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Noticing hypothesis

The Noticing Hypothesis is a foundational theory in second language acquisition (SLA) that asserts learners must consciously notice specific linguistic features in the input language for those elements to become intake and contribute to learning.^[1] Proposed by linguist Richard Schmidt in 1990, it emerged from his observations of naturalistic language learning, including his own acquisition of Portuguese and case studies like that of learner Wes, emphasizing that mere exposure to input is insufficient without focal attention.^[1] The hypothesis distinguishes noticing—the conscious registration of particular forms—as a necessary condition for acquisition, while higher-level awareness (such as understanding rules or metalinguistic knowledge) is facilitative but not essential.^[1] Central to the theory is the idea that attention acts as a bridge between external input (e.g., spoken or written language) and internal cognitive processes, influencing how learners process grammar, vocabulary, and other elements.^[1] Schmidt argued that adult learners, unlike children acquiring their first language, rely on conscious mechanisms for grammatical development, supported by empirical studies showing enhanced learning outcomes when forms are noticed during tasks like interaction or instruction.^[1] A related concept, noticing the gap, highlights the need for learners to consciously compare their interlanguage output against target forms to identify and correct errors.^[1] The hypothesis has influenced pedagogical approaches, such as task-based learning that promotes enhanced input to draw attention to forms.^[2] Despite its influence, the Noticing Hypothesis has faced criticisms for its strong claim that conscious noticing is strictly necessary, with some research suggesting incidental learning can occur through repeated exposure without focal attention, particularly for formulaic sequences like idioms.^[3] Critics, including John Truscott, argue that evidence from form-focused instruction shows limited long-term benefits and question the hypothesis's testability due to vague definitions of noticing.^[2] Nonetheless, it remains a highly cited framework, with ongoing studies exploring its implications for individual differences in aptitude, motivation, and awareness in SLA.^[1]

Background and Overview

Definition and Core Principles

The noticing hypothesis posits that second language learners must consciously notice specific linguistic features in the input for those features to become intake and contribute to the development of their interlanguage.^[4] According to this hypothesis, originally formulated by Richard Schmidt, noticing serves as the essential mechanism through which input is transformed into learnable material, emphasizing that subconscious exposure alone is insufficient for acquisition.^[4] A key distinction within the hypothesis lies between noticing and understanding: noticing involves the conscious registration of input elements, such as phonological, morphological, or syntactic forms, whereas understanding entails deeper processing to establish connections between those forms and their meanings.^[4] This separation underscores that mere perception is not enough; learners must achieve a level of awareness that allows the input to register explicitly before it can influence their linguistic system. Attention plays a prerequisite role in facilitating noticing, acting as the cognitive filter that directs learners' focus toward particular aspects of the language.^[4] Selective attention is particularly crucial, enabling learners to prioritize formal elements like grammar rules, vocabulary items, or pragmatic conventions amid the complexity of input, thereby determining what becomes available for potential intake. Central to the hypothesis is the concept of "noticing the gap," which refers to the learner's conscious awareness of discrepancies between their existing interlanguage knowledge and the target language features encountered in the input.^[4] This awareness highlights mismatches, such as errors in tense usage or idiomatic expressions, prompting the cognitive processes necessary for adjustment and growth in proficiency.

Historical Context in Second Language Acquisition

In the field of second language acquisition (SLA) prior to 1990, dominant theories emphasized largely subconscious processes in language learning, with Stephen Krashen's Input Hypothesis (1982) representing a cornerstone of this perspective. Krashen posited that learners progress by receiving comprehensible input slightly beyond their current proficiency level (i+1), which is processed implicitly through internal mechanisms without the need for conscious attention to linguistic forms.^[5] This model, part of the broader Monitor Theory, downplayed explicit instruction and awareness, suggesting that acquisition mirrors first-language development and occurs via exposure to meaningful communication, thereby shifting focus from output or rule-learning to input quality and quantity.^[5] The 1980s marked a growing influence from cognitive linguistics and psychological research on attention, introducing parallels between SLA and models of selective perception in cognitive psychology. Cognitive linguistics, emerging as a framework in the late 1970s through works emphasizing embodied meaning and usage-based learning,^[6] began intersecting with SLA by highlighting how mental processes shape language comprehension beyond purely structural rules. Concurrently, attention research drew from psychological models like those of selective perception, where limited cognitive resources filter incoming stimuli, suggesting that learners might similarly prioritize salient features in input without full conscious registration. This integration challenged earlier behaviorist and innatist views, paving the way for debates on whether language processing required active cognitive engagement. Emerging discussions on awareness in SLA during this period centered on the tension between implicit and explicit learning pathways, as articulated in Ellen Bialystok's (1978) theoretical model and Barry McLaughlin's (1987) synthesis of theories. Bialystok's framework distinguished implicit knowledge—intuitive and automatic—from explicit knowledge, which involves metalinguistic analysis, proposing that both interact in a flow from input analysis to output production, with explicit processes aiding control over implicit ones in adult learners.^[7] McLaughlin extended this by reviewing evidence for implicit learning as primary for fluency but explicit learning as crucial for overcoming fossilization in complex structures, framing SLA as a cognitive skill acquisition process influenced by attention allocation.^[8] These debates underscored a gradual shift toward recognizing conscious mechanisms, contrasting with Krashen's input-centric view. A pivotal catalyst for rethinking these dynamics came from Richard Schmidt's personal immersion experience in Brazil during the early 1980s, documented in his 1983 case study. While living there for five months and engaging in intensive interaction, Schmidt observed that despite abundant comprehensible input, his progress in Portuguese stalled on formal features unless he consciously registered them through diaries and reflections, highlighting the limitations of purely subconscious acquisition in naturalistic settings. This firsthand evidence from an adult learner's acculturation process fueled emerging questions about the necessity of awareness, setting the stage for later hypotheses on noticing within the evolving SLA landscape.

Development of the Hypothesis

Schmidt's Original Formulation

Richard Schmidt first articulated the noticing hypothesis in his seminal 1990 article, "The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning," published in the journal Applied Linguistics.^[9] In this work, Schmidt proposed that conscious attention to linguistic forms in the input is essential for second language acquisition, distinguishing noticing from mere exposure or subconscious processing. He argued that learners must actively register specific elements of the target language for them to become part of their developing linguistic system, drawing on psychological and cognitive theories of attention and awareness.^[9] The original formulation was grounded in empirical observations from Schmidt's own language learning experience, documented in a detailed diary study conducted during a five-month immersion in Portuguese in Brazil from 1984 to 1985. Collaborating with native speaker Sylvia Frota, Schmidt recorded daily interactions, audio tapes of conversations, and introspective notes on what he noticed in the input. For instance, he frequently overlooked the filler "que é que" in questions despite its prevalence (appearing in 43% of question words on early tapes), only noticing it later in week 22 when producing forms like "o que é que você quer." Similarly, verb conjugations such as third-person singular "-s" in present tense were not acquired until explicitly noticed, even after repeated exposure and corrections. These observations illustrated how unnoted input failed to contribute to learning, while noticed forms advanced his interlanguage.^[9] Schmidt's core claims emphasized that noticing serves as the initial mechanism for converting input into intake, stating that "noticing is the necessary and sufficient condition for converting input to intake for learning."^[9] However, he clarified that while noticing is necessary for acquisition, it is not sufficient on its own; subsequent processes like practice through output production and interaction with interlocutors are required to integrate noticed forms into the learner's competence. Interaction, in particular, was highlighted as facilitating noticing by directing attention through task demands and feedback.^[9] Conceptually, Schmidt represented the process in a linear framework: input from the environment leads to noticing (conscious registration of forms), which enables intake (available linguistic data), ultimately contributing to interlanguage development. This model underscored the hypothesis's focus on attention as a prerequisite, without implying automaticity in later stages.^[9] In his 1994 paper, Schmidt refined the noticing hypothesis by delineating three distinct levels of awareness within consciousness: perception, which involves the mere registration of sensory input without focal attention; noticing, defined as the mental registration of specific linguistic elements in the input that stand out to the learner; and understanding, which entails a deeper metalinguistic awareness where the learner comprehends the significance or rules underlying the noticed features.^[10] This distinction clarified that while perception alone is insufficient for learning, noticing serves as the critical threshold for converting input into intake, with understanding facilitating more advanced acquisition but not being strictly necessary.^[11] Building on this, Schmidt's 1995 work expanded the hypothesis by integrating noticing with skill acquisition theory, positing that initial noticing creates declarative knowledge of linguistic forms, which then undergoes proceduralization and automatization through repeated practice.^[12] He emphasized that awareness at the noticing level is essential for the transition from controlled, effortful processing to fluent, automatic use of language structures, aligning the hypothesis with models like Anderson's adaptive control of thought framework.^[13] Contributions from other scholars further refined the framework, notably Gass's 1997 input-processing model, which incorporated Schmidt's noticing as a key stage where learners selectively attend to formal aspects of input (attention to form) amid meaning-focused processing.^[14] In this model, noticing occurs during apperception, enabling the input to become comprehended and eventually integrated into the learner's interlanguage, thus bridging input exposure with developmental outcomes.^[15] A specific amendment across these refinements highlighted the role of "enhanced" noticing, where passive exposure to input is insufficient; instead, instructional tasks, output production, or increased perceptual salience (e.g., through emphasis or frequency) actively direct learner attention to target features, amplifying the likelihood of noticing and subsequent learning.^[12] This shift underscored that noticing is not merely spontaneous but can be strategically facilitated in pedagogical contexts to optimize second language acquisition.^[16]

Theoretical Framework

Mechanisms of Noticing and Awareness

The mechanisms of noticing in second language acquisition (SLA) involve cognitive processes of attention that direct learners' focus to relevant linguistic input. Attention operates through two primary pathways: bottom-up processes, which are stimulus-driven and involuntary, triggered by salient features in the input such as unexpected sounds or visual cues; and top-down processes, which are knowledge-driven and voluntary, guided by learners' prior expectations, goals, and task demands. These pathways interact dynamically, with bottom-up attention alerting learners to novel elements while top-down attention filters and prioritizes information based on existing schemas, ultimately leading to noticing when input enters focal awareness.^[17] Working memory plays a critical role in registering noticed linguistic features by temporarily holding and manipulating attended input, enabling rehearsal and integration into long-term memory. Its limited capacity constrains the amount of information processed at once, influencing how effectively learners encode forms like morphology or syntax. Perceptual salience further facilitates this registration; features that stand out due to frequency, contrast, or emphasis—such as bolded text or repeated structures—are more readily detected and held in working memory, increasing the likelihood of noticing over less prominent elements.^[17]^[18] Schmidt delineates three levels of awareness in the noticing process: apperception, or initial perceptual registration of input without deeper analysis; noticing, which entails conscious, focal awareness of specific linguistic instances as distinct from surrounding elements; and understanding, involving metalinguistic insight into underlying rules or patterns. Apperception represents passive detection, while noticing requires subjective experience of the input's relevance, serving as the essential threshold for intake; understanding, though beneficial, is not strictly necessary for initial acquisition.^[18] Noticing functions as a cognitive bridge between input and output in SLA, particularly within Swain's output hypothesis, where producing language prompts learners to notice discrepancies—or "gaps"—between their interlanguage and target forms during output tasks. This noticing/triggering function of output enhances awareness of unnoted input features, fostering refinement through hypothesis testing and metalinguistic reflection.^[19]^[20]

Relation to Other SLA Theories

The noticing hypothesis, proposed by Schmidt, stands in contrast to Krashen's Monitor Model, which posits that second language acquisition primarily occurs subconsciously through comprehensible input at the "i+1" level, with conscious processes serving only a monitoring role after production.^[21] In opposition, the noticing hypothesis emphasizes that conscious attention and awareness are necessary for input to become intake, challenging the model's downplaying of explicit monitoring as a core acquisition mechanism.^[21] The noticing hypothesis complements Long's Interaction Hypothesis by suggesting that negotiation of meaning during conversations facilitates noticing of linguistic forms, thereby enhancing input comprehension and acquisition.^[22] Long's framework highlights how interactive adjustments, such as recasts and clarification requests, make input salient, aligning with Schmidt's claim that such moments promote conscious registration of target features before productive use.^[22] Noticing integrates with DeKeyser's Skill Acquisition Theory by supporting the initial declarative knowledge stage, where learners consciously attend to rules and forms, aiding the subsequent transition to procedural, automatized knowledge through practice.^[23] This explicit awareness helps bridge the gap from rule understanding to fluent application, as noticing errors or discrepancies during output reinforces the shift from controlled to automatic processing.^[23] In contrast to usage-based approaches, as articulated by Tomasello, which emphasize implicit learning through frequency effects and probabilistic patterns in input without requiring conscious attention, the noticing hypothesis introduces an explicit attentional component to explain how learners detect and abstract forms from usage data.^[24] While usage-based models view acquisition as an emergent product of exposure and statistical learning, noticing posits that focal awareness is essential for overcoming low-salience barriers in adult SLA, adding a layer of intentionality to frequency-driven processes.^[24]

Empirical Evidence

Key Supporting Studies

One of the foundational empirical investigations supporting the noticing hypothesis stems from Richard Schmidt's 1990 case study of Wes, a Japanese-American learner acquiring Portuguese in naturalistic settings in Brazil. Through detailed diaries and observations over nearly a year, Schmidt documented Wes's language development, revealing that Wes only incorporated specific linguistic features—such as verb inflections, particles, and other grammatical markers—into his interlanguage when he consciously noticed and commented on them in his journals. This provided direct evidence that conscious attention is essential for converting input into intake, as unnoted forms remained unused despite frequent exposure.^[1] Building on this, Alison Mackey's 1999 experimental study explored the role of interactional feedback in prompting noticing among adult ESL learners working on question formation. Participants engaged in communicative tasks where native speakers provided recasts as feedback, and noticing was operationalized through immediate post-task recall measures, where learners were asked to report what they remembered from the interactions. Results showed that learners who noticed the feedback gaps—evidenced by accurate recall of recast forms—demonstrated subsequent improvements in their production of target question structures, underscoring how feedback enhances noticing and facilitates development in morphosyntax. This study highlighted that about 60-70% of recasts were noticed when they addressed developmental gaps, linking attention directly to learning outcomes. Jennifer Leeman's 2003 research further validated the hypothesis through an experiment with intermediate Spanish learners targeting morphology, particularly noun-adjective agreement. Learners received recasts during oral tasks, with noticing assessed via stimulated recall protocols where participants reviewed interaction recordings and reported their awareness. The findings indicated a significant correlation between reported noticing of recasts and gains in accuracy on post-tests, with the recast group outperforming controls by showing enhanced morphological accuracy in production tasks. This demonstrated that noticing corrective feedback on bound morphology leads to measurable developmental progress, as learners who attended to the form-meaning discrepancies integrated the targets more effectively. A meta-analytic perspective was provided by Joanna Philp's 2003 study on child second language learners in interactive settings, confirming the broader role of attention in noticing. Focusing on non-native speakers interacting with native speakers, Philp used immediate recall and uptake measures to gauge noticing of recasts during tasks involving question forms and other structures. The research found that higher-proficiency children noticed over 70% of recasts, leading to immediate reformulations and longer-term accuracy improvements, while lower-proficiency learners noticed fewer due to processing constraints. This work affirmed that noticing in child interactions is pivotal for attention-driven intake, with empirical data showing attention as a prerequisite for learning across proficiency levels. Subsequent meta-analyses have reinforced these findings. For instance, Lyster and Saito's 2010 meta-analysis of form-focused instruction studies showed that feedback types promoting noticing, such as recasts and prompts, yield moderate to large effect sizes on grammatical accuracy (Hedges' g = 0.71 for immediate post-tests), supporting the hypothesis's role in instructed SLA contexts.^[25]

Methodological Challenges in Research

Research on the noticing hypothesis in second language acquisition (SLA) faces significant challenges in accurately measuring instances of noticing, as it is an internal cognitive process that cannot be directly observed. Investigators typically rely on indirect methods such as eye-tracking, which records visual fixations to infer attentional focus on linguistic forms, verbal reports where learners articulate their thoughts, and stimulated recall protocols that prompt retrospective descriptions of cognitive experiences during tasks. However, eye-tracking provides robust quantitative data on attention allocation but often fails to distinguish between mere perception and conscious awareness, potentially leading to overinterpretation of fixations as noticing.^[26] Verbal reports and stimulated recall, while offering insights into subjective awareness, are prone to biases; for instance, concurrent think-aloud protocols may introduce reactivity by increasing cognitive load and altering natural processing, whereas stimulated recall suffers from retrospective distortion due to memory decay and reconstruction errors, with reliability decreasing beyond short time intervals like 10 seconds.^[27]^[28] Variability in learner attention further complicates empirical testing, as individual differences in cognitive capacity, working memory, and prior linguistic knowledge influence the consistency and depth of noticing. High cognitive load during complex tasks can suppress selective attention to target forms, making it difficult to isolate noticing from broader processing demands, while aptitude variations lead to inconsistent patterns across participants. These factors challenge the generalizability of findings, as studies must account for such heterogeneity without oversimplifying learner profiles. Task design exacerbates these issues, particularly in manipulating "enhanced" input—such as bolding or repetition of forms—to promote noticing—without introducing confounds like preexisting knowledge that could preemptively direct attention or inflate perceived effects. Poorly controlled designs risk attributing outcomes to enhancements rather than the hypothesized mechanism of conscious registration.^[29]^[28] Debates between quantitative and qualitative approaches highlight ongoing difficulties in correlating immediate noticing instances with long-term acquisition outcomes. Quantitative metrics from eye-tracking or report coding provide measurable data but struggle to link short-term attentional spikes to durable learning, often requiring longitudinal designs that are resource-intensive and prone to attrition. Qualitative analyses of verbal protocols offer richer process details but face validity concerns due to subjectivity and incomplete recall, hindering causal inferences about noticing's role in intake and retention. These methodological tensions underscore the need for triangulated methods to strengthen evidence, though no single protocol fully resolves the inferential gaps in validating the hypothesis.^[30]^[26]

Criticisms and Debates

Primary Criticisms

One primary criticism of the Noticing Hypothesis centers on its overemphasis on conscious awareness as a prerequisite for language learning. Truscott (1998) argues that noticing is neither necessary nor sufficient for second language acquisition, drawing on evidence from implicit learning studies, such as serial reaction time tasks, which demonstrate that learners can acquire complex patterns without any conscious registration of the relevant forms.^[2] This challenges the hypothesis's core claim that input must be consciously noticed to become intake, as cognitive psychology research indicates that attention can facilitate learning without requiring full awareness.^[2] Critics have also pointed to the hypothesis's neglect of affective factors in shaping attention and noticing. Emotional states, such as motivation or anxiety, can influence attentional processes and learning outcomes independently of explicit noticing, suggesting that the hypothesis's cognitive focus overlooks these motivational and emotional dimensions in second language contexts.^[31] The Noticing Hypothesis has been faulted for its definitional vagueness regarding what constitutes "noticing," leading to debates over whether it refers to fleeting perceptual registration or sustained, reportable awareness. Truscott (1998) contends that this ambiguity undermines the hypothesis's testability, as it fails to provide clear criteria for distinguishing noticed input from mere exposure, complicating empirical validation.^[2]

Responses and Counterarguments

In response to criticisms questioning the necessity of noticing for language acquisition, Richard Schmidt reaffirmed the hypothesis in his 2001 analysis by drawing on longitudinal case studies of adult learners, such as the long-term observations of "Wes," an English learner in Hawaii whose persistent grammatical errors over years of immersion demonstrated that mere exposure without conscious registration failed to yield intake. These data underscored noticing's essential role in converting input to intake, contrasting Wes's limited progress with more successful learners like "Julie," who benefited from targeted attention to forms during her 26-year Arabic acquisition. Schmidt further clarified the distinction between noticing—defined as the conscious detection of specific linguistic instances—and understanding, which involves higher-level generalization and is facilitative but not strictly required for initial intake. Empirical rebuttals to claims of purely unconscious processing have utilized advanced methodologies like eye-tracking to demonstrate noticing's conscious components. In a 2013 study, Aline Godfroid and colleagues employed eye-tracking during vocabulary exposure tasks, revealing that while initial fixations indicated unconscious attentional precursors to novel words, subsequent longer gazes and verbal reports of awareness correlated with better retention and learning outcomes, thus supporting the hypothesis's emphasis on consciousness for effective intake.^[32] Critiques from usage-based perspectives, which prioritize frequency effects over explicit awareness, have been integrated rather than dismissed, enhancing the hypothesis's scope. Nick Ellis, in his 2006 examination of selective attention in L2 acquisition, refined usage-based accounts by incorporating noticing as a mechanism that modulates frequency-driven learning, arguing that conscious attention amplifies the salience of high-frequency cues in contingency learning and cue competition, thereby resolving apparent conflicts between implicit tallying and awareness. More recent defenses highlight methodological advancements addressing earlier concerns about the hypothesis's vagueness in defining awareness levels. Refined elicitation techniques, such as concurrent verbal protocols and online measures, have clarified noticing's operationalization, providing robust evidence that low-level awareness remains pivotal while mitigating ambiguities in prior research designs.

Applications and Implications

Pedagogical Uses in Language Teaching

The noticing hypothesis has significantly influenced task-based language teaching (TBLT) by emphasizing the design of communicative tasks that encourage learners to notice linguistic forms during meaningful interaction. In TBLT frameworks, activities such as information gap tasks—where learners exchange information to complete a shared goal—are structured to promote incidental noticing of target structures, as output production during these tasks heightens awareness of gaps in one's interlanguage. For instance, Willis's (1996) three-stage framework (pre-task, task cycle, and language focus) incorporates post-task analysis phases that explicitly draw attention to noticed forms, facilitating the conversion of input to intake through conscious reflection.^[33]^[34] Focus on form techniques, as proposed by Long (1991), operationalize the noticing hypothesis by integrating brief, incidental attention to linguistic elements within primarily meaning-oriented lessons, thereby enhancing the salience of target features without disrupting communication. Input enhancement methods, a key subset of focus on form, manipulate input through typographical cues like bolding or italicizing specific structures to direct learners' attention and promote noticing of otherwise overlooked forms. Empirical applications demonstrate that such enhancements increase the likelihood of learners registering grammatical patterns, supporting the hypothesis's claim that conscious attention is essential for acquisition.^[35]^[36] In corrective feedback practices, the noticing hypothesis underscores the role of recasts and prompts in drawing learners' attention to errors during interaction. Recasts provide implicit reformulations of erroneous utterances, while prompts—such as elicitation or metalinguistic cues—encourage self-repair, both mechanisms fostering noticing of form-meaning discrepancies. Lyster's (2004) research indicates that prompts are particularly effective for developing explicit knowledge of rule-governed features, as they push learners to actively notice and reformulate, leading to greater immediate uptake compared to recasts alone.^[37]^[38] Digital tools have extended these pedagogical applications by incorporating adaptive input enhancement to support self-directed noticing in language learning apps. Features like selective highlighting, glossing, and repetition align with the noticing hypothesis by increasing the perceptual salience of target vocabulary and grammar. These mechanisms provide repeated, focused exposure that mirrors enhanced input techniques, complementing classroom practices.^[35]

Influence on SLA Research Practices

The Noticing Hypothesis, as articulated by Schmidt, has profoundly shaped research methodologies in second language acquisition (SLA) by emphasizing the need to empirically capture learners' conscious awareness of linguistic input. A key outcome has been the widespread adoption of introspective methods, such as think-aloud protocols and learner diaries, to directly access and document instances of noticing. Think-aloud protocols, both concurrent and retrospective, allow researchers to elicit verbal reports from learners during or immediately after exposure to L2 input, enabling the coding of awareness levels from mere perception to deeper understanding.^[39] These methods gained prominence following Schmidt's own use of diaries in his 1986 study with Frota, where diary entries and audio recordings revealed a strong correlation between consciously noticed grammatical forms and subsequent intake, setting a precedent for their routine application in cognitivist SLA paradigms.^[21] Despite ongoing debates about reactivity—where verbalization might alter cognitive processes—non-metacognitive think-alouds have been validated as largely non-intrusive for measuring unprompted noticing, thus becoming a standard tool for investigating awareness.^[40] In experimental research, the hypothesis has driven the development of paradigms centered on pre- and post-testing to quantify noticing's role in learning outcomes. These designs typically involve baseline assessments of learners' knowledge of targeted structures, followed by input exposure designed to prompt noticing (e.g., through enhancement or output tasks), and concluding with post-tests measuring improvements in accuracy or production. For instance, studies employing this approach have demonstrated that enhanced noticing correlates with gains in grammatical accuracy, providing causal evidence for Schmidt's claims.^[41] Such paradigms prioritize controlled manipulations of attention to isolate noticing from mere perception, often integrating verbal reports to triangulate behavioral data, and have become foundational in evaluating interventions like input flooding or focus-on-form activities.^[28] The influence extends to longitudinal studies, particularly in immersion programs, where researchers track the evolution of noticing over time to understand sustained L2 development. These designs monitor learners' awareness through repeated introspective measures and performance assessments across months or years, revealing patterns in how initial noticing contributes to long-term intake and restructuring. This approach has informed perceptual models in SLA, such as Flege's Speech Learning Model, which posits that equivalent L2 sounds are formed through attentive discrimination in immersive environments, aligning with the hypothesis's emphasis on conscious registration for phonetic category formation.^[42] By incorporating serial data collection, such studies highlight the dynamic nature of noticing, influencing broader research on individual differences in immersion outcomes. Finally, the Noticing Hypothesis has catalyzed the integration of mixed-methods approaches in SLA, blending quantitative metrics of learning (e.g., error rates in oral or written production) with qualitative insights from learner journals or stimulated recalls. This combination allows for a nuanced examination of how noticing mediates between input exposure and measurable progress, addressing limitations of purely behavioral measures. For example, quantitative gains in accuracy can be contextualized by qualitative evidence of noticed gaps, fostering more robust interpretations of awareness's causal role.^[43] Such hybrid designs, increasingly prevalent since the 1990s, reflect the hypothesis's push toward multifaceted evidence, enhancing the validity of findings on attention in diverse learner contexts.^[27]

Future Directions

Areas for Further Investigation

Research on the noticing hypothesis has highlighted significant gaps in understanding how individual differences influence the efficacy of noticing in second language acquisition (SLA). Specifically, further investigation is needed into how factors such as language aptitude, age, and motivation modulate learners' ability to notice and process linguistic input. For instance, while aptitude components like working memory have been linked to enhanced noticing of feedback, the precise mechanisms by which high aptitude facilitates deeper processing remain underexplored, particularly in diverse learner populations. Age-related variations also warrant more attention, as adults may rely more on explicit noticing for grammatical features compared to children, yet longitudinal studies tracking age effects on noticing over time are scarce. Similarly, motivation's role in directing attention toward input has been noted to enhance noticing, but empirical work examining how motivational states interact with noticing in real-time tasks is limited. Addressing these individual differences could clarify why some learners achieve greater intake from noticed input than others. Another key area for further investigation involves the long-term effects of noticing on language development, particularly its connections to fossilized errors and ultimate attainment in SLA. While immediate noticing has been shown to promote short-term intake, studies directly linking these processes to sustained proficiency gains or the prevention of fossilization—where errors become persistent despite instruction—remain limited as of 2025. For example, Mennim (2007) demonstrated that noticing activities improved oral output retention over several weeks, but broader research is required to determine if repeated noticing can mitigate fossilization in advanced learners or contribute to near-native ultimate attainment, including recent explorations of fossilization patterns in younger learners. Such investigations would need to overcome methodological challenges, like tracking learners over extended periods, to establish causal pathways from noticing to long-term error reduction.^[44] Cross-linguistic variations represent a critical unresolved domain, with calls for research on noticing in typologically distant language pairs, such as from L1 Chinese to L2 English. Existing studies have predominantly focused on Indo-European languages, leaving gaps in how typological differences affect noticing of structures like relative clauses or word order, though L1 transfer effects on noticing feedback have been noted in some distant pairs. Future work should examine whether noticing thresholds vary across such contrasts to refine the hypothesis for global SLA contexts.^[45] Integration with neuroscience offers promising avenues, particularly through more functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies on attention networks during noticing tasks. While behavioral evidence supports noticing's role in intake, direct neuroimaging research on how noticing engages networks like the dorsal attention system in SLA remains limited as of 2025, despite post-2020 advances in fMRI applications to SLA processes such as explicit knowledge and speech-sound learning. Calls persist for such studies to elucidate neural correlates of noticing versus mere exposure, addressing gaps in understanding awareness levels at the brain level. This could reveal how attention modulates intake neurologically, bridging cognitive and neuroscientific perspectives on the hypothesis.^[46]^[47]

Emerging Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Recent reviews have integrated the noticing hypothesis with ecological psychology, emphasizing how environmental contexts influence the salience of linguistic features in second language acquisition (SLA). From an ecological viewpoint, noticing is not solely a cognitive process but emerges from interactions with the surrounding environment, where affordances—opportunities for action provided by the setting—enhance learners' awareness of target forms. For instance, contextual elements like social interactions or multimodal cues can heighten the perceptual salience of L2 input, transforming passive exposure into active intake. This perspective contrasts with purely cognitive models by highlighting dynamic, situated processes that align with Gibson's theory of ecological perception, applied to language learning.^[48] Advances in neuroimaging have begun to elucidate the neural underpinnings of noticing in L2 processing through electroencephalography (EEG) studies examining event-related potentials (ERPs). Recent research links attentional mechanisms in noticing to the P300 component, an ERP marker of stimulus evaluation and resource allocation during language tasks. In bilingual contexts, P300 responses reflect heightened attention to deviant or novel L2 stimuli, supporting Schmidt's claim that conscious registration is essential for intake. For example, studies on sublexical speech perception in bilingual adults demonstrate that P300 amplitude variations correlate with L2 proficiency and executive attention, indicating how noticing facilitates early sensory processing of unfamiliar forms. These findings provide empirical validation for the hypothesis by showing neural signatures of awareness in real-time L2 comprehension.^[49] The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and computational modeling has introduced innovative applications of the noticing hypothesis, particularly in chatbots designed to simulate noticing prompts for personalized L2 learning. AI systems, such as large language model-based chatbots, deliver tailored corrective feedback that directs learners' attention to linguistic gaps, aligning with the hypothesis's emphasis on conscious awareness. Systematic reviews of studies up to 2024 highlight how these tools use structured prompts and dialogue management to foster noticing of pragmatic and syntactic features, enhancing motivation and retention through adaptive interactions. For instance, chatbots like those employing task-based scenarios provide immediate, individualized scaffolding, which promotes deeper engagement with L2 forms compared to traditional methods. This computational approach extends the hypothesis by enabling scalable, context-aware simulations of naturalistic noticing events.^[50] Post-2020 refinements have extended the noticing hypothesis to multilingualism and translanguaging contexts, where learners draw on multiple linguistic repertoires to facilitate awareness. In diverse classrooms, translanguaging practices—fluidly mixing languages—amplify noticing by leveraging learners' full semiotic resources, making target forms more salient through cross-linguistic comparisons. A 2024 study in multilingual settings illustrates how teachers apply noticing strategies, such as visual cues during translanguaging shifts, to heighten students' metalinguistic awareness and affirm bilingual identities. This approach refines the hypothesis by underscoring its applicability beyond monolingual L2 acquisition, emphasizing emergent properties of multilingual minds in decoding new systems. Such perspectives advocate for inclusive pedagogies that harness translanguaging to enhance noticing in complex linguistic ecologies.^[51]

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[PDF] The Output Hypothesis: From Theory to Practice
These observations led Swain to formulate the Output Hypothesis, which asserts that "the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under ...Missing: bridge | Show results with:bridge
[20]
'Noticing' in SLA: Is it a valid concept? - TESL-EJ
20), "the noticing hypothesis states that what learners notice in input is what becomes intake for learning." Schmidt also states that a) whether a learner ...
[21]
[PDF] The Interaction Hypothesis. - ERIC
The oral interaction hypothesis, proposed by Long and investigated by Pica, in ... and comparison. According to Schmidt (1990),the process of noticing is.
[22]
The potential role(s) of writing in second language development
Aug 9, 2025 · Request PDF | The potential role(s) of writing in second language development | Writing is often seen as having a minor role in second ...
[23]
[PDF] The implicit and explicit learning of constructions Nick C. Ellis
The noticing hypothesis subsumes various ways in which SLA can fail to ... Usage- based and form focused SLA 21. York: Guillford Press. Baddeley, Alan D ...
[24]
https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/nickellis-new/wp-content/uploads/sites/1284/2021/07/4-Ellis.pdf
[25]
Verbal Reports, Noticing, and SLA Research - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · In contrast to stimulated recall, Egi (2004) found that immediate verbal reports during treatments did not influence learners' performance on ...
[26]
[PDF] "Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language ...
While concurring with Schmidt's noticing hypothesis on the important role of attention in learning, Tomlin and Villa's (1994) model of input processing in SLA ...<|separator|>
[27]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240535870_Verbal_Reports_Noticing_and_SLA_Research
[28]
Noticing in second language acquisition: a critical review
This article examines the Noticing Hypothesis – the claim that second language learners must consciously notice the grammatical form of their input in order ...Missing: Brazil | Show results with:Brazil
[29]
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF ...
Jun 7, 2005 · One of the criticisms leveled against Monitor Theory was that it failed to provide precise definitions of its two main constructs (acquisition ...Missing: affective | Show results with:affective
[30]
AN EYE FOR WORDS | Studies in Second Language Acquisition
This eye-tracking study tests the hypothesis that more attention leads to more learning, following claims that attention to new language elements in the input ...
[31]
Frequency Effects in Language Processing: A Review with ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Specifically, within the usage-based approach, when a language learner is exposed to a lexical item with greater frequency, their knowledge of ...
[32]
A Framework For Task-Based Learning (Willis, 1996) | PDF - Scribd
Rating 4.7 (12) A Framework For Task-Based Learning (Willis, 1996). The task-based approach ... noticing, useful features of language. Thus output can encourage intake ...
[33]
[PDF] Taskbased language teaching: sorting out the misunderstandings
The noticing hypothesis claims that noticing (i.e. paying conscious attention to linguistic form) is necessary for acquisition to take place. A number of ...
[34]
[PDF] A Closer Look at Noticing Hypothesis and Focus on Form
Sep 1, 2012 · While Gass et.al (2003) claim that awareness of form alone does not cause its acquisition without the formulation of explicit rules and how ...<|separator|>
[35]
OUTPUT, INPUT ENHANCEMENT, AND THE NOTICING ...
The major findings are: (a) Those engaged in output-input activities outperformed those exposed to the same input for the sole purpose of comprehension in ...
[36]
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF PROMPTS AND RECASTS IN FORM ...
Sep 1, 2004 · FFI is more effective when combined with prompts than with recasts or no feedback, as a means of enabling L2 learners to acquire rule-based representations of ...
[37]
Recasts, prompts and noticing: A comparative study - ResearchGate
May 3, 2021 · The results of the study revealed that both recasts and prompts were able to induce noticing the corrective intent, noticing the target of CF or ...
[38]
Duolingo - ResearchGate
While Duolingo's Learn feature provides users with some input enhancement in the form of glossing and underlining (Teske, 2017) , Duolingo's other, less ...
[39]
[PDF] Attention, Awareness, and Noticing in SLA: A Methodological Review
Most studies related to noticing have investigated English, Spanish, Italian,. German and French, and it is somewhat obvious that attention to non-Roman.
[40]
[PDF] The think-aloud controversy in second language research
The most widely accepted view in SLA, which is derived from. Schmidt's noticing hypothesis, is that attention is isomorphic with awareness and that without ...
[41]
Verbal Reports, Noticing, and SLA Research - Taylor & Francis Online
This paper explores the use of a recall technique known as immediate retrospective verbal reports as a qualitative measure of noticing during oral interaction ...
[42]
The Revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r) (Chapter 1)
By hypothesis, the likelihood of cross-language phonetic differences being discerned between pairs of L1 and L2 sounds decreases as a function of the age of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
[PDF] The Impact of Noticing and Output Tasks on the Mastery of English ...
Abstract. The present convergent parallel mixed methods design study aimed at examining the effects of noticing and output tasks on the mastery of English ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Forty years later: Updating the Fossilization Hypothesis
Feb 22, 2013 · This article revisits the Fossilization Hypothesis, starting with the earliest set of questions (still the most comprehensive) (Selinker & Lamendella 1978)
[45]
[PDF] Issues of Corrective Feedback in Second Language Acquisition
In his Noticing Hypothesis, Schmidt (1990, 1995, 2001) argues that noticing ... Han concluded that the student's “persistent error arose from L1 typological ...
[46]
Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition
Jun 15, 2020 · ... future research directions. References. Faretta-Stutenberg, M ... Attention, memory, and the “noticing” hypothesis. Language Learning ...
[47]
Review of Noticing Hypothesis from Two Cognitive and Ecological ...
In this paper, we will elaborate noticing hypothesis from both cognitive and ecological perspectives.Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[48]
Sublexical speech perception and attention networks in bilingual ...
... P300 responses were influenced by second language experience in individuals recovering from aphasia. Similarly, tonal oddball paradigms indicate that L2 ...Sublexical Speech Perception... · Introduction · Attentive Sublexical Speech...
[49]
The use of artificially intelligent chatbots in English language learning
May 27, 2024 · ... noticing hypothesis (Timpe-Laughlin & Dombi, Reference Timpe ... Indisputably, personalized learning is one crucial goal that AI chatbot ...
[50]
Centring on students' needs by engaging in translanguaging shifts
Mar 13, 2024 · ... noticing hypothesis, to. facilitate students' learning (Schmidt 1990) ... For example, they employ translanguaging to affirm students' identities ( ...