Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Nuclear reaction

A nuclear reaction is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei or subatomic particles, such as protons or neutrons, interact to produce one or more different nuclei and possibly other particles, often accompanied by the release or absorption of energy.^[1]^[2] These reactions are governed by fundamental conservation laws, including those of baryon number, electric charge, total energy, momentum, angular momentum, and parity, and they occur under conditions where the strong nuclear force overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between positively charged nuclei.^[2] Nuclear reactions encompass a variety of types, broadly classified as fission, fusion, and transmutation processes.^[3] In fission, a heavy nucleus such as uranium-235 absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter nuclei, releasing additional neutrons and substantial energy—typically around 200 MeV per event—that can sustain a chain reaction.^[4]^[5] This process powers nuclear reactors for electricity generation and has been harnessed in atomic weapons.^[4] Conversely, fusion involves the merging of light nuclei, such as isotopes of hydrogen, to form a heavier nucleus, liberating even greater energy per reaction due to increased binding energy; for example, the deuterium-tritium reaction releases 17.6 MeV.^[3] Fusion fuels stars like the Sun and is the focus of ongoing research for clean energy production, though it requires extreme temperatures to overcome the Coulomb barrier.^[4] Other reactions include radiative capture, where a nucleus absorbs a particle and emits a gamma ray, and scattering events like elastic or inelastic collisions that alter nuclear states without changing the particle identity.^[1] The energetics of nuclear reactions are quantified by the Q-value, the difference in kinetic energy between products and reactants, determined from mass differences via Einstein's equation E = mc^2; positive Q-values indicate exothermic reactions that release energy, while negative values require input energy to proceed.^[2]^[1] The probability of a reaction occurring is described by the cross section, measured in units like the barn (10^{-28} m²), which reflects the effective "target area" presented by the nucleus.^[2] Beyond energy production, nuclear reactions enable applications in medicine (e.g., isotope production for imaging and therapy), astrophysics (modeling stellar nucleosynthesis), and fundamental research using particle accelerators to probe nuclear structure.^[1]^[3]

Basic Concepts

Definition and Scope

A nuclear reaction is a process in which two atomic nuclei, or a nucleus and a subatomic particle, interact to produce one or more different nuclei, typically involving alterations in the nucleon number, atomic charge, or energy states of the participants.^[2]^[6] These interactions can result in the emission of particles such as neutrons, protons, or alpha particles, or radiation like gamma rays, fundamentally transforming the identity of the original nuclei.^[1] At the heart of nuclear reactions lies the atomic nucleus, a dense core composed of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons, collectively known as nucleons, which are held together by the strong nuclear force against the repulsive electromagnetic force between protons.^[7] The stability of this structure is quantified by the nuclear binding energy, the minimum energy required to separate the nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons, reflecting the mass defect arising from the conversion of mass to energy per Einstein's equation E = mc^2.^[8] The scope of nuclear reactions includes both natural occurrences, such as those in stellar nucleosynthesis where high temperatures and densities in star cores drive fusion of light nuclei to form heavier elements like helium from hydrogen, and artificial processes induced in controlled environments like particle accelerators, where beams of accelerated particles collide with target nuclei to probe nuclear structure or synthesize rare isotopes.^[9] Reactions are broadly classified as elastic, in which the kinetic energy is redistributed without changing the internal excitation of the nuclei, or inelastic, where energy is transferred to excite nuclear states.^[10] Representative examples illustrate these distinctions: alpha decay represents a spontaneous natural reaction, as in the transformation of uranium-238 into thorium-234 plus an alpha particle, driven by the instability of heavy nuclei seeking lower energy states.^[11] Conversely, neutron capture exemplifies an induced artificial reaction, such as the absorption of a neutron by a cadmium-113 nucleus to form cadmium-114, often used in neutron detection and shielding applications.^[12]

Nuclear Reaction Notation and Equations

Nuclear reactions are represented using a standardized notation that specifies the composition of atomic nuclei and subatomic particles involved. The general form for a nuclide is ^{A}_{Z}\mathrm{X}, where \mathrm{X} is the chemical symbol for the element, A is the mass number (total number of protons and neutrons), and Z is the atomic number (number of protons).^[13] This superscript-prefix format allows precise identification of isotopes and particles, such as the alpha particle denoted as ^{4}_{2}\mathrm{He} or \alpha, which consists of two protons and two neutrons.^[14] Common symbols in nuclear notation include \mathrm{n} for the neutron (^{1}_{0}\mathrm{n}), \mathrm{p} for the proton (^{1}_{1}\mathrm{p} or ^{1}_{1}\mathrm{H}), \gamma for the gamma ray (a photon with zero mass and charge), and \mathrm{e} for the electron (_{-1}^{0}\mathrm{e}) or positron (_{+1}^{0}\mathrm{e}^{+}).^[13] Nuclear reactions are written as equations using an arrow (\rightarrow) to indicate the transformation from reactants (on the left) to products (on the right), for example, ^{14}_{7}\mathrm{N} + ^{4}_{2}\mathrm{He} \rightarrow ^{17}_{8}\mathrm{O} + ^{1}_{1}\mathrm{H}.^[15] Balancing nuclear equations requires adherence to conservation laws, ensuring that the total quantities remain unchanged across the reaction. These include conservation of baryon number (assigned as +1 for protons and neutrons, 0 for others), lepton number ( +1 for electrons and neutrinos, -1 for positrons and antineutrinos), electric charge (proportional to atomic number Z), and total mass-energy.^[16] To balance, first verify the sum of mass numbers A on both sides (reflecting baryon conservation), then check atomic numbers Z (ensuring charge balance); lepton number is conserved separately if leptons are involved, while mass-energy equivalence accounts for any rest mass differences converted to kinetic energy or radiation.^[17] A step-by-step example is the first artificial nuclear reaction observed by Ernest Rutherford in 1919: ^{14}_{7}\mathrm{N} + ^{4}_{2}\mathrm{He} \rightarrow ? + ^{1}_{1}\mathrm{H}. Start with baryon number: left side totals $14 + 4 = 18, so the unknown product must have A = 17 to match the right side's $17 + 1 = 18. For charge: left side $7 + 2 = 9, right side includes $1 from the proton, so the unknown must have Z = 8. This identifies the product as oxygen-17 (^{17}_{8}\mathrm{O}), yielding the balanced equation ^{14}_{7}\mathrm{N} + ^{4}_{2}\mathrm{He} \rightarrow ^{17}_{8}\mathrm{O} + ^{1}_{1}\mathrm{H}. No leptons are present, so lepton conservation is trivially satisfied, and the reaction conserves mass-energy overall.^[15] Nuclear reactions are classified as exoergic (exothermic) or endoergic (endothermic) based on the mass defect, which is the difference between the total initial and final rest masses of the participants. In exoergic reactions, the products have less total mass than the reactants, with the mass defect converted to kinetic energy or radiation released to the surroundings. Conversely, endoergic reactions feature products with greater total mass, requiring input energy (typically from the incident particle's kinetic energy) to proceed. This distinction arises from the binding energy differences in the nuclei involved but does not involve explicit energy calculations here.^[18]

Energy and Conservation Laws

Energy Conservation in Nuclear Reactions

In nuclear reactions, the principle of energy conservation is upheld through the mass-energy equivalence described by Einstein's equation E = mc^2, where the total energy—comprising kinetic energy, rest mass energy, and nuclear binding energy—is invariant before and after the interaction.^[19] This equivalence reveals that nuclear processes can release or absorb vast amounts of energy due to minute changes in mass, far exceeding those in chemical reactions, as the rest energy of nucleons dominates at atomic scales.^[20] The rest mass contribution to energy conservation arises from the precise atomic masses of reactants and products; if the total rest mass of the products is less than that of the reactants, the mass deficit \Delta m converts directly into kinetic energy of the outgoing particles via \Delta E = \Delta m c^2, rendering the reaction exothermic and feasible without external energy input beyond initial kinetic energies.^[8] Conversely, endothermic reactions occur when products have greater total rest mass, requiring an input of kinetic energy to compensate for the mass increase, ensuring overall energy balance.^[21] In high-energy nuclear reactions, relativistic effects necessitate considering both energy and momentum conservation simultaneously, often analyzed in the center-of-mass (CM) frame where the total momentum is zero, contrasting with the laboratory (lab) frame where the target is typically at rest.^[22] For instance, in the lab frame, the incoming projectile carries all initial momentum as a vector \vec{p}, while the target has zero; transforming to the CM frame balances momenta oppositely (\vec{p}_{proj} + \vec{p}_{target} = 0), simplifying calculations of reaction products' directions and energies, with the Lorentz boost relating the frames for accurate predictions.^[21] The feasibility and energy release in nuclear reactions are further illuminated by the nuclear binding energy curve, which plots binding energy per nucleon against atomic mass number and peaks around iron-56, indicating maximum stability.^[23] For light nuclei below this peak, such as hydrogen isotopes, fusion reactions increase average binding energy per nucleon, releasing energy as mass converts to kinetic forms; for heavy nuclei like uranium beyond the peak, fission decreases mass number toward the peak, similarly liberating energy through enhanced binding.^[8] This curve qualitatively explains why stellar nucleosynthesis favors fusion for elements lighter than iron, while controlled fission powers reactors for heavier isotopes.^[23]

Q-Value and Threshold Energy

The Q-value of a nuclear reaction quantifies the net energy released or absorbed, defined as the difference in rest energies between reactants and products: Q = \left[ \sum m_{\text{initial}} - \sum m_{\text{final}} \right] [c](/page/Speed_of_light)^2, where m denotes rest masses and c is the speed of light.^[24] In practice, atomic masses in unified atomic mass units (u) are used for calculation, with the conversion factor $1 \, \text{u} = 931.494 \, \text{MeV}/c^2, so [Q](/page/Q) (in MeV) = \Delta m (in u) \times 931.494.^[25] A positive Q indicates an exoergic reaction, where energy is released as kinetic energy of the products or other forms like gamma radiation; a negative Q signifies an endoergic reaction, requiring energy input.^[26] For example, consider the exoergic radiative capture reaction n + p \to [d](/page/D*) + \gamma. The atomic masses are m_n = 1.00866491595 \, \text{u}, m_p = 1.00782503224 \, \text{u}, and m_d = 2.01410177804 \, \text{u}. The mass defect is \Delta m = m_n + m_p - m_d = 0.00238816919 \, \text{u}. Thus, Q = 0.00238816919 \times 931.494 = 2.224 \, \text{MeV}, confirming the reaction releases energy equal to the deuteron binding energy.^[27]^[28] For endoergic reactions (Q < 0), a threshold kinetic energy E_{\text{th}} is required in the laboratory frame, where the target is at rest: E_{\text{th}} = -Q \left(1 + \frac{m}{M}\right), with m the incident particle mass and M the target mass. This formula arises from conservation of energy and momentum: in the center-of-mass frame, the available energy must at least equal the final rest energy (overcoming -Q), but the lab-to-CM transformation demands additional kinetic energy to account for the center-of-mass motion, yielding the (1 + m/M) factor under non-relativistic conditions (valid when energies << rest masses). The Q-value thus determines reaction feasibility: exoergic processes (Q > 0) can proceed spontaneously if particles can interact, while endoergic ones (Q < 0) are impossible below E_{\text{th}}, even without barriers like the Coulomb potential for charged particles.^[26]

Kinematics and Interaction Mechanisms

Reaction Cross Sections and Rates

In nuclear physics, the cross section σ represents the effective interaction area of a target nucleus for an incident particle, serving as a measure of the probability that a reaction occurs upon collision. This probability is expressed in units of barns, where 1 barn equals 10^{-28} m², a scale roughly comparable to the geometric size of atomic nuclei.^[29] Unlike the geometric cross section, which is simply the classical projected area πR² based on the nuclear radius R, the reaction cross section accounts for quantum effects such as wave interference and tunneling, allowing it to exceed geometric limits in certain cases.^[30] The rate of nuclear reactions between two particle species with number densities n₁ and n₂ is quantified by the formula R = n₁ n₂ ⟨σ v⟩, where ⟨σ v⟩ denotes the average over the relative velocity v weighted by the cross section σ.^[31] This expression arises from the flux of incident particles interacting with targets, integrated over their velocity distribution. In laboratory beam-target experiments, the setup simplifies to R = φ n₂ σ for a monoenergetic beam, where φ is the beam flux (particles per unit area per unit time) and n₂ is the target density, enabling direct extraction of σ from observed reaction yields.^[32] Reaction rates depend strongly on the incident particle energy E, as σ(E) typically varies with E, exhibiting peaks at resonance energies where the incident energy matches an excited state of the compound nucleus. At such resonances, characterized by a resonance energy E_r and width Γ, the Breit-Wigner approximation describes the cross section as σ ∝ 1 / [(E - E_r)² + (Γ/2)²], leading to a Lorentzian-shaped enhancement that can increase rates by orders of magnitude near E_r.^[33] In astrophysical environments like stellar plasmas, temperature T influences rates through the Maxwellian velocity distribution, which determines ⟨σ v⟩; higher T broadens the distribution, shifting effective energies toward values where σ is larger, though Coulomb barriers suppress rates at low T.^[34] Cross sections σ(E) are experimentally determined using particle accelerators to generate beams of controlled energy and intensity, which bombard thin targets to minimize multiple scattering. Reaction products are then detected and counted with specialized detectors, such as silicon detectors for charged particles or gas-filled ionization chambers for neutrons, allowing reconstruction of excitation functions σ(E) from yield versus energy scans.^[35] These measurements provide essential data for modeling reaction probabilities across energy ranges relevant to reactors, astrophysics, and therapy applications.^[36]

Differences Between Charged and Neutral Particles

Nuclear reactions involving charged particles, such as protons or alpha particles, are significantly influenced by the Coulomb barrier, a repulsive electrostatic potential arising from the positive charges of the interacting nuclei. This barrier is described by the potential energy V(r) = \frac{Z_1 Z_2 e^2}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 r}, where Z_1 and Z_2 are the atomic numbers of the incident and target nuclei, e is the elementary charge, \epsilon_0 is the vacuum permittivity, and r is the distance between their centers.^[37] At typical nuclear reaction distances (r \approx 1-10 fm), this potential creates an energy barrier on the order of several MeV, preventing low-energy charged particles from approaching closely enough for the strong nuclear force to dominate.^[38] To overcome this barrier, charged particles rely on quantum mechanical tunneling, quantified by the Gamow factor, which gives the probability of penetration as approximately \exp(-2\pi \eta), where \eta is the Sommerfeld parameter defined as \eta = \frac{Z_1 Z_2 e^2}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 \hbar v}, with v being the relative velocity of the particles and \hbar the reduced Planck's constant.^[37] This exponential suppression makes reactions between charged particles challenging at low energies, as the tunneling probability decreases rapidly with increasing \eta (i.e., for higher charges or lower velocities). In contrast, neutral particles like neutrons experience no such long-range Coulomb repulsion, allowing them to penetrate nuclear potentials with minimal hindrance and interact primarily via the short-range strong force.^[39] The absence of charge enables neutrons to achieve high penetration depths in matter, often requiring moderation—slowing via elastic scattering with light nuclei like hydrogen—to optimize interaction rates in applications such as fission reactors, where thermal neutrons exhibit large capture cross sections (e.g., on the order of barns for uranium-235).^[40] These properties make neutral particles particularly effective for inducing reactions in dense nuclear fuels without needing to impart high kinetic energies.^[39] These interaction differences have profound implications for experimental design and reactor technology. Charged-particle reactions typically require particle accelerators to provide the necessary kinetic energy (often >1 MeV) to surmount or tunnel through the Coulomb barrier, enabling controlled studies of nuclear structure but limiting scalability for energy production.^[38] Neutrons, however, can be generated and moderated in situ within fission reactors, facilitating sustained chain reactions at ambient temperatures due to their unhindered access to target nuclei.^[40] Detection methods further highlight these distinctions. Charged particles produce ionization tracks that curve in magnetic fields under the Lorentz force \mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}), allowing momentum and charge identification via tracking detectors like silicon strips or scintillators.^[41] Neutral particles, lacking charge, do not ionize directly and thus evade such magnetic deflection; instead, they are detected indirectly through secondary effects, such as neutron capture leading to radioactive activation, followed by gamma-ray spectroscopy of the induced isotopes.^[42]

Types of Nuclear Reactions

Direct Reactions

Direct nuclear reactions are processes in which an incident projectile interacts briefly with the target nucleus, typically involving a one-step transfer of energy or particles mediated by the strong nuclear force. These reactions occur on an extremely short timescale of approximately $10^{-22} seconds, corresponding to the time for a nucleon to traverse the nucleus, which prevents full equilibration of the nuclear system.^[43]^[44] Theoretically, such reactions are often modeled using the plane-wave Born approximation (PWBA), which treats the incoming and outgoing waves as plane waves to compute transition amplitudes, though more advanced formulations like the distorted-wave Born approximation account for Coulomb and nuclear distortions.^[43]^[44] A hallmark of direct reactions is their forward-peaked angular distributions of reaction products, arising from the peripheral nature of the interaction where the projectile grazes the nuclear surface and transfers momentum selectively.^[43]^[44] Representative examples include proton inelastic scattering, denoted as (p, p'), and deuteron stripping reactions like (d, p), where the neutron from the deuteron is captured by the target while the proton continues forward.^[44] Inelastic scattering, a common subtype, involves the excitation of discrete nuclear states in the target without particle emission, allowing probes of collective vibrations or single-particle excitations. An illustrative reaction is

^{16}\mathrm{O}(p, p')^{16}\mathrm{O}^{*}(6.13\,\mathrm{MeV}),

where the outgoing proton carries reduced energy corresponding to the excitation. The differential cross section for such processes typically exhibits forward peaking with characteristic oscillations, whose spacing reflects the nuclear radius, and decreases with increasing scattering angle due to momentum transfer constraints.^[44]^[43] Charge-exchange reactions occur when the projectile and ejectile differ in charge, facilitating transitions between isobaric analog states or Gamow-Teller resonances. A key example is the (p, n) reaction, such as

^{14}\mathrm{N}(p, n)^{14}\mathrm{O},

which probes spin-isospin excitations. The cross section is often proportional to the Gamow-Teller strength B(\mathrm{GT}) at low momentum transfers and shows forward enhancement, with magnitudes scaling with the axial-vector coupling in weak interaction analogs.^[44]^[43] Nucleon transfer reactions encompass stripping, where a nucleon is added to the target, and pickup, where one is removed, providing direct measures of single-particle orbitals and spectroscopic factors. For stripping, consider the deuteron-induced reaction

^{27}\mathrm{Al}(d, p)^{28}\mathrm{Al},

with the cross section given by \frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega} = \omega_l (C^2 S) \frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega}_{\mathrm{sp}}, where C^2 S is the spectroscopic factor and the subscript "sp" denotes a single-particle estimate; this yields strong forward peaking for low orbital angular momentum transfers l. Pickup reactions, like (p, d), exhibit backward peaking due to recoil kinematics.^[44]^[43] Neutron-induced direct reactions, such as radiative capture, involve the emission of a gamma ray following neutron attachment without compound formation, prominent at low energies. An example is

^{12}\mathrm{C}(n, \gamma)^{13}\mathrm{C},

where the cross section follows a $1/v behavior at thermal energies for s-wave capture, decreasing with neutron velocity v, and is forward-peaked in the continuum limit due to direct E1 transitions.^[43]^[45] These reactions serve as powerful tools for probing nuclear structure through reaction spectroscopy, enabling the extraction of excitation energies, transition strengths, and single-particle properties to test shell-model predictions and map nuclear wave functions.^[43]^[44]

Compound Nuclear Reactions

Compound nuclear reactions involve a two-stage process where an incident projectile is completely absorbed by the target nucleus, forming a highly excited compound nucleus that subsequently decays through statistical emission of particles or radiation, with the decay independent of the specific formation channel. This model was first proposed by Niels Bohr in 1936 to explain observed nuclear reaction behaviors, such as the independence of reaction outcomes on the projectile type when forming the same compound state.^[46] In the formation stage, the projectile and target merge into a single composite system with excitation energy shared among all nucleons, erasing memory of the entrance channel. The decay stage then proceeds via multiple possible channels, governed by the relative probabilities of different emission modes. The cross section for compound nuclear reactions is described by the Hauser-Feshbach formalism, developed in 1952, which treats the process statistically. The partial cross section \sigma_{if} from initial channel i to final channel f is given by

\sigma_{if} = \frac{\pi}{k_i^2} \frac{g_i T_i T_f}{(g_i T_i + \sum_j g_j T_j)^2} \sum_{J^\pi} (2J+1),

where k_i is the entrance channel wave number, g_i accounts for spin degeneracy, T_i and T_f are the transmission coefficients for the entrance and exit channels, and the sum over J^\pi considers angular momentum and parity.^[47] Transmission coefficients T represent the probability of particle penetration through the nuclear barrier, calculated using optical model potentials. This expression highlights the competition among decay channels, with the total cross section distributed according to the branching ratios of available modes. Key characteristics of compound nuclear reactions include isotropic angular distributions of emitted particles in the center-of-mass frame, arising from the loss of directional memory during the compound state's long equilibration time, typically on the order of $10^{-16} s. This lifetime allows for full statistical equilibrium among nuclear degrees of freedom before decay. Representative examples include charged-particle emissions such as ^{59}\mathrm{[Co](/page/Co)}(\alpha,p)^{62}\mathrm{[Ni](/page/Ni)}, which proceed through proton evaporation from the excited state. These reactions exhibit resonance behavior when the incident energy matches discrete excited levels of the compound nucleus, characterized by the level spacing D (average energy separation between levels) and resonance width \Gamma (related to the lifetime by \tau = \hbar / \Gamma). Narrow resonances occur when \Gamma \ll D, typically for low-energy neutron-induced reactions where the level structure is resolved, leading to sharp peaks in the cross section and allowing detailed Breit-Wigner analysis.^[48] In contrast, broad resonances have \Gamma \gtrsim D, common in higher-energy or charged-particle reactions, where overlapping levels result in a smoother, continuum-like cross section and the statistical approximation holds more robustly. The transition from isolated to overlapping resonances marks the regime where Hauser-Feshbach theory becomes applicable. The compound nucleus model is valid primarily at low incident energies, where the de Broglie wavelength of the projectile is comparable to nuclear dimensions, facilitating full absorption and equilibration. At higher energies, above a few MeV per nucleon, direct reaction mechanisms dominate due to shorter interaction times and peripheral collisions, reducing the formation probability of the equilibrated compound state.

Fission and Fusion Reactions

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of a heavy atom, such as uranium-235, splits into two or more lighter nuclei when it absorbs a neutron, releasing additional neutrons and a substantial amount of energy. The typical reaction for uranium-235 is represented as ^{235}U + n → ^{236}U^* → fission fragments + 2-3 n + ~200 MeV energy, where the excited ^{236}U compound nucleus undergoes division, with the energy primarily arising from the conversion of a portion of the nuclear binding energy. This process is exothermic for nuclei with mass number A > 100 due to the higher average binding energy per nucleon in the fission products compared to the original heavy nucleus, as described by the nuclear binding energy curve. The liquid drop model, developed by Niels Bohr and John Wheeler, explains fission energetics by treating the nucleus as a charged liquid drop, where the fission barrier—the energy required to deform the nucleus sufficiently for splitting—is approximately 6 MeV for uranium-235. In induced fission, an incoming neutron provides the energy to overcome this barrier, leading to scission and the release of kinetic energy in the fragments. Spontaneous fission occurs rarely in heavy isotopes without external excitation; for example, californium-252 undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of about 2.6 years, producing on average 3-4 neutrons per event. Fission can sustain a chain reaction when the effective multiplication factor k_eff equals 1, meaning each fission event produces exactly one neutron that causes another fission on average, achieving criticality in systems like nuclear reactors. Nuclear fusion, conversely, involves the merging of two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy when the product has greater binding energy per nucleon than the reactants, which occurs for mass numbers A < 20. A representative example is the deuterium-tritium (D-T) reaction: ^2H + ^3H → ^4He (3.5 MeV) + n (14.1 MeV), totaling 17.6 MeV of released energy, primarily as kinetic energy of the products. Achieving net power from fusion requires satisfying the Lawson criterion, which specifies that the product of plasma density (n), confinement time (τ), and ion temperature (T) must exceed approximately 10^{21} m^{-3} s keV for deuterium-tritium plasmas to produce more energy than consumed. However, fusion reactions face significant challenges due to low cross sections at achievable energies; for instance, the D-T cross section peaks at around 5 barns at 100 keV but requires temperatures exceeding 10 keV to overcome Coulomb repulsion between positively charged nuclei. In stellar environments, fusion proceeds through cycles like the proton-proton (pp) chain in main-sequence stars, where four protons fuse stepwise into helium-4, releasing 26.7 MeV per helium nucleus, powering the Sun and similar stars. Unlike fission's reliance on heavy elements, fusion demands extreme conditions for light isotopes, but it offers advantages in fuel abundance and reduced long-lived radioactive waste. Recent advances include muon-catalyzed fusion, where muons facilitate closer nuclear approaches to enhance reaction rates at lower temperatures; experiments have achieved fusion rates up to 150 D-T fusions per muon, though muon production limits practicality, with ongoing research exploring improvements as of 2025. As of November 2025, companies like Acceleron Fusion have raised $24 million in seed funding to advance low-temperature muon-catalyzed fusion technology, aiming to improve muon efficiency and practicality.^[49] Additionally, the National Ignition Facility (NIF) achieved ignition in 2022 by producing 3.15 MJ of fusion energy from 2.05 MJ of laser input (gain ≈1.5) in a hohlraum target, and as of 2025, repeated experiments have achieved yields up to 8.6 MJ with gains exceeding 4, as demonstrated in the April 2025 experiment that delivered 8.6 MJ from 2.08 MJ of input energy.^[50]

Historical Development

Early Discoveries and Experiments

The discovery of radioactivity marked the inception of nuclear reaction studies in the late 19th century. In 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel observed that uranium salts emitted penetrating rays capable of fogging photographic plates, even in the absence of light, an effect he initially attributed to phosphorescence but later recognized as a spontaneous emission from the atomic nucleus.^[51] This finding, serendipitously uncovered during experiments on X-rays, laid the groundwork for understanding unstable atomic nuclei. Building on Becquerel's work, Marie and Pierre Curie isolated polonium and radium from uranium ore in 1898, demonstrating that these elements exhibited far greater radioactivity than uranium itself, which intensified research into nuclear instability.^[52] Early 20th-century experiments clarified the nature of radioactive emissions. In 1899, Ernest Rutherford distinguished alpha particles as positively charged helium nuclei and beta particles as electrons, based on their deflection in magnetic fields during studies of uranium and thorium decay.^[53] Gamma rays, identified as high-energy electromagnetic radiation in 1900 by Paul Villard and confirmed by Rutherford around 1903, completed the trio of emissions, revealing the diverse ways nuclei could release energy.^[54] These identifications relied on rudimentary detectors like electroscopes, highlighting the challenges of observing faint signals from rare decay events. The transition to artificial nuclear reactions began with Rutherford's 1919 experiments at the Cavendish Laboratory, where alpha particles from radium bombarded nitrogen gas, producing protons via the reaction ^{14}\mathrm{N} + ^{4}\mathrm{He} \rightarrow ^{17}\mathrm{O} + ^{1}\mathrm{H}, marking the first induced transmutation of one element into another.^[55] Detection involved scintillation screens and zinc sulfide, but low reaction cross sections—on the order of millibarns—necessitated prolonged exposures to capture rare events.^[54] In 1932, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton achieved the first fully artificial reaction using accelerated protons on lithium, yielding two alpha particles:

^{7}\mathrm{Li} + ^{1}\mathrm{H} \rightarrow 2\, ^{4}\mathrm{He}

, powered by a high-voltage generator that overcame electrostatic barriers.^[56] Key milestones followed rapidly. James Chadwick's 1932 discovery of the neutron arose from interpreting neutral radiation produced by beryllium-alpha interactions, which knocked protons from paraffin with energies inconsistent with gamma rays, confirming a massive uncharged particle in the nucleus.^[57] Enrico Fermi's 1934 experiments demonstrated that slow neutrons, moderated by paraffin or water, dramatically enhanced capture probabilities in nuclei like silver and uranium, inducing artificial radioactivity far more efficiently than fast neutrons.^[58] The culmination came in 1938 when Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, chemically detecting barium—a lighter element—indicating fission into fragments, a process later theoretically explained by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.^[59] These breakthroughs depended on evolving detection techniques amid significant hurdles. Cloud chambers, invented by Charles Wilson in 1911, visualized particle tracks as vapor trails in supersaturated air, enabling Rutherford and others to observe reaction products directly.^[60] Geiger counters, refined by Hans Geiger and Walther Müller in the 1920s, provided quantitative ionization measurements for beta and gamma rays, essential for counting low-yield events.^[61] Persistent challenges included minuscule cross sections, often below 1 barn, which demanded intense sources and sensitive apparatus to distinguish signal from background noise.^[55]

Modern Advances and Applications

Following the foundational discoveries of the mid-20th century, nuclear reaction research advanced significantly through the development of high-energy particle accelerators. Cyclotrons, pioneered by Ernest Lawrence, evolved into powerful tools for inducing reactions; the 184-inch cyclotron at the University of California, completed in 1946, accelerated deuterons to 200 MeV, enabling early studies of meson production and nuclear structure.^[62] Synchrotrons emerged in the 1940s as circular accelerators capable of higher energies, with the Brookhaven Cosmotron achieving the first GeV-range proton beams in 1952, facilitating investigations into particle interactions at relativistic speeds.^[63] Modern facilities like the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory confirmed the creation of quark-gluon plasma—a state of deconfined quarks and gluons—in gold-ion collisions in 2005, mimicking conditions microseconds after the Big Bang and advancing understanding of strong nuclear force dynamics under extreme densities. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, operational since 2008, uses heavy-ion collisions to probe similar high-temperature nuclear matter, producing lead-ion beams at energies up to 5.02 TeV per nucleon pair to study collective behaviors in the quark-gluon plasma. Practical applications of nuclear reactions have transformed energy production, medicine, and astrophysics. In nuclear power, fission reactors based on uranium-235 or plutonium-239 sustain controlled chain reactions to generate electricity, with over 400 operational worldwide providing about 10% of global electricity as of 2025. Breeder reactor designs, such as fast breeder reactors using liquid sodium coolant, extend fuel resources by converting non-fissile uranium-238 into plutonium-239, potentially increasing fissile material availability by a factor of 60 compared to conventional reactors.^[64] In medicine, positron emission tomography (PET) scans rely on positron-emitting isotopes like fluorine-18, produced via nuclear reactions in cyclotrons (e.g., ^{18}\mathrm{O}(p,n)^{18}\mathrm{F}), which annihilate with electrons to produce detectable gamma rays for imaging metabolic processes in cancer diagnosis. Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) exploits the ^{10}\mathrm{B}(n,\alpha)^7\mathrm{Li} reaction, where thermal neutrons capture on boron-10 atoms selectively accumulated in tumor cells, releasing localized alpha particles and lithium-7 nuclei to destroy malignant tissue; clinical trials in 2025 demonstrated efficacy for recurrent head-and-neck cancers using accelerator-based neutron sources.^[65] Astrophysical models of nuclear reactions elucidate heavy element formation in the universe. The rapid neutron-capture process (r-process) occurs in extreme environments like core-collapse supernovae, where neutron fluxes exceeding $10^{20} cm^{-2} s^{-1} rapidly build nuclei beyond iron through successive captures and beta decays, accounting for about half of elements heavier than zinc, including gold and uranium.^[66] In contrast, the slow neutron-capture process (s-process) dominates in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, where lower neutron densities from reactions like ^{13}\mathrm{C}(\alpha,n)^{16}\mathrm{O} allow captures interspersed with beta decays, producing lighter heavy elements like barium and strontium over thermal pulses in stellar envelopes.^[67] These processes, inferred from isotopic abundances in meteorites and stellar spectra, highlight nuclear reactions' role in cosmic nucleosynthesis. Recent breakthroughs underscore ongoing progress toward sustainable fusion energy and fundamental physics insights. The National Ignition Facility (NIF) achieved inertial confinement fusion ignition in December 2022, using 192 lasers to compress a deuterium-tritium fuel pellet and yield 3.15 megajoules of fusion energy from 2.05 megajoules input, marking the first net energy gain from controlled nuclear fusion.^[68] By 2025, follow-up experiments at NIF, including one on April 7 achieving 8.6 megajoules of fusion energy yield (a target gain of 4.13) through refined hohlraum designs, demonstrated improved yields, advancing prospects for high-gain fusion.^[68] The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), under construction in France, reached key milestones in 2025, including completion of the central solenoid magnet—with the fifth module installed on November 10—and ongoing assembly of the vacuum vessel, aiming for first plasma in late 2025 or 2026 and deuterium-tritium operations by 2035 to produce 500 MW of fusion power.^[69]^[70] Neutrino oscillation experiments, such as those at the LHC's forward detectors, probe weak nuclear reactions by observing flavor changes in high-energy neutrinos from pion decays, confirming mixing parameters like \sin^2\theta_{23} \approx 0.5 and constraining sterile neutrino models.^[71] Emerging concepts address energy and propulsion challenges. Hybrid fusion-fission reactors combine a fusion core to generate fast neutrons that induce fission in a surrounding blanket of thorium-232 or uranium-238, achieving subcritical multiplication while minimizing long-lived waste; China initiated construction of the world's first such plant in 2025, targeting 100 MW output by 2030 using a tokamak-driven design.^[72] For space propulsion, Project Daedalus, a 1970s British Interplanetary Society study, proposed a two-stage fusion rocket using inertial confinement of deuterium-helium-3 pellets for microexplosions, designed to accelerate a 50,000-tonne probe to 12% light speed for a 50-year mission to Barnard's Star, illustrating nuclear reactions' potential for interstellar travel despite technical hurdles like fuel sourcing.^[73]

References

[1]
Nuclear Reactions - HyperPhysics
Many kinds of nuclear reactions occur in response to the absorption of particles such as neutrons or protons.
[2]
[PDF] Lecture 13: Reactions Overview - INPP - Ohio University
A nuclear reaction consists of the interaction of two or more nuclei or nucleons that results in some final product. • The initial stuff is known as the ...
[3]
[PDF] Chapter 7 Nuclear Reactions
Fusion reactions are the combining of two nuclei to form a more massive nucleus. Many fusion reactions release large amounts of energy. An example is the ...
[4]
What is Nuclear Energy? The Science of Nuclear Power
### Definition and Key Points on Nuclear Reactions for Energy Production
[5]
DOE Explains...Nuclear Fission - Department of Energy
Fission can start when a nucleus of a material is bombarded by particles such as neutrons and protons. This type of fission is called a nuclear reaction.
[6]
Nuclear Reactions - NASA ADS
Nuclear reactions denote reactions between nuclei, and between nuclei and other fundamental particles, such as electrons and photons.
[7]
Atoms and Elements - HyperPhysics
An atom consists of a tiny nucleus made up of protons and neutrons, on the order of 20,000 times smaller than the size of the atom.
[8]
Nuclear Binding Energy - HyperPhysics
A measure of the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together. This binding energy can be calculated from the Einstein relationship.
[9]
DOE Explains...Nucleosynthesis - Department of Energy
Nucleosynthesis is the creation of new atomic nuclei, the centers of atoms that are made up of protons and neutrons.
[10]
[PDF] PDF
In this lecture we will mostly study elastic (or potential) scattering. The other reactions all involve compound nucleus formation, a process we will discuss ...
[11]
Radioactive Decay - Nuclear Chemistry
Alpha decay of the 238U "parent" nuclide, for example, produces 234Th as the "daughter" nuclide. alpha decay. The sum of the mass numbers of the products (234 + ...Alpha Decay · Beta Decay · Gamma Decay · Neutron-Rich Versus Neutron...
[12]
[PDF] Interaction of Neutrons with Matter.
Apr 2, 2011 · Elastic scattering is the most likely interaction for almost all nuclides and neutron energies. • The greatest amount of energy can be ...
[13]
Nuclear Reactions – University Physics Volume 3 - UCF Pressbooks
An example of alpha decay is uranium-238: {}_{\phantom{\rule{0.5em}{0ex}. The ... Earth is heated by nuclear reactions (alpha, beta, and gamma decays).
[14]
19.2 Nuclear Equations – Chemistry Fundamentals
Types of Particles in Nuclear Reactions 1. Protons ( 1 1 p , also represented by the symbol A 1 1 A 2 1 2 1 H ) and neutrons ( 0 1 n ) are the constituents of ...Missing: notation | Show results with:notation
[15]
[PDF] NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY - Utah Chemistry
Discovers the proton and the first nuclear reaction – 1919. ◦ 4He + 14N →17O + 1H. 103. Page 104. Elementary Particles. 1. Protons and Neutrons are not ...
[16]
Particle Conservation Laws – University Physics Volume 3
The baryon number conservation law and the three lepton number conversation law are valid for all physical processes. However, conservation of strangeness is ...
[17]
[PDF] Chem 481 Lecture Material - CSUN
Two important conservation laws are the conservation of baryon number and the conservation of lepton number. For nuclear decay processes and nuclear ...
[18]
[PDF] Introduction to Special Relativity, Quantum Mechanics and Nuclear ...
Dec 15, 2014 · Energy is released by the transformation. When Q < 0, the reaction is endothermic (or endoergic). Energy is required, by the kinetic ...
[19]
The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
Sep 12, 2001 · Einstein correctly described the equivalence of mass and energy as “the most important upshot of the special theory of relativity” (Einstein 1919).Missing: mc² | Show results with:mc²
[20]
[PDF] Chapter 12 NUCLEAR ENERGY
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, which are collectively and appropriately called nucleons. Protons are positively charged; neutrons do justice to ...
[21]
[PDF] Relativistic Kinematics II - UF Physics
Aug 26, 2015 · ... reaction to take place at a center of mass energy lower than the Δ mass). In that treatment the reaction becomes significant even at the ...
[22]
[PDF] Relativistic Kinematics
If a secondary particle, m₁, is produced with decay angle 0* in the CM frame, we can calculate its momentum (P1), energy (E₁), and angle (0), in the Lab system.
[23]
The Curve of Binding Energy/The role of Fusion
This curve indicates how stable atomic nuclei are; the higher the curve the more stable the nucleus.
[24]
[PDF] Nuclear Masses and Mass Excess: Q values for Nuclear Reactions
The Q value of a nuclear reaction is the difference between the sum of initial reactant masses and final product masses, in energy units.Missing: 17O + | Show results with:17O +
[25]
atomic mass constant energy equivalent in MeV - CODATA Value
atomic mass constant energy equivalent in MeV $m_{\rm u}c^2$ ; Numerical value, 931.494 103 72 MeV ; Standard uncertainty, 0.000 000 29 MeV.Missing: c² | Show results with:c²
[26]
Lecture 6: The Q-Equation—The Most General Nuclear Reaction
We introduce the Q-equation, which describes any reaction between any two particles which releases or absorbs energy via any nuclear process.
[27]
[PDF] n +) Status: ∗∗∗∗ - Particle Data Group
The mass is known more precisely in u (atomic mass units) than in MeV. The conversion is: 1 u = 931.494 102 42(28) MeV/c2(2018 CODATA value, TIESINGA 21).Missing: c² | Show results with:c²
[28]
[PDF] Ab initio calculation of the np → dγ radiative capture process
The radiative capture process, np → dγ, plays a crit- ical role in big-bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) as it is the starting point for the chain of reactions that ...
[29]
[PDF] DEFINITIONS The terms cross section and yield, widely used in ...
It refers to a sum of cross sections of all reaction channels on a well-defined target nucleus, which lead to direct production of the final nuclide.
[30]
[PDF] 6.10 Cross-section of nuclear reactions
Geometrically, therefore, the reaction cross-section is the area of cross-section of an imaginary disc associated with each target nucleus such that if the ...
[31]
[PDF] 3 Nuclear Cross Sections and Reaction Rates
Lecture 5. Basic Nuclear Physics – 3. Nuclear Cross Sections and Reaction Rates. Flux per cm2. = nj v. Total area of target nuclei per cm3 = nI σI. Reaction ...Missing: n2 sigma
[32]
[PDF] Reaction measurements with the Jet Experiments in Nuclear ... - OSTI
The JENSA system provides a pure, homogeneous, highly localized, dense, and robust gaseous target for radioactive ion beam studies. Charged-particle reactions.
[33]
[PDF] 3 Nuclear Cross Sections and Reaction Rates
Note varying widths and effects for E >> Γ ! The cross section contribution due to a single resonance is given by the. Breit-Wigner formula: σ(E) = π 2. ⋅ ω ...
[34]
[PDF] Chapter 3 Nuclear Reactions in Stars
3.3 Thermal distributions. The particles in our stellar plasma have a distribution of momenta characterized by their temperature. Thus to get total rates we ...
[35]
Measurements of the cross section up to MeV | Phys. Rev. C
Dec 20, 2023 · The study measured the 13C(α,n)16O cross section from 2.9 to 8.0 MeV, using a 3HeBF3 detector, and found lower cross sections than prior ...
[36]
An active target detector for the measurement of total cross sections
ATHENA is an active target detector, a gas-filled ionization chamber, designed to measure total cross sections of nuclear reactions for astrophysics.
[37]
[PDF] Basic Nuclear Physics – 2 Nuclear Reactions
This S-factor should vary slowly with energy. The first order effects of the Coulomb barrier and Compton wavelength have been factored out. For those ...
[38]
Nuclear Reactions
Jan 25, 2001 · Nuclear reactions involve high-velocity particles interacting with a target nucleus, described by the incident particle, target, and reaction ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[39]
[PDF] Introduction to neutron-induced reactions and the R-matrix formalism
Since the electrically neutral neutron has no Coulomb barrier to overcome, and has a negligible interaction with the electrons in matter, it can directly ...
[40]
Physics of Uranium and Nuclear Energy
May 16, 2025 · Neutrons in motion are the starting point for everything that happens in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron passes near to a heavy nucleus, ...
[41]
[PDF] Introduction to Detectors in Nuclear Physics - Jefferson Lab
Jun 6, 2023 · For charged particles curving in a magnetic field, thin tracking detectors determine the momentum. For charged particles, thin “PID” detectors ...
[42]
Advances in nuclear detection and readout techniques
Dec 21, 2023 · In the case of uncharged neutral particles, such as neutrons, charged particles are produced by nuclear reactions, which then cause ionization ...
[43]
[PDF] Direct Nuclear Reactions
A good measure of the passage from the classical to quantum scattering regime is obtained by using the Sommerfeld parameter η = Z1Z2e2/¯hv. When η decreases ...
[44]
[PDF] Direct Nuclear Reactions
A single-step reaction is clearly direct, but … ... It was quickly realised that Butler's theory was in fact equivalent to the plane wave Born approximation.
[45]
[PDF] Direct radiative capture calculations on 56Fe
In order to calculate the total capture cross section with PDIX, the direct radiative capture formalism was coupled to a Single-Level Breit-Wigner resonance ...
[46]
Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution - Nature
Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution. Niels Bohr. Nature volume 137, pages ... Fragmentation analysis of various compound nuclei formed in the mass region 200 ...
[47]
The Inelastic Scattering of Neutrons | Phys. Rev.
The Inelastic Scattering of Neutrons. Walter Hauser* and Herman Feshbach ... 87, 366 – Published 15 July, 1952. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.87.366.
[48]
New broad nuclear resonances | Phys. Rev. C
However, for narrow resonances where E μ ( E ) is almost real, E x , Γ , and Γ c , respectively, collapse to the usual notions of excitation energy, width, and ...
[49]
March 1, 1896: Henri Becquerel Discovers Radioactivity
Feb 25, 2008 · On an overcast day in March 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel opened a drawer and discovered spontaneous radioactivity.
[50]
Marie and Pierre Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium
Dec 1, 1996 · At the end of June 1898, they had a substance that was about 300 times more strongly active than uranium. In the work they published in July ...
[51]
Ernest Rutherford – Facts - NobelPrize.org
In 1899 Ernest Rutherford demonstrated that there were at least two distinct types of radiation: alpha radiation and beta radiation. He discovered that ...
[52]
Alpha Particles and the Atom, Rutherford at Manchester, 1907–1919
Rutherford was gradually turning his attention much more to the α (alpha), β (beta), and γ (gamma) rays themselves and to what they might reveal about the atom.
[53]
Rutherford, transmutation and the proton - CERN Courier
May 8, 2019 · He deduced that the alpha particle had entered the nucleus of the nitrogen atom and a hydrogen nucleus was emitted. This marked the discovery ...
[54]
[PDF] John D. Cockcroft - Nobel Lecture
With our first apparatus we produced beams of protons from a canal ray tube and accelerated them by voltages of up to 280 kilovolts, and in 1930 bombarded a ...
[55]
May 1932: Chadwick reports the discovery of the neutron
May 1, 2007 · In May 1932 James Chadwick announced that the core also contained a new uncharged particle, which he called the neutron.
[56]
[PDF] Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture
Compared with α-particles, the neutrons have the obvious drawback that the available neutron sources emit only a comparatively small number of neutrons. Indeed ...
[57]
December 1938: Discovery of Nuclear Fission
Dec 3, 2007 · In December 1938, Hahn and Strassmann, continuing their experiments bombarding uranium with neutrons, found what appeared to be isotopes of ...
[58]
[PDF] Detecting and measuring ionizing radiation - a short history
Another instrument that made single radiation events visible was the cloud chamber, first built in 1911 by. C.T.R. Wilson. A cloud chamber usually consists of a.
[59]
The emergence of the triggered cloud chamber technique in early ...
May 1, 2011 · The study of radioactivity in the early 1900s led to the reliable detection of single ionizing particles produced by radioactive decay. One of ...
[60]
[PDF] Short History of Particle Accelerators
Lawrence's 184” Cyclotron. 1940. Because of the war the machine was first completed in 1946. With an energy for D2 of 200 MeV, it became the first over one ...
[61]
[PDF] A TIMELINE OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
The cosmotron was the first accelerator in history to reach the GeV range of energy, and was also the first synchrotron to provide a beam of protons for ...
[62]
Nuclear Power Reactors
Oct 1, 2025 · If they are configured to produce more fissile material (plutonium) than they consume they are called fast breeder reactors (FBR).
[63]
[PDF] THE r-, s-, AND p-PROCESSES IN NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Basically, the shell flashes in most. AGB stars are not hot enough to liberate most of the 22Ne neutrons, and the massive ABG stars that are hot enough are too ...
[64]
The $s$ process: Nuclear physics, stellar models, and observations
Apr 1, 2011 · Nucleosynthesis in the s process takes place in the He-burning layers of low-mass asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars and during the He- and C-burning phases ...
[65]
Achieving Fusion Ignition | National Ignition Facility & Photon Science
The NIF experiment on Dec. 5, 2022, far surpassed the ignition threshold by producing 3.15 megajoules (MJ) of fusion energy output from 2.05 MJ of laser energy ...
[66]
On The Road to ITER
The latest on ITER project progress? Here you can find an interactive timeline of all the key milestones.
[67]
[1102.2777] Inclusive Charged--Current Neutrino--Nucleus Reactions
Feb 14, 2011 · We present a model for weak CC induced nuclear reactions at energies of interest for current and future neutrino oscillation experiments.
[68]
China Aims To Operate World's First Hybrid Fusion-Fission Nuclear ...
Mar 5, 2025 · China is poised to start building the world's first fusion-fission hybrid nuclear power plant, with the goal of generating 100 MW of continuous electricity.
[69]
Nuclear Pulse Propulsion: Gateway to the Stars
Project Daedalus was a study conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the British Interplanetary Society (BIS). The objective was to design a plausible interstellar ...