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Cryptococcus

Cryptococcus is a genus of encapsulated yeasts belonging to the phylum Basidiomycota, encompassing over 100 species, of which only a few, notably Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, are pathogenic to humans.^[1] These fungi are ubiquitous in the environment, commonly found in soil, bird droppings (especially pigeon guano), decaying wood, and plant matter such as eucalyptus trees, with C. neoformans distributed worldwide and C. gattii more prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions.^[1]^[2] Infection occurs primarily through inhalation of environmental spores or desiccated yeast cells, leading to cryptococcosis, an opportunistic infection that predominantly affects immunocompromised individuals, including those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or malignancies.^[2]^[3] The hallmark of Cryptococcus species is their polysaccharide capsule, composed mainly of glucuronoxylomannan, which serves as a key virulence factor by inhibiting phagocytosis and modulating immune responses.^[3] Other virulence attributes include melanin production for antioxidant protection, thermotolerance enabling survival at human body temperature, and the ability to produce enzymes like urease and phospholipases that facilitate tissue invasion.^[1] Biologically, these yeasts exhibit both asexual reproduction via budding and a sexual cycle producing basidiospores, with the capsule often absent in the environmental basidiospore form but rapidly forming upon infection.^[3] Cryptococcosis typically begins as a pulmonary infection, which may remain asymptomatic or progress to disseminated disease, most commonly meningoencephalitis, characterized by symptoms such as headache, fever, and altered mental status.^[2] Globally, cryptococcal meningitis accounts for approximately 194,000 cases and over 147,000 deaths annually, representing a critical priority fungal pathogen according to the World Health Organization, particularly in resource-limited settings where HIV prevalence is high.^[1] Despite advances in antifungal therapies like amphotericin B and fluconazole, mortality remains high at around 20-30% even with treatment, underscoring the need for improved diagnostics and prevention strategies.^[2]

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology and History

The fungus Cryptococcus neoformans was first identified as a human pathogen in 1894 by German pathologist Otto Busse and surgeon Abraham Buschke, who isolated yeast-like cells from destructive bone lesions in the tibia of a 31-year-old woman suffering from chronic osteomyelitis; they initially described the growth as resembling a sarcoma-like tumor.^[4]^[5] This marked the earliest documented case of cryptococcosis, though the organism's fungal nature was not immediately recognized.^[6] In 1901, French mycologist Paul Vuillemin formally established the genus Cryptococcus and named the species C. neoformans, drawing from the Greek terms kryptos (hidden) and kokkos (berry) to describe its encapsulated, yeast-like morphology that obscured its internal structure under microscopic examination.^[7]^[8] Vuillemin's nomenclature highlighted the organism's distinctive polysaccharide capsule, distinguishing it from other yeasts.^[9] Key advancements in understanding Cryptococcus as a pathogen occurred in 1916, when F. Curtis confirmed its fungal etiology in a patient with a hip tumor, solidifying its role in human disease beyond the initial case.^[10] By the 1950s, Chester W. Emmons identified pigeon droppings as a major environmental reservoir, isolating C. neoformans from weathered manure in Virginia and linking it to soil contamination near bird habitats.^[7]^[11] Taxonomically, Cryptococcus was initially classified among imperfect yeasts due to the lack of observed sexual reproduction.^[12] This view shifted in the mid-1970s with the characterization of its basidial sexual cycle, reclassifying it within the phylum Basidiomycota.^[12] Subsequent molecular studies refined its position in the class Tremellomycetes, emphasizing its evolutionary divergence from ascomycete pathogens.^[4]

Phylogenetic Position

Cryptococcus belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota, specifically within the subphylum Agaricomycotina, class Tremellomycetes, order Tremellales, and family Cryptococcaceae, as established by integrated phylogenetic classifications based on multi-gene analyses.^[13] This positioning reflects its basidiomycetous nature, characterized by yeast-like anamorphs and occasional filamentous teleomorphs, setting it apart from ascomycetous fungi through distinct ribosomal RNA gene sequences and protein-coding loci that align it firmly within the Basidiomycota.^[14] The teleomorphic counterparts of many Cryptococcus species are classified in the genus Filobasidiella, such as Filobasidiella neoformans for the anamorph Cryptococcus neoformans, highlighting the close evolutionary linkage between these sexual and asexual forms within the Tremellales.^[14] This relationship underscores the genus's position as a key example of dimorphism in tremellomycetous yeasts, with Filobasidiella representing the perfect (sexual) stage that produces basidiospores.^[15] Molecular markers, particularly the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA and the large subunit (LSU) rDNA domains (D1/D2), have been pivotal in reconstructing the phylogeny of Cryptococcus, consistently supporting its monophyly within the Cryptococcaceae.^[13] These markers, often combined with small subunit (SSU) rDNA and protein-coding genes like RPB1, RPB2, TEF1, and CYTB, reveal robust clades that affirm the genus's coherence and its intermingling with related tremellomycetous lineages.^[14] Subdivisions within Cryptococcus are delineated using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), which analyzes multiple housekeeping genes to identify genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships, leading to the recognition of major species complexes such as the Cryptococcus neoformans complex (encompassing lineages VNI–VNIV) and the Cryptococcus gattii complex (VGI–VGIV). This approach has clarified the phylogenetic structure, showing these complexes as monophyletic groups with distinct geographic and ecological adaptations, enhancing taxonomic resolution beyond single-locus methods.^[16]

Species Diversity

The genus Cryptococcus comprises over 100 species, primarily environmental yeasts, but only a subset are clinically significant due to their pathogenicity in humans.^[17] The main pathogenic members are found within two species complexes: the C. neoformans species complex and the C. gattii species complex. These complexes are phylogenetically distinct yet share key traits that enable identification. A 2015 taxonomic revision recognized seven pathogenic species across these complexes.^[18] Within the C. neoformans species complex, the predominant species are C. neoformans (serotype A) and C. deneoformans (serotype D), which together account for the majority of cryptococcal infections worldwide.^[19] These species are ubiquitous in the environment and are primarily associated with infections in immunocompromised hosts, such as those with HIV/AIDS.^[20] In contrast, the C. gattii species complex comprises five species—C. gattii (VGI), C. deuterogattii (VGII), C. bacillisporus (VGIII), C. tetragattii (VGIV), and C. decagattii (VGV)—and is more restricted in distribution to tropical and subtropical areas and notably capable of causing disease in immunocompetent individuals.^[21]^[22] Other species formerly classified in the genus, such as Papiliotrema laurentii (formerly C. laurentii) and Naganishia alba (formerly C. albidus), are generally non-pathogenic and serve as environmental contaminants, occasionally isolated from clinical samples but rarely leading to invasive infections.^[23]^[24] Identification of Cryptococcus species relies on biochemical tests, including urease positivity—which hydrolyzes urea to produce ammonia—and melanin production, detectable on media like L-DOPA or niger seed agar, which imparts a brown pigmentation.^[25] For precise differentiation, especially among closely related pathogenic strains, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) provides rapid and accurate species-level resolution by analyzing protein profiles.^[26]

Morphology and Biology

Cell Structure

Cryptococcus species, particularly C. neoformans and C. gattii, exhibit a yeast-like morphology in their haploid form, appearing as spherical to oval cells typically measuring 4-6 μm in diameter. These cells are surrounded by a prominent polysaccharide capsule that can extend the total cell diameter to 10-30 μm or more, depending on environmental conditions. The budding process is characteristic, with narrow-based budding that distinguishes them from other yeasts. The polysaccharide capsule is a defining feature, composed primarily of glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), which accounts for approximately 90% of its mass, and galactoxylomannan (GalXM) as a minor component. GXM consists of an α(1→3)-linked mannose backbone substituted with β(1→2)-xylose and β(1→2)-glucuronic acid side chains, while GalXM features an α(1→6)-linked galactan with mannose branches. This structure renders the capsule antiphagocytic, inhibiting ingestion by host immune cells such as macrophages in the absence of opsonins like antibodies or complement, thereby enhancing fungal survival during infection. The capsule is visualized using India ink negative staining, which creates a clear halo around the cell due to exclusion of the ink particles by the polysaccharide layer. Underlying the capsule is the cell wall, a rigid multilayered structure comprising chitin, chitosan, and β-glucans as primary polysaccharides. Chitin forms a β(1→4)-linked N-acetylglucosamine polymer, while chitosan is its deacetylated derivative, together constituting about 10% of the wall and providing structural integrity. β(1→3)- and β(1→6)-glucans form interwoven fibrils that contribute to rigidity and serve as scaffolds for mannoproteins, with β(1→3)-glucans synthesized by the Fks1 glucan synthase. The cell wall thickness varies from 50-100 nm and is essential for maintaining cell shape and resisting host stresses. Internally, Cryptococcus cells possess typical eukaryotic organelles, including a centrally located nucleus containing the genetic material and mitochondria that support energy production via oxidative phosphorylation. Lipid bodies, composed of neutral lipids such as triacylglycerols, are prominent intracellular structures that accumulate under nutrient-limiting conditions and facilitate survival within macrophages by serving as energy reserves and aiding in vesicle-mediated export of virulence factors.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

_Cryptococcus species, including the primary pathogens C. neoformans and C. gattii, predominantly reproduce asexually through budding of haploid yeast cells, a process characterized by narrow-based budding that distinguishes it from broader-based budding in fungi like Blastomyces dermatitidis https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00542-09. During asexual reproduction, the mother cell divides mitotically, producing a daughter cell via budding, with the bud site marked by a narrow connection to the parent, allowing for rapid proliferation in both environmental and host settings https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.60.080805.142102. This mode dominates the life cycle, enabling the fungus to persist as unicellular yeasts that can disseminate via basidiospores or yeast cells themselves https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.69.3.414-429.2005. Sexual reproduction in Cryptococcus occurs via a heterothallic bipolar mating system involving two mating types, a and α, where compatible haploid yeast cells fuse under nutrient-limiting conditions to initiate the cycle https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/20.5.1020. Mating is triggered by environmental cues such as nitrogen starvation, leading to the formation of dikaryotic hyphae with clamp cells, followed by nuclear fusion and meiosis in basidia at hyphal tips, which produce chains of four haploid basidiospores per basidium https://doi.org/10.1128/EC.00220-07. Pheromones, encoded by genes like MFα1 for the α type, play a key role in cell recognition and fusion, promoting hyphal development and spore production https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.02213.x. This sexual cycle, first described in C. neoformans and later in C. gattii, generates genetic diversity through recombination, though it is less common in nature compared to asexual budding https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12692092/. The life cycle of Cryptococcus primarily features the yeast form, which prevails in environmental niches, during infection, and as the infectious propagule in hosts, while the hyphal form is rarely observed in vivo and mainly occurs under laboratory-induced stress https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.69.3.414-429.2005. Basidiospores serve as the primary infectious units, capable of inhalation and initiating disease, whereas yeast cells propagate clonally through budding post-infection https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00542-09. Additionally, unisexual reproduction via monokaryotic fruiting can occur predominantly in α mating-type cells, mimicking aspects of the sexual cycle without opposite-type fusion https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03448. The polysaccharide capsule, while not central to reproduction, is remodeled during budding to facilitate cell separation https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.609244.

Ecology and Distribution

Natural Habitats

Cryptococcus species primarily inhabit soil, decaying wood, and plant debris, where they serve as environmental reservoirs. These niches provide organic matter essential for their growth, with isolates frequently recovered from humic soil layers and decomposing vegetation in diverse ecosystems. For instance, C. neoformans has been isolated from soil in regions like Botswana and South Africa, while both C. neoformans and C. gattii occur in decaying wood of various trees, including Douglas fir and alder species in North American forests.^[27]^[28]^[29] A key association exists between C. neoformans and bird guano, particularly from pigeons, which enriches the environment with nitrogen sources like creatinine. Pigeon droppings create nutrient-rich microhabitats that favor C. neoformans proliferation, as the fungus efficiently metabolizes creatinine for nitrogen acquisition, gaining a competitive edge over other microbes. This saprophytic adaptation allows C. neoformans to thrive in urban settings contaminated by avian excreta, with high isolation rates reported from such sites in Africa and beyond.^[27]^[30]^[31] In contrast, C. gattii shows a preference for arboreal environments, such as tree hollows and eucalyptus trees. Isolates of C. gattii are commonly found in hollows of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and other tree species, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, where decaying wood accumulates moisture and nutrients. This habitat supports C. gattii's saprophytic decomposition of lignin via enzymes like laccase, while melanin production aids survival by protecting against ultraviolet radiation and desiccation in exposed niches.^[27]^[28]^[32] Overall, these species exhibit distinct yet overlapping preferences, reflecting their ecological versatility as decomposers that scavenge nutrients from organic detritus.^[29]

Geographic Range and Environmental Factors

_Cryptococcus neoformans exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution, being ubiquitous across temperate regions worldwide, with isolates reported from diverse environments in North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceania.^[33] This species thrives in a broad range of climates but is particularly prevalent in areas with moderate temperatures and high humidity, often associated with urban and rural settings globally.^[34] In contrast, Cryptococcus gattii is primarily native to tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of Australia, South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia, where it has long been established in natural ecosystems.^[35] Since 1999, an outbreak of C. gattii has emerged in the Pacific Northwest of North America, beginning on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, and spreading to mainland British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California, marking its first major incursion into a temperate climate zone.^[36] By 2007, this outbreak had resulted in over 200 human cases in the region, highlighting its expanding presence beyond traditional tropical habitats. The outbreak strain has since become endemic in the Pacific Northwest and along the Pacific Coast, with ongoing cases reported in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California, and other U.S. states as of 2024.^[37]^[38]^[39] Environmental factors significantly influence the distribution and proliferation of both species. Optimal growth temperatures for Cryptococcus range from 20°C to 30°C, with laboratory studies confirming peak activity around 30°C, aligning with warm, humid conditions that favor spore survival and dispersal.^[40] High relative humidity positively correlates with C. gattii prevalence, as seen in environmental surveys where recovery rates increased in moist microclimates with low evaporation.^[41] Soil pH also plays a key role, particularly for C. gattii, which is generally isolated from acidic soils (pH 4.3–7.5), potentially limiting its colonization in alkaline environments.^[42] Climate change exacerbates these dynamics by warming temperate zones and altering precipitation patterns, facilitating range expansion; for instance, modeling predicts a gradual northward shift of C. gattii in Europe due to rising temperatures.^[43] Dispersal of Cryptococcus primarily occurs via wind-borne basidiospores, enabling long-distance spread without reliance on animal intermediate hosts.^[44] Human activities, such as soil disturbance and transport of infected plant material, may further contribute to dissemination, though no obligate vectors are involved.^[45] Notably, C. neoformans is often linked to accumulations of bird guano in brief environmental associations.^[34]

Pathogenicity and Disease

Virulence Mechanisms

The polysaccharide capsule of Cryptococcus species is a primary virulence factor, composed mainly of glucuronoxylomannan (GXM, ~90%) and glucuronoxylomannogalactan (GXMGal, ~10%), which forms a mucoid layer surrounding the fungal cell. This structure inhibits phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils through steric hindrance and masking of cell wall recognition epitopes, thereby reducing uptake and intracellular killing by host immune cells.^[46] Additionally, the capsule modulates the immune response by interacting with Toll-like receptors (TLRs), particularly TLR2 and TLR4, leading to altered cytokine production such as suppressed TNF-α and enhanced IL-10, which promotes an anti-inflammatory environment and induces apoptosis in dendritic cells and T cells via caspase-8 activation.^[47] These effects collectively impair adaptive immunity and facilitate fungal persistence in the host.^[48] Melanin production represents another key virulence mechanism in Cryptococcus, synthesized primarily through the action of the laccase enzyme (encoded by LAC1), which oxidizes phenolic substrates like L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) to form the pigment in the cell wall. Melanin provides robust protection against oxidative stress by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by host phagocytes, such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, thereby enhancing survival within macrophages.^[49] It also confers resistance to antifungal agents, including amphotericin B, by limiting drug penetration and chelating oxidative compounds, contributing approximately 14% to overall virulence in experimental models.^[48] Mutants lacking laccase activity (lac1Δ) exhibit markedly reduced virulence in murine and rabbit infection models, underscoring melanin's role in host adaptation.^[46] Secreted enzymes further enable Cryptococcus to invade host tissues and survive in restrictive environments. Urease, encoded by URE1, hydrolyzes urea to ammonia and carbamate, elevating phagolysosomal pH to neutralize acidic conditions and disrupt lysosomal function, which promotes intracellular survival and replication within macrophages.^[49] This enzyme also facilitates central nervous system (CNS) tropism by generating ammonia that damages endothelial tight junctions, aiding transmigration across the blood-brain barrier during dissemination.^[48] Similarly, phospholipase B (Plb1), a cell wall-associated enzyme, degrades host phospholipids to release fatty acids and lysophospholipids, damaging alveolar epithelial barriers to promote initial lung invasion and subsequent dissemination.^[46] Plb1 also enhances capsule formation and fungal adhesion to host cells, with plb1Δ mutants showing attenuated virulence in lung infection models.^[49] Antigenic variation in Cryptococcus hybrids contributes to immune evasion, particularly through dominance of the α mating type locus (MATα). In interspecies hybrids such as αADα and aADα strains (between serotypes A and D), the α allele from the serotype A parent predominates, correlating with increased virulence, enhanced CNS dissemination, and improved nutrient acquisition under host stress.^[50] This dominance arises from negative epistatic interactions between a alleles, which reduce hybrid fitness in aADa configurations, whereas α-inclusive hybrids maintain or exceed the virulence of parental αAAα diploids by altering surface antigens and pheromone signaling to subvert immune recognition.^[48] Such variation allows hybrids to evade host adaptive responses more effectively than haploid or non-dominant mating type strains.^[50]

Clinical Manifestations and Epidemiology

Cryptococcosis, the disease caused by Cryptococcus species, most commonly manifests as pulmonary infection or central nervous system (CNS) involvement, particularly cryptococcal meningitis. In the lungs, initial infection often presents with nonspecific symptoms such as fever, cough, chest pain, and malaise, which may mimic other respiratory illnesses and remain subclinical in immunocompetent individuals.^[51] Dissemination to the CNS occurs via hematogenous spread, leading to subacute meningitis characterized by headache, fever, altered mental status, and neck stiffness; in severe cases, it can progress to increased intracranial pressure, seizures, or coma.^[52] Pulmonary cryptococcosis can also form nodules, masses, or infiltrates visible on imaging, while extrapulmonary sites like skin, bones, or prostate are less common but occur in disseminated disease.^[53] Epidemiologically, cryptococcosis imposes a significant global burden, with an estimated 152,000 cases of cryptococcal meningitis annually among adults living with HIV, resulting in approximately 112,000 deaths—accounting for 19% of all AIDS-related mortality.00516-3/fulltext) These figures reflect a decline from earlier estimates due to improved HIV management, yet the disease remains concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, where over 70% of cases occur, driven by limited access to antiretroviral therapy.^[54] Primary risk groups include individuals with advanced HIV infection (CD4 count <100 cells/μL), solid organ transplant recipients on immunosuppressive therapy, and those with malignancies or receiving corticosteroids; in contrast, Cryptococcus gattii infections more frequently affect immunocompetent hosts without obvious predisposing factors.^[34] Transmission occurs exclusively through inhalation of environmental spores or desiccated yeast cells from soil or bird guano, with no evidence of person-to-person spread.^[2] Notable outbreaks highlight regional variations in Cryptococcus epidemiology and serotypes. The ongoing Cryptococcus gattii outbreak on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, began in 1999 and has since expanded to the Pacific Northwest, causing over 400 human cases and numerous animal infections, predominantly involving molecular type VGII.^[55] Serotype distribution varies geographically: Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii (serotype A) predominates worldwide, especially in HIV-associated cases in Africa and Asia, while var. neoformans (serotype D) is more common in Europe, and C. gattii serotypes B and C are endemic to tropical and subtropical regions but have emerged in temperate areas.^[20] These patterns underscore the influence of environmental niches and host immunity on disease incidence.^[56]

Diagnosis and Management

Diagnostic Techniques

Diagnosis of Cryptococcus infections primarily relies on laboratory techniques that detect the presence of the fungus in clinical specimens such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serum, blood, or tissue. These methods include direct microscopic examination, culture-based identification, antigen detection assays, and molecular techniques, each offering varying levels of sensitivity, specificity, and turnaround time. Early and accurate diagnosis is crucial, particularly in immunocompromised patients where cryptococcal meningitis is common, as it guides prompt initiation of antifungal therapy. Microscopic examination provides a rapid, initial assessment of Cryptococcus in CSF. The India ink preparation highlights the characteristic polysaccharide capsule of Cryptococcus species as a clear halo around yeast cells against a dark background, with a sensitivity of approximately 86% in CSF specimens from patients with cryptococcal meningitis.^[57] This method is simple, inexpensive, and yields results in minutes but has lower sensitivity (50-86%) in cases of low fungal burden or non-CSF samples, and it cannot distinguish viable from non-viable organisms.^[58] Gram staining of CSF or other fluids may reveal Cryptococcus as poorly staining, variably Gram-positive budding yeasts, though this approach is less reliable due to the capsule interfering with stain uptake and the need for experienced microscopists.^[52] Culture remains the gold standard for confirming Cryptococcus infection and determining species, though it requires more time. Specimens are inoculated onto fungal media such as Sabouraud dextrose agar, which supports general yeast growth, or selective media like bird seed (Guizotia abyssinica) agar, which detects melanin production by C. neoformans and C. gattii through brown pigment formation.^[58] Growth typically occurs within 3-7 days on bird seed agar at 25-30°C, with full identification potentially taking up to 14 days on standard media; sensitivity ranges from 85-94%, influenced by specimen volume and fungal load.^[57]^[59] Colonies appear creamy and mucoid, and further tests like urease production or canavanine resistance aid speciation. Antigen detection assays, particularly the cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) lateral flow assay (LFA), offer high sensitivity and rapid results for disseminated or early infection. The CrAg LFA detects capsular polysaccharide antigen in serum, CSF, plasma, or whole blood with sensitivities exceeding 95% (up to 99.3% in CSF and 100% in serum) and specificities near 99%, making it superior to microscopy and culture for screening in resource-limited settings.^[57]^[60] Results are available in 10 minutes via a simple immunoassay strip, comparable to a pregnancy test, and it performs well even at low antigen titers. Molecular methods enhance diagnostic precision, especially for species identification and detecting low-level infections in non-CSF specimens. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays target Cryptococcus-specific DNA sequences in blood, tissue, or CSF, with sensitivities ranging from 50-100% and specificities of 100%, providing results in 4 hours and enabling differentiation between C. neoformans and C. gattii.^[58] Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is increasingly used for rapid species-level identification of cultured isolates, achieving high accuracy by analyzing protein profiles and reducing turnaround time compared to traditional biochemical tests.^[61] These techniques are particularly valuable in complex cases or for epidemiological studies.

Treatment Strategies

The primary treatment for cryptococcal meningitis follows an induction phase, consolidation, and maintenance therapy, as outlined in the 2024 ECMM/ISHAM/ASM global guideline endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA).^[62] For HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis, the preferred induction regimen is a single high-dose of liposomal amphotericin B (10 mg/kg intravenously on day 1) combined with flucytosine (100 mg/kg/day orally in four divided doses) and fluconazole (1200 mg/day orally) for 14 days, which has demonstrated noninferiority to the standard 14-day conventional amphotericin B regimen with reduced toxicity.^[52] This is followed by consolidation with oral fluconazole (400 mg/day) for 8 weeks and maintenance with fluconazole (200 mg/day) for at least 1 year or until immune reconstitution.^[52] The World Health Organization (WHO) strongly recommends this single high-dose liposomal amphotericin B regimen plus flucytosine and fluconazole for induction in resource-limited settings.^[63] In non-HIV-associated cryptococcosis, liposomal amphotericin B (3–4 mg/kg/day intravenously) is preferred over deoxycholate formulations during induction to minimize nephrotoxicity, particularly in patients with underlying renal impairment or those on prolonged therapy.^[62] This lipid formulation maintains efficacy against Cryptococcus while reducing the risk of acute kidney injury, with studies reporting lower rates of renal adverse events compared to conventional amphotericin B.^[64] Flucytosine is added when tolerated, and transition to fluconazole follows a similar timeline, adjusted for disease severity and host factors such as organ transplantation.^[65] Management challenges include emerging antifungal resistance and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). Fluconazole resistance in Cryptococcus neoformans is increasingly reported in sub-Saharan Africa, where prior exposure to azoles for prophylaxis or therapy has driven minimum inhibitory concentrations above 16 μg/mL in up to 10–20% of isolates, complicating maintenance therapy.^[66] In HIV/AIDS patients, IRIS occurs in 10–30% following antiretroviral therapy initiation, manifesting as paradoxical worsening of meningitis symptoms due to restored immune responses against persistent fungal antigens; management involves optimizing antifungal therapy and corticosteroids only for severe cases with elevated intracranial pressure.^[52] Prevention strategies focus on high-risk HIV populations, with fluconazole prophylaxis (200 mg/day orally) recommended for those with CD4 counts below 100 cells/μL in areas with high cryptococcal incidence, reducing the incidence by approximately 87% in clinical trials.^[67] No vaccine is currently available for cryptococcal infection prevention.^[63] Treatment initiation requires prior diagnostic confirmation to guide regimen selection and monitor response.^[62]

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Creatinine metabolism in Cryptococcus neoformans ... - ASM Journals
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[29]
Evidence of Recombination in Mixed-Mating-Type and α-Only ...
C. gattii molecular type VGI has a strong association with Eucalyptus camaldulensis and can be found in high numbers in E. camaldulensis hollows. Previous work ...
[30]
Global Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and ...
A total of 2,518 Cryptococcus species complex isolates were reported from four countries of Oceania: Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Hawaii ...
[31]
Clinical Overview of Cryptococcosis - CDC
Apr 24, 2024 · However, they also live in more temperate areas like British Columbia, Vancouver Island, the U.S. Pacific Northwest, and California.At A Glance · Clinical Features · Diagnosis
[32]
Molecular Typing of IberoAmerican Cryptococcus neoformans Isolates
Feb 2, 2003 · In contrast, the distribution in nature for C. neoformans var. gattii is geographically restricted to mainly tropical and subtropical regions (7 ...
[33]
Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest Region of the ...
The British Columbia Centre for Disease Control reported a cumulative incidence of 218 C. gattii cases in humans during 1999–2007, with an average of 24.2 cases ...
[34]
Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii --- Pacific Northwest, 2004--2010
Jul 23, 2010 · gattii infection was reported in Oregon, associated with an outbreak on Vancouver Island and in mainland British Columbia, Canada (2). A second ...
[35]
Temperature affects the susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans ...
... optimum growth temperature in the laboratory is 30 degrees … ... Temperature affects the susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans biofilms to antifungal agents.
[36]
Environmental Status of Cryptococcus neoformans and ... - MDPI
The genus Cryptococcus comprises more than 80 species, including C. neoformans and C. gattii, which are pathogenic to humans, mainly affecting the central ...
[37]
Characterization of Environmental Sources of the Human and ...
gattii was generally isolated from acidic soil, and geographic differences in soil pH may influence the extent of colonization. C. gattii soil colonization ...Missing: factors humidity
[38]
Global warming impact on the expansion of fundamental niche of ...
May 4, 2021 · The present study showed that recent climate changes have significantly affected the distribution of the fungal pathogen C. gattii VGI in Europe ...
[39]
Cryptococcus gattii Dispersal Mechanisms, British Columbia, Canada
C. gattii may be spread through soil disturbances, wind, water, distribution of tree and soil byproducts, and human movement.Materials And Methods · Results And Discussion · Human-Mediated DispersalMissing: humidity | Show results with:humidity
[40]
Spread of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada ... - CDC
In 1999, Cryptococcus gattii emerged on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (BC), Canada, among residents, visitors to the island, and domestic and wild animal ...Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[41]
https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/7/6/410
[42]
https://journals.asm.org/doi/abs/10.1128/aem.01330-06
[43]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8251527/
[44]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2725814/
[45]
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/1/06-0827_article
[46]
Cryptococcal Meningitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The most common symptoms are fever, malaise, and headache. Cranial neuropathies may also be present. Symptoms like cough, dyspnea, and skin rash suggest a ...Continuing Education Activity · Etiology · Pathophysiology · History and Physical
[47]
Cryptococcosis: Adult and Adolescent OIs | NIH - Clinical Info .HIV.gov
Oct 29, 2024 · Estimates indicate that every year, approximately 280,000 cases of cryptococcal infection in people with AIDS occur worldwide, and the disease ...
[48]
Pulmonary Cryptococcosis - PMC - PubMed Central
3. Clinical Manifestations. The manifestations of pulmonary cryptococcosis are protean, spanning from an isolated lung mass (ranging from a simple nodule to a ...2. Epidemiology And Host... · 3. Clinical Manifestations · 4. Diagnosis
[49]
The global burden of HIV-associated cryptococcal infection in adults ...
Aug 29, 2022 · Globally, cryptococcal disease accounts for 19% (13-24) of AIDS-related mortality. Interpretation: Despite a reduction in the estimated absolute ...
[50]
Epidemiology of Cryptococcus gattii, British Columbia, Canada ...
Feb 2, 2010 · Local C. gattii–endemic areas were Vancouver Island since 1999 and the greater Vancouver area and Fraser Valley of the BC mainland since 2004 ( ...
[51]
Geographical distribution of the Cryptococcus gattii species complex
Currently, the C gattii species complex includes C gattii sensu stricto (VGI, AFLP4), Cryptococcus deuterogattii (VGII, AFLP6), C bacillisporus (VGIII, AFLP5), ...
[52]
Multisite Validation of Cryptococcal Antigen Lateral Flow Assay and ...
Sensitivity decreased to 42% (19/45) among persons with CSF cultures having <1,000 CFU/mL. Overall, 1 of 7.2 cryptococcal diagnoses was missed by India ink ...
[53]
Evolution of Laboratory Diagnostics for Cryptococcosis and Missing ...
India Ink Microscopy. We initially used CSF India ink staining for cryptococcal diagnosis. ... India ink has poor sensitivity at <90% [26]. Figure 2. Figure ...
[54]
Evolution of Laboratory Diagnostics for Cryptococcosis and Missing ...
We highlight the evolution of cryptococcosis diagnostics; the roles of early fungicidal activity, cryptococcal antigen titers, antifungal susceptibility ...
[55]
Evolution of Cryptococcal Antigen Testing: What is new? - PMC
The evolution of cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) testing to develop inexpensive and more sensitive methods to detect cryptococcal antigen is significant.Direct Microscopic... · Antigen Detection Tests · Lateral Flow Assay
[56]
Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization–Time of Flight Mass ...
We evaluated the usefulness of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization–time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for Cryptococcus identification ...
[57]
ECMM/ISHAM/ASM Global Guideline for the Diagnosis and ... - IDSA
Feb 14, 2024 · This guideline offers updated practical guidance and implementable recommendations on the clinical approaches, screening, diagnosis, management, and follow-up ...
[58]
Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal ...
Jun 27, 2022 · These guidelines update the recommendations that were first released in 2018 on diagnosing, preventing, and managing cryptococcal disease.
[59]
Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin B Treatment for Cryptococcal ...
Mar 23, 2022 · Liposomal amphotericin B is potentially well suited for use in short-course induction treatments of cryptococcal meningitis because it can be ...
[60]
Treatment recommendations for non-HIV associated cryptococcal ...
Lipid formulations of amphotericin B are preferred; although less nephrotoxic, their use may still damage renal function and potentially lead to renal allograft ...
[61]
Decreasing fluconazole susceptibility of clinical South African ...
Mar 31, 2020 · More than 90% of isolates from first episodes of cryptococcal disease had a fluconazole minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ≤4 μg/ml in a ...