic inflammation and injury.^[48] In the context of obesity, excessive caloric intake leads to the accumulation of TAGs in adipose tissue, which expands and becomes dysfunctional, releasing free fatty acids and pro-inflammatory cytokines that impair insulin signaling.^[49] This TAG-mediated adipose hypertrophy contributes to systemic insulin resistance, a key precursor to type 2 diabetes, where beta-cell dysfunction exacerbates hyperglycemia and metabolic imbalance.^[50] The fatty acid composition within TAGs is vital for maintaining physiological balance, as essential omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids incorporated into these molecules help regulate inflammation; omega-3 fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid, exert anti-inflammatory effects by producing resolvins, while balanced omega-6 intake supports membrane integrity without excessive pro-inflammatory eicosanoid production.^[20] Deficiency in these essential fatty acids, often arising from inadequate dietary intake of TAG-rich sources like vegetable oils and fish, can manifest in dermatological issues such as dry, scaly skin and impaired wound healing due to disrupted epidermal barrier function.^[51] Genetic disorders like lipodystrophies disrupt TAG storage capacity in adipose tissue, leading to ectopic lipid deposition in organs such as the liver and muscle, which triggers severe insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, and full-blown metabolic syndrome characterized by hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes.^[52] These inherited defects, often involving mutations in genes like AGPAT2 or BSCL2, result in partial or generalized loss of subcutaneous fat, underscoring the protective role of proper TAG sequestration against metabolic derangements.^[53] Recent research since 2020 has highlighted the involvement of adipose TAG accumulation and associated inflammation in worsening COVID-19 outcomes, particularly in obese individuals, where dysfunctional adipocytes release excessive cytokines and free fatty acids, amplifying the cytokine storm and promoting severe respiratory and thrombotic complications.^[54] This adipose-mediated inflammatory response correlates with higher viral loads and prolonged recovery, emphasizing TAG dysregulation as a modifiable factor in pandemic-related morbidity.^[55]

Dietary Recommendations

International health organizations provide evidence-based guidelines for neutral fat intake to support cardiovascular health and overall well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that total fat intake should constitute no more than 30% of total energy intake for adults and children over two years of age, with saturated fats limited to less than 10% of total energy and trans fats to less than 1% of total energy, prioritizing unsaturated fats from sources like nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils.^[56]^[57] Similarly, the American Heart Association (AHA) advises that total fat should account for 25-35% of daily calories, with saturated fats capped at 5-6% for individuals at risk of elevated LDL cholesterol or less than 10% for the general population, and trans fats minimized to as low as possible, while emphasizing replacement with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.^[58]^[59] Dietary patterns rich in neutral fats from unsaturated sources have demonstrated protective effects against heart disease. The Mediterranean diet, which features high intake of triacylglycerols (TAGs) from extra-virgin olive oil and nuts, has been associated with a approximately 30% reduction in major cardiovascular events, as evidenced by the PREDIMED randomized trial involving over 7,000 high-risk participants.^[60] This approach underscores the benefits of prioritizing plant-based and marine-derived unsaturated neutral fats over saturated and trans variants. For individuals with elevated triglycerides, supplementation with omega-3 rich fish oil can be beneficial. Prescription doses of 4 grams per day of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), forms of omega-3 TAGs, have been shown to reduce serum triglyceride levels by 25-30% in patients with hypertriglyceridemia.^[61] Such interventions should be guided by healthcare providers, particularly for those with very high triglyceride levels exceeding 500 mg/dL. Age-specific considerations are essential for neutral fat intake, especially in early development. For infants and young children aged 1-3 years, fats should comprise 30-40% of total caloric intake to support brain development and growth, with a focus on essential fatty acids from breast milk, formula, or whole foods like avocados and fatty fish.^[62] Restricting fats below this level in this population may impair neurological maturation. Regulatory measures aid consumer awareness of neutral fat content in foods. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required trans fat disclosure on nutrition labels since January 2006 to enable informed choices, and by 2021, partially hydrogenated oils—the primary source of artificial trans fats—were effectively banned in the U.S. food supply, with many countries worldwide implementing similar prohibitions by 2023.^[63]^[64]

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Localization of Lipid Droplets in Embryonic Axis Radicle Cells of ...
Feb 10, 2023 · Desiccation tolerance allows plant seeds to remain viable during desiccation and subsequent re-hydration. In this study, we tried to develop ...
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Lipid Droplets as Signaling Platforms Linking Metabolic and Cellular ...
We compiled some recent evidence supporting the emerging view that LDs act as platforms connecting a number of relevant metabolic and cellular functions.
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Triglycerides | MedlinePlus
Aug 10, 2025 · Levels above 150mg/dl may raise your risk for heart disease. A ... A triglyceride level of 150 mg/dL or higher is also a risk factor for metabolic ...
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Initiate therapy if the triglyceride level is greater than 200 mg/dL. Pancreatitis risk increases if triglyceride levels are more than 500 mg/dL, then ...
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Oct 9, 2020 · Insulin resistance is commonly linked with obesity, which is a pathophysiologic factor of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
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Adipocyte dysfunctions linking obesity to insulin resistance and type ...
Adipose dysfunctions in obesity include secretions of abnormal levels of cytokines linked to insulin resistance, impairments in triglyceride storage and ...
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids - Health Professional Fact Sheet
During periods of dietary-fat restriction or malabsorption accompanied by an energy deficit, the body releases essential fatty acids from adipose-tissue ...
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Essential Fatty Acids | Linus Pauling Institute | Oregon State University
Essential fatty acid deficiency has also been found to occur in patients with chronic fat malabsorption (39) and in patients with cystic fibrosis (40). It has ...
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Aug 21, 2024 · Lipodystrophy syndromes are a heterogeneous group of diseases, characterized by selective absence of adipose tissue.
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Aug 5, 2019 · Lipodystrophies are the result of a range of inherited and acquired causes, but all are characterized by perturbations in white adipose tissue function.
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Mar 2, 2024 · COVID-19 may worsen metabolic disturbances commonly seen in obesity, such as insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia [9]. These metabolic ...
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Jan 19, 2021 · Several studies have linked the severity of COVID-19 cases and increased fatality in patients with obesity and other comorbid conditions.
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WHO updates guidelines on fats and carbohydrates
Jul 17, 2023 · WHO reaffirms that adults should limit total fat intake to 30% of total energy intake or less. Fat consumed by everyone 2 years of age and older ...Saturated fatty acid and trans · Total fat intake for the...
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Recommendations and supporting information - Saturated Fatty Acid ...
WHO recommends that adults and children reduce trans-fatty acid intake to 1% of total energy intake (strong recommendation). WHO suggests further reducing trans ...
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Aug 23, 2024 · Health professionals generally recommend replacing saturated fats and trans fats with monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats while still ...Saturated Fat · Monounsaturated Fats · Trans Fats
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Jun 15, 2017 · The current AHA/American College of Cardiology guideline is to decrease intake of saturated fat to 5% to 6% of total daily energy (calorie) ...
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Mar 1, 2019 · The incidence of CVD (MI, stroke, or cardiovascular death, totaling 288 events) in the MedDiet groups was lowered by ≈30% when compared with the ...
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids - AAFP
Jul 1, 2004 · A review of human studies concluded that approximately 4 g per day of omega-3 fatty acids reduced serum triglyceride concentrations by 25 to 30 ...Abstract · Uses and Efficacy · Interactions and Adverse Effects · Dosage
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Trans Fat | FDA
Apr 30, 2024 · In 2023, the FDA issued a direct final rule to remove outdated references to PHOs in various regulations. Guidance and Regulations. Federal ...
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Oct 1, 2024 · In January 2006, FDA required the food industry to declare the amount of trans fat in food on the Nutrition Facts label. One of FDA's core ...