Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Paradoxical embolism

Paradoxical embolism (PDE) is a rare thromboembolic condition in which a venous thrombus bypasses the pulmonary circulation by traversing an intracardiac or intrapulmonary shunt, such as a patent foramen ovale (PFO), and enters the systemic arterial circulation, leading to acute ischemic events like stroke, myocardial infarction, or peripheral limb ischemia.^[1] This phenomenon, accounting for less than 2% of all arterial emboli, typically originates from deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in the lower extremities and requires a right-to-left shunt to facilitate the paradoxical passage, often triggered by transient elevations in right atrial pressure such as during Valsalva maneuvers or concurrent pulmonary embolism.^[2]^[1] The most common underlying shunt is PFO, a persistent fetal opening between the atria present in approximately 25-30% of the general population, though other defects like atrial septal defects (ASDs), ventricular septal defects, or pulmonary arteriovenous malformations can also enable PDE.^[3]^[1] A patent foramen ovale, which can enable paradoxical embolism, is present in approximately 40% to 50% of patients with cryptogenic ischemic stroke, with an annual stroke risk of about 0.1% in PFO carriers and a 1% risk of recurrent stroke; ASDs show a 2-3 times higher prevalence in females.^[1]^[4] Clinical presentation varies by the embolization site and may include sudden-onset neurological deficits (e.g., hemiparesis or aphasia from cerebrovascular events), chest pain suggestive of coronary occlusion, acute limb pallor and pain from peripheral ischemia, or abdominal symptoms from mesenteric involvement.^[1] Concurrent venous thromboembolism, such as pulmonary embolism, often coexists and heightens suspicion for PDE in patients with simultaneous arterial and venous occlusions.^[2] Diagnosis relies on a high index of suspicion, particularly in young patients with cryptogenic arterial events and risk factors for venous thrombosis; key modalities include electrocardiography to rule out arrhythmias, transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography with agitated saline bubble study to detect shunts (transesophageal being the gold standard with high sensitivity), transcranial Doppler for microembolic signals, and imaging like CT angiography or MRI to confirm arterial occlusion and search for venous sources.^[3]^[1] Treatment is multifaceted and urgent, involving systemic anticoagulation (e.g., heparin or direct oral anticoagulants like rivaroxaban) to prevent clot propagation, thrombolysis or embolectomy for acute occlusions, and evaluation for shunt closure—percutaneous PFO closure, in addition to antiplatelet therapy, is recommended for select patients aged 18 to 60 years with a prior cryptogenic stroke attributable to PFO, based on randomized trials including RESPECT, REDUCE, and CLOSE demonstrating reduced recurrent stroke risk compared to medical therapy alone (e.g., aspirin or warfarin).^[5]^[6] In cases complicated by thrombophilia (e.g., PAI-1 mutations), genetic testing guides long-term management to mitigate recurrence.^[7] Prognosis depends on the affected organ and timeliness of intervention; central nervous system events carry higher morbidity and mortality, while peripheral or mesenteric cases often improve with surgical salvage, though overall in-hospital mortality can reach up to 62.5% in severe presentations without prompt therapy.^[1]^[7]

Pathophysiology

Venous Thrombus Formation

Venous thrombus formation serves as the initial step in paradoxical embolism, where a clot originates in the venous system and potentially migrates to the arterial circulation. This process is fundamentally governed by Virchow's triad, which encompasses three key factors: venous stasis, endothelial injury, and hypercoagulability. Venous stasis occurs when blood flow is impeded, such as during prolonged immobilization, post-surgical recovery, or in conditions like heart failure that reduce venous return. Endothelial injury arises from direct damage to the vessel wall, often due to trauma, indwelling catheters, or invasive procedures. Hypercoagulability involves an imbalance favoring clot formation, triggered by states such as malignancy, pregnancy, or use of oral contraceptives, which alter coagulation factors or platelet function.^[8] The primary sites of venous thrombi in paradoxical embolism are the deep veins of the lower extremities, where in most cases the clot originates, particularly in the iliofemoral segments. Pelvic veins also represent a significant source, with thrombosis in these locations associated with a five-fold increased risk of cryptogenic stroke compared to strokes of known origin. These thrombi often develop subclinically, remaining undetected in more than 50% of paradoxical embolism cases, which underscores the importance of targeted imaging for diagnosis.^[9]^[10]^[9] Thrombi from these venous sites can progress to pulmonary embolism as a precursor event, fragmenting and embolizing to the lungs before any paradoxical transit occurs. Specific triggers, such as Valsalva maneuvers, may dislodge thrombi from leg veins by transiently increasing right atrial pressure, facilitating their mobilization toward potential right-to-left shunts. This progression highlights the venous system's role as the embolic source, distinct from the mechanisms enabling arterial entry.^[9]^[11]

Right-to-Left Shunt Mechanisms

Paradoxical embolism requires a right-to-left shunt that allows venous thrombi to bypass the pulmonary circulation and enter the systemic arteries. The most common intracardiac defects facilitating this are patent foramen ovale (PFO), atrial septal defect (ASD), and ventricular septal defect (VSD). PFO, a flap-like opening between the right and left atria that fails to close after birth, is present in approximately 25% of adults and enables transient shunting under specific hemodynamic conditions.^[12] ASD involves a persistent hole in the atrial septum, with secundum-type ASDs being 2 to 3 times more prevalent in females than males due to genetic and developmental factors.^[13] VSD, a defect in the ventricular septum, is less frequently implicated in adult paradoxical embolism but can permit shunting if right ventricular pressures exceed left, often in the context of pulmonary hypertension.^[9] Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (PAVMs), abnormal direct connections between pulmonary arteries and veins, create intrapulmonary shunts that similarly allow emboli to evade filtration, with a notable risk in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia.^[14] Shunting typically occurs when a transient reversal of the normal left-to-right atrial pressure gradient develops, directing right atrial blood—and any contained thrombi—toward the left side. This gradient inversion is often provoked by elevated right atrial pressure from acute pulmonary embolism (PE), which increases pulmonary vascular resistance, or by maneuvers like the Valsalva that transiently boost right-sided pressures above left-sided ones. In PE-associated cases, the acute obstruction heightens right ventricular afterload, promoting interatrial shunting through PFO or ASD in cases with coexisting defects.^[1] The probability of embolization rises with larger shunt sizes and higher right-sided pressures, underscoring the interplay between venous thromboembolic events and structural anomalies. A critical manifestation is impending paradoxical embolism, where a venous thrombus becomes lodged or straddles the shunt defect, such as a PFO, poised to dislodge into the arterial system; this "thrombus in transit" is a high-risk state often detected during acute events like massive PE.^[15] Such straddling thrombi highlight the dynamic nature of shunts, where partial entrapment can temporarily prevent full embolization but signals imminent danger. Rarer extracardiac variants include intrapulmonary shunts beyond PAVMs, such as diffuse vascular abnormalities, and aortopulmonary fistulas, which create abnormal connections allowing venous blood to mix directly with arterial flow without cardiac involvement; these are infrequently reported but can precipitate paradoxical events in susceptible individuals.^[16] Overall, these mechanisms emphasize how congenital or acquired defects, combined with hemodynamic stressors, enable the rare but serious crossover of emboli from venous to arterial circulation.

Epidemiology

Incidence and Prevalence

Paradoxical embolism is a relatively rare condition, primarily manifesting as a cause of cryptogenic strokes in patients with right-to-left shunts such as patent foramen ovale (PFO). A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is identified in up to 50% of patients with cryptogenic stroke, with the annual risk of cryptogenic stroke in PFO populations estimated at approximately 0.1% and the risk of recurrent stroke at 1%.^[17]^[4] In the United States, approximately 610,000 first or new strokes occur annually, of which about 40% are cryptogenic, and 20% to 50% of these cryptogenic cases are associated with PFO, translating to an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 PFO-related cryptogenic ischemic strokes per year.^[18]^[19] Congenital cardiac defects play a central role in the prevalence of paradoxical embolism, with atrial septal defects (ASDs) accounting for 25% to 40% of all adult congenital heart disease diagnoses. PFO, a common variant, is present in 25% to 30% of the general population but is identified in approximately 70% of documented paradoxical embolism cases, often serving as the conduit for venous thrombi to enter the arterial circulation.^[20]^[21]^[9] Recent data through 2023 indicate no significant change in the overall incidence of paradoxical embolism, despite advancements in diagnostic capabilities such as transesophageal echocardiography, which have enhanced detection rates without altering the underlying epidemiological patterns.^[22]

Risk Factors and Demographics

Paradoxical embolism is associated with several non-modifiable risk factors, including age, with cases most commonly occurring in adults between 40 and 60 years, as evidenced by median patient ages around 45 years in clinical cohorts.^[23] Congenital right-to-left shunts, such as patent foramen ovale (PFO), exhibit familial patterns, with family history serving as a key indicator in patient evaluation.^[1] Atrial septal defects (ASDs), another congenital shunt associated with paradoxical embolism in up to 14% of ASD patients, demonstrate a female predominance, occurring 2 to 3 times more frequently in women than men.^[1] Modifiable risk factors primarily revolve around triggers for deep vein thrombosis (DVT), the precursor to paradoxical embolization, including prolonged immobilization, recent surgery, and long-haul travel exceeding 4 hours, which elevate venous stasis and clot formation risk.^[24] Hypercoagulable states further compound susceptibility, encompassing conditions like malignancy, inherited thrombophilias (e.g., Factor V Leiden mutation), antiphospholipid syndrome, and pregnancy-related hypercoagulability.^[24] Lifestyle factors such as smoking and obesity also contribute by promoting endothelial dysfunction and prothrombotic environments.^[25] Demographically, paradoxical embolism predominantly affects adults with a prior history of venous thromboembolism, where the presence of a shunt amplifies embolization risk.^[1] It shows elevated occurrence in individuals with migraines, who harbor intracardiac shunts in up to 50% of cases, suggesting a shared pathophysiological link.^[1] Certain combined risks heighten vulnerability significantly; for instance, pelvic vein thrombosis in the context of a shunt increases the odds of cryptogenic stroke fivefold compared to other DVT sites.^[1]

Clinical Manifestations

Symptoms and Signs

Paradoxical embolism presents with a diverse array of symptoms and signs depending on the site of systemic arterial occlusion, often mimicking other acute vascular events. The clinical manifestations arise from emboli originating in the venous system that bypass the pulmonary circulation via a right-to-left shunt, leading to ischemia in affected organs. Common associated features include evidence of concurrent deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), such as unilateral leg swelling, tenderness, warmth, erythema, dyspnea, tachycardia, and chest pain.^[26]^[27] Cerebrovascular involvement accounts for approximately 40% of cases and manifests as acute ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, with symptoms including sudden unilateral hemiparesis or weakness, aphasia or speech difficulties, seizures, visual field deficits, facial asymmetry, and sensory disturbances.^[9]^[1] Peripheral arterial embolization, the most frequent site at about 50% of cases, typically causes acute limb ischemia characterized by the "six Ps": pain, pallor, pulselessness, paresthesia, paralysis, and poikilothermia (cold extremity). Affected patients often report sudden onset of severe limb pain, numbness, and mottled skin, with absent distal pulses on examination.^[9]^[26] Coronary artery occlusion occurs in roughly 8% of paradoxical emboli and presents with symptoms of acute coronary syndrome, including substernal chest pain, shortness of breath, diaphoresis, nausea, and syncope, potentially progressing to myocardial infarction with electrocardiographic changes such as ST-segment elevation.^[9]^[28] Less common sites include renal (1%) and splenic (1%) infarctions, leading to flank or abdominal pain, hematuria, and elevated lactate dehydrogenase levels, while mesenteric involvement may cause acute abdominal ischemia with bloody diarrhea, peritonitis, and severe cramping pain.^[9]^[27] Non-specific symptoms such as migraines, transient syncope, or presyncope can also occur, particularly in younger patients, and may precede more overt embolic events.^[1]^[27]

Differential Considerations

Paradoxical embolism often presents with systemic arterial occlusion, mimicking other causes of ischemic events in the brain, limbs, or abdomen. For cerebrovascular manifestations, such as ischemic stroke, key differentials include cardioembolic sources like atrial fibrillation, which accounts for 14-30% of strokes and typically arises from left atrial thrombi without a venous origin.^[29] Atheroembolic stroke, stemming from atherosclerotic plaque fragmentation in large vessels, and vasculitis, involving inflammatory damage to arterial walls, further complicate differentiation, as these lack evidence of a right-to-left shunt.^[29]^[1] In cases of acute limb ischemia, paradoxical embolism must be distinguished from primary arterial thrombosis, often due to in situ clot formation in atherosclerotic vessels, and arterial dissection, characterized by intimal tears leading to occlusion.^[30] Compartment syndrome, resulting from trauma-induced pressure elevation rather than embolic occlusion, represents another mimic, particularly in the lower extremities.^[30] Abdominal presentations may resemble primary mesenteric ischemia, which can be embolic (typically cardiogenic) or thrombotic, affecting the superior mesenteric artery and causing bowel infarction without a shunt mechanism.^[31] Aortic aneurysm rupture, presenting with acute abdominal pain and hemodynamic instability, also enters the differential for visceral ischemia but involves aneurysmal dissection rather than thromboembolism.^[31] Critical discriminators for paradoxical embolism include the coexistence of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism with a confirmed right-to-left shunt, such as a patent foramen ovale, alongside systemic embolization.^[1] It is particularly suspected in cryptogenic strokes among younger patients under 55 years, where patent foramen ovale prevalence is elevated compared to the general population.^[17]^[32] Rare mimics encompass fat embolism, often post-trauma and capable of bypassing pulmonary filtration via shunts to cause multi-organ ischemia, and air embolism, typically iatrogenic in procedural settings like central line insertion.^[1]

Diagnosis

Medical History

In evaluating suspected paradoxical embolism, a detailed medical history is essential to identify potential venous sources of emboli and underlying shunt mechanisms. Clinicians should inquire about prior venous thromboembolism events, including deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE); pulmonary embolism may be present in up to 85% of cases, with deep vein thrombosis often subclinical and undetected in more than 50% of cases, and may manifest as leg swelling, pain, or calf tenderness.^[9] Recent immobilization is a key risk factor, often linked to prolonged bed rest following surgery, long-distance travel, or trauma, increasing the likelihood of thrombus formation in deep veins.^[1]^[9] History-taking must also explore indicators of right-to-left shunts, such as congenital heart diseases including patent foramen ovale (PFO) or atrial septal defect (ASD), which are undiagnosed in many adults until an embolic event occurs. Migraines, especially those with aura, are reported in up to 50% of patients with intracardiac shunts and may suggest underlying structural abnormalities. A history of scuba diving is particularly relevant, as individuals with PFO face an elevated risk of decompression illness from paradoxical embolization of venous nitrogen bubbles during ascent.^[1]^[33] The narrative of the acute embolic event provides critical clues, typically featuring sudden-onset systemic symptoms like ischemic stroke in young patients lacking conventional risk factors such as hypertension or atrial fibrillation. Other presentations may include acute limb ischemia with sudden pain and pallor or mesenteric ischemia with abdominal pain, distinguishing paradoxical embolism from primary arterial sources.^[9]^[1] Comorbidities promoting hypercoagulability warrant thorough assessment, including active malignancy, pregnancy, or estrogen-containing contraceptive use, all of which heighten VTE risk and potential for paradoxical passage. Family history of thrombotic disorders or congenital shunts further supports suspicion, as inherited factors like factor V Leiden mutation contribute to a prothrombotic state.^[9]^[1] Preceding Valsalva maneuvers should be elicited, as activities like straining during defecation, coughing, sneezing, or heavy lifting can transiently elevate right atrial pressure, facilitating embolus transit through a shunt.^[9]^[1]

Laboratory Tests

Laboratory tests play a crucial role in evaluating patients suspected of paradoxical embolism by identifying evidence of thrombosis, assessing coagulopathy, and detecting embolic consequences on target organs. These tests help confirm the presence of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), which are often prerequisites for paradoxical embolism, while also screening for underlying hypercoagulable states and monitoring for complications such as organ ischemia.^[11]^[1] The D-dimer assay is a key initial test, as it measures fibrin degradation products and is elevated in over 90% of cases involving DVT or PE, reflecting active thrombosis and fibrinolysis. With a sensitivity of approximately 97% for PE, a negative D-dimer result (typically <500 ng/mL) effectively rules out thromboembolic events in low-risk patients, though its specificity is low (around 40-50%), leading to frequent false positives in conditions like inflammation or malignancy. In paradoxical embolism, where PE frequently coexists, an elevated quantitative plasma D-dimer supports the diagnosis but requires correlation with imaging.^[34]^[35]^[11] Coagulation panels, including prothrombin time (PT), international normalized ratio (INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and fibrinogen levels, are essential to evaluate baseline hemostasis before initiating anticoagulation therapy, which is standard for paradoxical embolism management. Abnormalities in these tests may indicate disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in severe cases. Additionally, a thrombophilia workup is recommended to identify inherited or acquired hypercoagulable states predisposing to venous thromboembolism; this includes assays for factor V Leiden mutation, protein C and S deficiencies, antithrombin III levels, prothrombin gene mutation G20210A, elevated homocysteine, and antiphospholipid antibodies (such as lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies). These tests are particularly valuable in young patients without obvious risk factors, though results may be confounded by ongoing anticoagulation.^[11]^[1]^[11] Cardiac biomarkers like troponin I or T and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) are indicated when paradoxical embolism involves coronary arteries, leading to myocardial infarction. Elevated troponin levels (above the 99th percentile upper reference limit, typically 14-34 ng/L for high-sensitivity assays depending on the specific test and patient factors) signal myocardial injury, which is more sensitive than CK-MB for detecting ischemia in this context, as seen in case series where troponin rose significantly in patients with paradoxical coronary embolism. These markers aid in risk stratification and guide urgent interventions.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39] Renal and liver function tests, including serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and liver enzymes (e.g., AST, ALT, bilirubin), are performed to assess for embolic damage to these organs, particularly in cases of renal or hepatic infarction from arterial embolization. For instance, elevated creatinine may indicate acute kidney injury from renal emboli, while deranged liver enzymes suggest ischemic hepatitis. These tests provide quantitative insight into organ involvement and help monitor therapeutic responses.^[40]^[41] A complete blood count (CBC) is routinely obtained, with particular attention to platelet count, as thrombocytopenia may signal heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) in patients receiving heparin for initial treatment of DVT or PE, or DIC in critically ill individuals with extensive embolization. HIT, an immune-mediated reaction, paradoxically increases thrombosis risk despite low platelets (<150,000/μL), occurring in 0.5-5% of heparin-exposed patients and necessitating alternative anticoagulants.^[42]^[11]^[43]

Imaging Modalities

Echocardiography serves as the cornerstone for diagnosing right-to-left shunts in paradoxical embolism, enabling visualization of intracardiac defects and confirmation of embolic passage. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) with bubble contrast, typically using agitated saline injected into a peripheral vein, detects patent foramen ovale (PFO) by observing microbubbles crossing from the right to the left atrium, often enhanced by Valsalva maneuver to increase right atrial pressure. This modality achieves a sensitivity of approximately 80% for PFO detection on modern equipment, significantly outperforming standard TTE without contrast, which misses many shunts due to limited resolution of small defects. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), performed with similar contrast, offers superior anatomical detail for visualizing atrial septal defects (ASD) and ventricular septal defects (VSD), identifying shunt size and associated thrombi with near-100% sensitivity when microbubbles appear within three cardiac cycles.^[44]^[11]^[3] Vascular imaging modalities target the venous source and pulmonary involvement in paradoxical embolism. Doppler ultrasound of the lower extremities is the initial noninvasive test for deep vein thrombosis (DVT), detecting thrombi in femoral and popliteal veins with high accuracy through compressibility assessment and flow velocity changes, essential for identifying the embolic origin in up to 50% of suspected cases. Computed tomography (CT) angiography of the chest confirms pulmonary embolism (PE) by revealing filling defects in pulmonary arteries, while also assessing for arterial occlusions in systemic vessels, such as the aorta or iliac arteries, where thrombi may straddle shunts.^[1]^[11]^[45] Imaging of embolic endpoints focuses on cerebral and peripheral consequences to evaluate ischemia and guide urgency. Noncontrast CT or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain identifies acute ischemic stroke patterns, such as multiple territorial infarcts or border-zone lesions suggestive of embolic etiology, with diffusion-weighted MRI offering higher sensitivity for early detection within hours of onset. For limb involvement, CT or MR angiography delineates arterial occlusions causing acute ischemia, while perfusion studies, including CT perfusion or MR perfusion imaging, assess tissue viability by measuring blood flow deficits and predicting salvageable penumbra in threatened extremities.^[46]^[47]^[48] Advanced techniques provide supplementary diagnostic and procedural support. Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography detects microemboli in cerebral arteries as high-intensity transient signals during contrast injection, offering a sensitive (up to 97%) noninvasive screen for right-to-left shunts and ongoing embolization, particularly in cryptogenic stroke patients. Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE), deployed via femoral vein access, delivers real-time imaging during PFO or ASD closure procedures, confirming device positioning and residual shunting with superior resolution compared to TEE, minimizing procedural risks.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Treatment

Acute Interventions

The acute management of paradoxical embolism prioritizes hemodynamic stabilization, prevention of recurrent embolization, and treatment of the underlying venous thromboembolism, as the condition often arises from deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE) crossing a right-to-left shunt.^[1] Initial assessment involves rapid evaluation for signs of shock, hypoxia, or end-organ ischemia, with transfer to an intensive care unit (ICU) recommended for patients exhibiting hemodynamic instability.^[52] Anticoagulation forms the cornerstone of acute therapy to inhibit thrombus propagation and reduce the risk of further paradoxical events. Unfractionated heparin is typically initiated immediately via continuous intravenous infusion, with dosing adjusted to achieve an activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) of 1.5-2.5 times the normal value, providing rapid and titratable anticoagulation.^[1] Low-molecular-weight heparin (e.g., enoxaparin) or fondaparinux may serve as alternatives for stable patients, offering predictable pharmacokinetics without routine monitoring.^[52] Transition to oral agents, such as direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) like rivaroxaban or apixaban, is preferred over vitamin K antagonists (e.g., warfarin) for most cases following initial stabilization, per guidelines for venous thromboembolism management. Contraindications to anticoagulation, such as active bleeding or recent hemorrhagic stroke, necessitate inferior vena cava (IVC) filter placement to prevent additional emboli from lower extremity veins.^[52] For patients with massive PE or profound hemodynamic compromise—such as systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg—systemic thrombolysis is indicated to accelerate clot dissolution and restore pulmonary perfusion, which indirectly mitigates the risk of paradoxical embolization. Alteplase (tPA) is administered as a 100 mg intravenous bolus over 2 hours, followed by heparin once the aPTT normalizes, though this carries a 2-6% risk of intracranial hemorrhage.^[52] Catheter-directed thrombolysis, delivering lower-dose tPA directly to the thrombus via endovascular access, is reserved for submassive PE with right ventricular dysfunction or for limb-threatening arterial ischemia to facilitate targeted reperfusion and salvage tissue.^[53] Thrombolytic therapy is contraindicated in the presence of hemorrhagic stroke, recent major surgery, or uncontrolled hypertension.^[52] Supportive measures are essential to address secondary complications and maintain organ perfusion. Supplemental oxygen is provided to correct hypoxemia, targeting oxygen saturation above 90%, while intravenous fluids or vasopressors are used judiciously for hypotension, avoiding fluid overload in right ventricular strain.^[1] In refractory cases with impending circulatory collapse or failed medical therapy, mechanical embolectomy—either surgical (open pulmonary embolectomy) or percutaneous (aspiration thrombectomy devices)—is performed to extract the clot, particularly when thrombolysis is contraindicated.^[53] Close monitoring in the ICU includes serial echocardiography, troponin levels, and neurological assessments to detect recurrent embolism or bleeding complications.^[52] The American Heart Association (AHA) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines endorse anticoagulation as the first-line acute intervention for suspected paradoxical embolism associated with DVT or PE, with escalation to reperfusion therapies based on risk stratification.^[53] Shunt closure may be considered briefly after acute stabilization in high-risk patients.^[1]

Long-Term Management

Long-term management of paradoxical embolism focuses on preventing recurrence by addressing the underlying intracardiac shunt and mitigating thrombotic risks. For patients with a patent foramen ovale (PFO), percutaneous closure is the preferred approach, utilizing devices such as the Amplatzer PFO Occluder, which achieves procedural success rates exceeding 95% and effective shunt elimination in over 90% of cases.^[54]^[55] This intervention reduces the risk of recurrent ischemic stroke by 50-80% compared to medical therapy alone, as evidenced by randomized trials including RESPECT and CLOSE, which demonstrated hazard ratios of 0.41 and relative risks of 0.26 for stroke recurrence in closure versus medical management groups over extended follow-up periods of up to 5 years.^[56]^[57]^[58] In cases involving atrial septal defects (ASD) or ventricular septal defects (VSD) implicated in paradoxical embolism, surgical closure is typically recommended, particularly when percutaneous options are unsuitable due to defect size or anatomy; surgical repair yields high success rates with low recurrence of embolic events.^[59]^[1] Contraindications to percutaneous PFO closure include active infection such as endocarditis or bacteremia, intracardiac masses, and unfavorable anatomy precluding safe device deployment, such as oversized defects exceeding 25 mm.^[60] Following shunt closure, antithrombotic therapy is essential for secondary prevention. Dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel is standard for 1-6 months post-procedure, transitioning to lifelong single antiplatelet therapy (e.g., aspirin 75-100 mg daily) thereafter, as recommended by guidelines to minimize recurrent thromboembolism.^[61]^[62] For patients with persistent risk factors such as thrombophilia or recurrent venous thromboembolism, long-term anticoagulation (e.g., warfarin or direct oral anticoagulants) may be indicated over antiplatelets, with annual reevaluation to assess ongoing need.^[63] Routine follow-up includes transthoracic echocardiography at 6-12 months to confirm shunt resolution and device position, with additional imaging as needed based on symptoms or risk profile.^[60] Patients should receive lifestyle counseling emphasizing stroke prevention measures, including a Mediterranean-style diet low in saturated fats and sodium, regular physical activity (at least 150 minutes weekly of moderate exercise), smoking cessation, and weight management to address modifiable cardiovascular risks.^[5] Long-term outcomes from cohort studies indicate sustained efficacy, with ischemic event rates below 1% at over 10 years post-closure when combined with adherence to these strategies.^[64]

Prognosis and Prevention

Clinical Outcomes

Paradoxical embolism carries significant mortality risk, particularly in acute presentations. For impending paradoxical embolism, where a thrombus is detected in transit across a right-to-left shunt, the 30-day mortality rate is approximately 18.4%, as reported in a systematic review of prognostic factors. This rate rises substantially in more severe cases, reaching up to 44.7% for in-hospital mortality when an embolus is lodged in transit, and is further elevated with central nervous system involvement or multiorgan failure due to the increased incidence of ischemic stroke and systemic complications.^[65]^[66]^[67] Morbidity remains a major concern among survivors, with neurologic deficits being prominent in cases involving cerebral embolism. In patients experiencing ischemic stroke from paradoxical embolism, deficits such as hemiplegia and aphasia are common, contributing to long-term disability. Peripheral arterial involvement can lead to limb ischemia, which may necessitate amputation in severe cases, while some individuals develop chronic migraines as a sequela.^[1]^[52]^[68] Prognostic factors play a critical role in determining outcomes, with early intervention markedly improving survival and reducing complications. Prompt diagnosis and management, such as embolectomy or thrombolysis, are essential to mitigate systemic embolization. Transcatheter closure of a patent foramen ovale (PFO) further enhances prognosis by lowering the annual recurrence rate of paradoxical embolism-related events to approximately 1% in most cohorts.^[69]^[70] Long-term outcomes vary by case severity, with full recovery common in uncomplicated peripheral embolism following surgical or medical intervention. In contrast, patients with cryptogenic stroke attributed to paradoxical embolism require lifelong monitoring to detect recurrent events. Recent data from 2023 indicate improved outcomes with direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) compared to warfarin for preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism, which could precipitate further embolic episodes.^[22]^[71] Updated 2025 guidelines from the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology support PFO closure in select patients with cryptogenic stroke to reduce recurrence risk.^[72]

Preventive Strategies

Preventive strategies for paradoxical embolism primarily target the reduction of venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk and management of right-to-left shunts, such as patent foramen ovale (PFO), to minimize the chance of clot passage into systemic circulation.^[1] Thromboprophylaxis is essential for high-risk individuals, including those undergoing surgery or during pregnancy, where low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is recommended to prevent deep vein thrombosis (DVT), a common source of paradoxical emboli.^[73] Compression stockings are advised to improve venous return and reduce DVT formation, particularly in patients with varicose veins or prolonged immobility.^[1] In patients with known intracardiac shunts, estrogen-containing contraceptives should be avoided due to their prothrombotic effects, which can exacerbate the risk of embolism.^[1] Lifestyle modifications play a key role in lowering overall VTE risk and supporting cardiovascular health. Regular physical exercise promotes venous flow and reduces stasis, while smoking cessation is critical as it impairs vascular function and increases clotting tendency, especially when combined with hormonal therapies.^[1] Maintaining healthy body weight and managing comorbidities such as hypertension and diabetes through diet, medication, and monitoring further mitigate thrombotic risks associated with paradoxical embolism.^[17] Screening for right-to-left shunts is recommended in individuals with a family history of intracardiac defects or cryptogenic stroke, using contrast-enhanced transthoracic echocardiography to detect PFO or other shunts.^[28] In cases of recurrent paradoxical embolism, thrombophilia testing, including assays for factor V Leiden and prothrombin gene mutations, helps identify underlying hypercoagulable states that may necessitate tailored prophylaxis.^[1] For secondary prevention, early percutaneous PFO closure is indicated in select high-risk groups, such as patients with recurrent cryptogenic stroke or scuba divers with prior decompression illness, as closure reduces recurrent embolic events compared to medical therapy alone.^[74]^[70] Annual follow-up with echocardiography is advised for patients with congenital heart defects to monitor shunt persistence and assess for closure needs.^[3] Public health initiatives emphasize awareness of DVT symptoms during long-haul travel, such as leg swelling or pain, encouraging hydration, movement, and compression use to prevent VTE that could lead to paradoxical embolism.^[75] The 2025 ESC guidelines highlight a holistic approach to cardiovascular care, integrating thromboprophylaxis and shunt management in at-risk populations like pregnant individuals with shunts to address embolism risks comprehensively.^[76]

References

[1]
Paradoxical Embolism - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sep 4, 2023 · Paradoxical embolism (PDE) occurs when a thrombus crosses an intracardiac defect into the systemic circulation.Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[2]
Paradoxical embolism: a rare cause of acute upper limb ischemia
Jul 27, 2023 · Paradoxical emboli are defined by the passage of venous embolic material into the arterial circulation through a cardiac shunt [2].Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[3]
Contemporary Approach to Paradoxical Embolism | Circulation
May 6, 2014 · Three recent studies provide, for the first time, data from prospective, randomized trials to guide treatment in patients with PFO and paradoxical embolism.Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[4]
Case Report: Perhaps we can do more when paradoxical embolism ...
Aug 11, 2025 · Paradoxical Embolism (PDE) is a rare thromboembolic disease with a high mortality rate, which can reach 62.5% within the first 24 h (2). PDE is ...Missing: reliable sources<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
Virchow Triad - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jun 7, 2024 · Vascular thrombi are formed in low flow and shear stress, mainly consisting of fibrin strands, red blood cells, and a few platelets.
[6]
Paradoxical Embolism: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Apr 7, 2023 · DVT may be subclinical in more than 50% of cases. Venous thrombosis may occur in more than 50% of orthopedic surgical procedures and more than ...Practice Essentials · Pathophysiology · Etiology · Epidemiology
[7]
Increased pelvic vein thrombi in cryptogenic stroke - PubMed
Cryptogenic patients had more MRV scans with a high probability for pelvic DVT (20%) than patients with stroke of determined origin (4%, P<0.03), with most ...
[8]
Paradoxical Embolism Workup - Medscape Reference
Apr 7, 2023 · By increasing RAP, a Valsalva maneuver or cough could potentially dislodge an entrapped thrombus. Impending PDE may result in a false ...
[9]
Management of Patent Foramen Ovale - US Cardiology Review (USC)
Oct 9, 2017 · However, based on several large autopsy studies, approximately 25 % of healthy adults in the general population have a patent foramen ovale ( ...<|separator|>
[10]
Atrial Septal Defects in the Adult | Circulation
Oct 10, 2006 · ASDs are common and can present at any age. Females constitute 65% to 75% of patients with secundum ASDs, but the gender distribution is equal ...
[11]
Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations - ATS Journals
Jul 10, 2014 · Paradoxical emboli lead to strokes and cerebral abscesses, and these commonly occur in individuals with previously undiagnosed PAVMs. PAVM ...Clinical Features of PAVM. · New Insights into PAVM Ph. · Management Strategies
[12]
Impending paradoxical embolism? Report of four clinical cases and ...
Thrombus straddling the patent foramen ovale (TSFO) is a rare event. It occurs in the presence of pulmonary embolism and can be responsible for paradoxical ...
[13]
Intracardiac versus extracardiac shunt in a young man with ...
Mar 8, 2022 · On the other hand, intrapulmonary shunts, a form of extracardiac shunting, are rare but recognised cause of paradoxical emboli. Hereby, we ...Missing: aortopulmonary | Show results with:aortopulmonary
[14]
Paradoxical Embolism | Circulation
Nov 9, 2010 · Paradoxical embolism, or venous thromboembolism transit from right- to left-sided cardiac chambers, may occur via interventricular, interatrial, or pulmonary ...
[15]
Cryptogenic Stroke and Patent Foramen Ovale - JACC
Feb 26, 2018 · In people who suffer a cryptogenic stroke, 40% to 50% of patients have a PFO (1–3). A hypermobile septum primum, referred to as an atrial septal ...
[16]
Stroke Facts - CDC
Oct 24, 2024 · ... stroke decreased from 39.5 per 100,000 in 2022 to 39.0 per 100,000 in 2023.1; Every 40 seconds, someone in the United States has a stroke.2 ...
[17]
Are Patients with a Patent Foramen Ovale at Increased Risk of ...
These findings indicate that 60,000 to 80,000 cryptogenic ischemic strokes per year in the US occur in patients with a PFO. The increased prevalence of PFOs in ...
[18]
Atrial Septal Defect in Adulthood - American College of Cardiology
Jul 29, 2022 · ASD is the most common congenital heart disease diagnosed in adulthood, accounting for 25-30% of diagnoses.
[19]
Epidemiology of Patent Foramen Ovale in General Population and ...
Apr 28, 2020 · According to our review, PFO prevalence in the general population across all ages was roughly 24% in autopsy and TEE studies. As expected, this ...
[20]
JoS : Journal of Stroke
Sep 26, 2023 · Despite this, it is estimated that PFO is likely responsible for approximately 5% of all ischemic strokes and 10% of those occurring in young ...
[21]
Contrast-Enhanced Transcranial Doppler for Detecting Residual ...
The study population included 75 cases: 41 females (55%) and 34 males (45%), aged 18–77 years (median 45 years, IQR 35–53 years). The study group's risk profile ...2. Materials And Methods · 2.2. Pfo Closure Procedure · 2.4. Occluder Size Selection
[22]
Ischemic stroke in the young: Current perspectives on incidence, risk ...
This review provides an overview of recent data on epidemiology, risk factors, and their strength of association in ischemic stroke in the young.
[23]
The Risk of Paradoxical Embolism (RoPE) Study - PubMed Central
The goal of the Risk of Paradoxical Embolism (RoPE) Study is to develop and test a set of predictive models that can identify those patients most likely to ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
[24]
Paradoxical Embolism Clinical Presentation - Medscape Reference
Apr 7, 2023 · Physical Examination · Unilateral leg swelling, tenderness, warmth, and erythema. Palpable cord along the course of the affected veins (possible).
[25]
Impending Paradoxical Embolism | JAMA Internal Medicine
Thus, provocative maneuvers, such as Valsalva or cough, could potentially dislodge an entrapped thrombus; however, no cases of this phenomenon have been ...
[26]
Paradoxical Embolism - JACC
Jul 21, 2014 · Paradoxical embolism refers to the clinical phenomenon of thromboembolism originating in the venous vasculature and traversing through an ...Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[27]
Paradoxical Embolism Differential Diagnoses - Medscape Reference
Apr 7, 2023 · Differential Diagnoses · Atrial Fibrillation · Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT) · Infective Endocarditis · Primary Cardiac Neoplasms · Septic ...Missing: limb | Show results with:limb
[28]
Clinical features and diagnosis of acute arterial occlusion of the ...
Feb 10, 2025 · - Paradoxical embolism ... Vascular imaging · DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS · Chronic limb ischemia · Acute compartment syndrome · Phlegmasia · Others.<|separator|>
[29]
Acute Mesenteric Ischemia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
An acute mesenteric arterial embolism is often cardiogenic in origin and primarily affects the superior mesenteric artery (SMA). Preceding events include atrial ...
[30]
Patent Foramen Ovale and Cryptogenic Stroke in Older Patients
A meta-analysis showed that the presence of patent foramen ovale in patients younger than 55 years of age is significantly associated with cryptogenic stroke.
[31]
Recurrent Decompression Illness Even After the Closure of Patent ...
Dec 8, 2022 · Therefore, those authors suggested that PFO plays a key role in the paradoxical embolization of venous nitrogen bubbles after SCUBA diving.
[32]
Value of D-dimer levels for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism - NIH
Jun 15, 2018 · Using CTPA as the gold standard, D-dimer had a sensitivity of 96.2%, a specificity of 50.0%, a positive predictive value of 89.3%, a negative ...
[33]
Systematic review and meta-analysis of test accuracy for the ...
Sep 11, 2020 · The pooled estimates for D-dimer sensitivity and specificity were 0.97 (95% CI, 0.96-0.98) and 0.411 (95% CI, 0.36-0.46), respectively. Figure 2 ...Abstract · Introduction · Methods · Results
[34]
Cardiac Biomarkers in Pulmonary Embolism - CHEST Journal
The circulating troponin level indicates irreversible myocardial cell damage and is much more sensitive than creatine kinase (CK) or CK-MB levels. The ...
[35]
Paradoxical Coronary Artery Embolism - A Rare Cause of ... - PMC
Cardiac biomarkers were elevated (Troponin-T 2.230 ng/ml (normal <0.01 ng/ml) ... A diagnosis of ST elevation myocardial infarction secondary to paradoxical ...
[36]
Paradoxical Embolism Leading to Myocardial Infarction - JACC
Oct 8, 2025 · The differential diagnosis included deep venous thrombosis (DVT), acute limb ischemia, pulmonary embolism, paradoxical embolism, acute coronary ...
[37]
Renal infarction caused by paradoxical embolism through a patent ...
Paradoxical embolism is a rare cause of renal infarction, but immediate recognition of a paradoxical embolus is very important so that anticoagulation or device ...
[38]
A Case Report on Paradoxical Emboli - Archives of Vascular Medicine
Oct 17, 2024 · Initial lab results revealed a creatinine level of 1.16 mg/dL (baseline of 1.24 mg/dL), mildly elevated liver enzymes, and leukocytosis with a ...
[39]
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia | Blood - ASH Publications
May 25, 2017 · Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an immune complication of heparin therapy caused by antibodies to complexes of platelet factor 4 (PF4) and heparin.
[40]
A “Catastrophic” Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia - PMC - NIH
Apr 13, 2020 · HIT is a potential life-threatening disease characterized by a decrease in platelet count and thrombosis after heparin exposure. ... A third type ...
[41]
Comparison of transthoracic echocardiography with harmonic ... - NIH
Patent foramen ovale can be diagnosed by bubble contrast TTE and TOE on modern echo machines with a sensitivity of about 80%. Pitfalls of TTE include quality of ...
[42]
Paradoxical Embolism Detected on CT Angiography and Treated ...
Paradoxical embolism is a rare disease occurring in patients with pulmonary embolism or venous thrombosis through a right-to-left shunt, such as the patent ...
[43]
Paradoxical Embolism: Role of Imaging in Diagnosis and Treatment ...
Oct 13, 2014 · Paradoxical embolism (PDE) is an uncommon cause of acute arterial occlusion that may have catastrophic sequelae. The possibility of its ...Missing: reliable | Show results with:reliable
[44]
Patent Foramen Ovale Size and Embolic Brain Imaging Findings ...
Patent foramen ovale (PFO) has long been recognized as a potential risk factor for ischemic stroke through paradoxical cerebral embolism (PCE). Case ...
[45]
MRI in the Evaluation of Cryptogenic Stroke and Embolic Stroke of ...
Apr 23, 2024 · MRI is a valuable modality for the etiologic work up in patients with cryptogenic stroke and embolic stroke of undetermined source.<|separator|>
[46]
Transcranial Doppler–Detected Microemboli in Patients With Acute ...
Background and Purpose Transcranial Doppler sonography (TCD) has been used to detect microembolic signals in a variety of clinical situations.
[47]
Patent Foramen Ovale: Going Beyond the Bubbles - JACC
Mar 17, 2014 · The sensitivity of TCD for the diagnosis of intracardiac left-to-right shunt was 97%, with specificity of 93%; as expected, an increase in ...
[48]
Intracardiac echocardiography in the diagnosis and closure of ... - NIH
This study was intended to summarize some aspects of PFO. We placed particular focus on the application of ICE in PFO diagnosis and closure.
[49]
Paradoxical Embolism Treatment & Management
Apr 7, 2023 · Treatment of paradoxical embolism (PDE) involves medical intervention, surgical intervention, or both. The presence of PDE in association ...
[50]
Interventional Therapies for Acute Pulmonary Embolism
Oct 4, 2019 · The purpose of this document is to clarify the current state of endovascular interventional therapy for acute PE and to provide considerations ...
[51]
Transcatheter Patent Foramen Ovale Closure in Stroke Patients with ...
Sep 30, 2022 · Factor V Leiden and prothrombin gene mutation may predispose to paradoxical embolism in subjects with patent foramen ovale. Blood Coagul ...<|separator|>
[52]
Patent Foramen Ovale Closure or Anticoagulation vs. Antiplatelets ...
Sep 14, 2017 · The rate of effective PFO closure (defined as no or minimal residual shunt at follow-up echocardiography) in our trial (93.0%) was similar to ...
[53]
Patent Foramen Ovale Management for Secondary Stroke Prevention
Nov 21, 2023 · A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a congenital heart abnormality resulting from the failed closure of the antenatal interatrial communication and ...
[54]
Long-Term Outcomes of Patent Foramen Ovale Closure or Medical ...
Sep 14, 2017 · Closure of a PFO was associated with a lower rate of recurrent ischemic strokes than medical therapy alone during extended follow-up.
[55]
Patent foramen ovale closure versus medical therapy after ...
Patent foramen ovale closure in adults with recent cryptogenic stroke was associated with a lower rate of recurrent strokes in comparison with medical therapy ...
[56]
Surgical Treatment of Atrial Septal Defects - PMC - PubMed Central
Sep 29, 2024 · Surgical repair yields excellent outcomes for all ASD subtypes, with minimally invasive approaches, especially in adults, increasingly employed for ASD closure.
[57]
Catheter Management of Patent Foramen Ovale - StatPearls - NCBI
[6] In addition to indications and contraindications for PFO closure, every practitioner should be aware of the common post-op complications; arrhythmia is the ...
[58]
Antithrombotic therapy in patients with patent foramen ovale (PFO ...
Oct 1, 2023 · Dual antiplatelet therapy (aspirin and clopidogrel) should be given for 1–6 months after PFO closure followed by single antiplatelet therapy for ...Summary · Patient selection and treatment... · Antithrombotic therapy after...
[59]
Navigating the Uncertainties of Antithrombotic Therapy After ... - NIH
After a median follow‐up of 5.9 years, closure of PFO was associated with a lower rate of recurrent ischemic stroke than medical therapy (3.6% vs. 5.8%, p ...
[60]
SCAI Guidelines for the Management of Patent Foramen Ovale
May 19, 2022 · SCAI expert consensus statement on operator and institutional requirements for PFO closure for secondary prevention of paradoxical embolic ...
[61]
2021 Guideline for the Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke ...
May 24, 2021 · Lifestyle factors, including healthy diet and physical activity, are important for preventing a second stroke. Low-salt and Mediterranean diets ...
[62]
Long-Term Follow-Up After Closure of Patent Foramen Ovale in ...
Jan 21, 2019 · The results of this study showing the low stroke rate >10 years post-PFO closure support the long-term efficacy and safety of this treatment for ...
[63]
Impending paradoxical embolism: systematic review of prognostic ...
Results: Thirty-day mortality was 18.4%. On univariate analysis, age (64+/-13.9 vs 56.7+/-16.5; P = .01), coma (12.9% vs 2.2%; P = .
[64]
Paradoxical Embolus Stuck in a Patent Foramen Ovale - PubMed
In-hospital mortality rate of an embolus in transit is as high as 44.7%. In some cases, a paradoxical embolus can get stuck in a patent foramen ovale.
[65]
Risk of ischemic stroke in patients with pulmonary embolism and ...
Patent foramen ovale is a common condition in patients with acute PE and is associated with a higher incidence of ischemic stroke and increased mortality.Missing: rates | Show results with:rates<|separator|>
[66]
Paradoxical Embolism Is an Unusual Etiology of Acute Limb ...
Jun 20, 2023 · PFOs exist in 15-35% of the adult population and most commonly manifest as cerebrovascular accidents. However, recent reports suggest that the ...
[67]
An Unusual Case of Cannula Obstruction Resulting From Venous ...
Despite optimal management, IPDE is associated with a mortality rate of 18%. Prompt diagnosis and treatment is critical in avoiding systemic thromboembolization ...
[68]
Recurrent events after percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale
Oct 1, 2013 · After PFO closure, the annual rate of events potentially related to paradoxical embolism was 0.14% (9 events in 6,211 patient-years).Missing: prognosis | Show results with:prognosis
[69]
Patent Foramen Ovale Closure in Older Patients With Cryptogenic ...
Previous studies involving patients older than 55 years who underwent transcatheter PFO closure reported a recurrent stroke rate of <1 per 100 patient-years ...
[70]
Clinical Outcomes of Direct Oral Anticoagulants vs Warfarin for ... - NIH
Aug 15, 2023 · These findings suggest that compared with warfarin, DOAC treatment is associated with a lower risk of recurrent VTE in patients taking extended anticoagulation ...Missing: paradoxical | Show results with:paradoxical<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Thromboembolism in Pregnancy Treatment & Management
Jun 6, 2025 · For antepartum outpatient prophylaxis, treatment-dose LMWH or UFH is recommended for women with a clinical history of multiple VTE episodes, VTE ...Medical Care · Low Molecular Weight Heparin... · Prevention
[72]
[PDF] Percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale for the secondary ...
Dec 15, 2010 · Percutaneous closure of PFO for the secondary prevention of recurrent paradoxical embolism in divers is carried out with the patient under local.Missing: guidelines | Show results with:guidelines
[73]
Patent Foramen Ovale Closure for Nonstroke Indications
Use of PFO closure as a treatment for migraines appears to be most promising in patients with frequent aura or those who are responsive to P2Y12 inhibitors.
[74]
Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism | Yellow Book - CDC
Apr 23, 2025 · Travelers with a recent PE may travel after ≥5 days if anticoagulation is stable and the partial pressure of oxygen (PAO2) is normal on room air ...Missing: paradoxical | Show results with:paradoxical
[75]
[PDF] 2025 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiovascular ...
Aug 31, 2025 · a risk of paradoxical air embolism (i.v. line filters should be used for. i.v. therapies). Thromboembolism is a major risk, and ...