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Requirements analysis

Requirements analysis is the process of studying user needs to define system requirements, often resulting in a rigorous model of the system's functionality and constraints.^[1] It forms a core component of requirements engineering within systems development processes, where it bridges stakeholder expectations and technical specifications to guide subsequent design and implementation phases.^[2] This phase is essential for project success across various domains, including software, as poorly managed requirements contribute significantly to failures; for instance, studies indicate that requirements-related issues account for up to 50% of project setbacks in global software development.^[3] Key activities in requirements analysis include eliciting needs from diverse stakeholders through techniques such as interviews, workshops, and surveys; classifying requirements by source, type (functional or non-functional), priority, risk, scope, and stability; and prioritizing them to focus on high-value elements.^[1] Analysts also create conceptual models—such as use case diagrams, data flow diagrams, or entity-relationship models—to represent system behavior and resolve ambiguities, while performing architectural allocation to map requirements to system components.^[4] Negotiation and conflict resolution are integral, addressing discrepancies among stakeholders to ensure feasibility and alignment with business goals.^[1] Despite its importance, requirements analysis faces notable challenges, including incomplete or ambiguous specifications, rapidly changing stakeholder needs, and communication gaps in distributed teams, which can amplify risks in complex projects like those in agile or global development.^[5] Effective practices mitigate these by emphasizing validation through prototypes and reviews, as well as ongoing management to track evolving requirements throughout the development life cycle.^[6] It is applied in fields such as software engineering, systems engineering, and business analysis. In current standards like ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148:2018, requirements analysis culminates in a requirements specification that serves as a verifiable blueprint, reducing downstream errors and enhancing overall quality.^[7]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Requirements analysis is the systematic process of evaluating and refining stakeholder needs to produce a clear, complete, and consistent set of software requirements that define the boundaries and functions of a system.^[8] It involves detecting conflicts among requirements, understanding the software's interaction with its organizational and operational environments, and deriving specific software requirements from higher-level system requirements.^[8] This process ensures that the resulting requirements serve as a precise foundation for subsequent development activities, emphasizing the "what" the system must achieve rather than the "how" of its implementation.^[8] The primary objectives of requirements analysis are to ensure requirements are clear (unambiguous and understandable), complete (encompassing all necessary details without omissions), consistent (free of contradictions), feasible (achievable within constraints), verifiable (testable through objective means), and traceable (linked to their origins and subsequent design elements).^[8] By classifying requirements—such as functional (specifying behaviors) and non-functional (addressing qualities like performance)—and developing conceptual models, it facilitates negotiation among stakeholders to resolve ambiguities and prioritize needs.^[8] These qualities, as outlined in standards like ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148:2018, prevent downstream issues like scope creep or rework, making requirements analysis integral to software and systems engineering lifecycles, including iterative approaches like agile.^[8]^[9] Requirements analysis differs from requirements management, which focuses on the ongoing maintenance, change control, and traceability of established requirements throughout the project lifecycle, rather than their initial definition and refinement.^[8] It also contrasts with system design, where analyzed requirements are translated into architectural blueprints and implementation details, shifting from specifying needs to detailing solutions.^[8] At a high level, the workflow begins with gathering and evaluating stakeholder inputs, proceeds to analyzing for conflicts and gaps, and culminates in documenting a baseline specification that supports validation and traceability.^[8]

Importance in Systems Development

Requirements analysis plays a pivotal role in systems development by serving as the foundation for aligning technical solutions with stakeholder needs, thereby preventing costly project failures. According to the Standish Group's CHAOS Report 2020, only 31% of software projects are fully successful, with 66% ending in partial or total failure, largely attributable to inadequate requirements management as a leading cause.^[10] One of the primary benefits of thorough requirements analysis is substantial cost savings, as addressing issues early in the process is exponentially cheaper than later stages. Research from Barry Boehm's seminal work on software economics demonstrates that the cost to fix defects discovered during the requirements phase is about 1 unit, escalating to 100 units or more during maintenance after deployment.^[11] This principle, often referred to as the "cost of change curve," not only reduces financial expenditures—potentially saving organizations billions annually—but also enhances overall project quality by minimizing rework and ensuring robust, verifiable specifications for both functional and non-functional requirements. Furthermore, effective requirements analysis mitigates risks by identifying potential conflicts, ambiguities, and gaps upfront, fostering stakeholder buy-in and reducing the likelihood of scope creep or misalignment.^[12] In traditional waterfall models, requirements analysis occurs as a distinct upfront phase, where comprehensive documentation drives sequential progression through design, implementation, and testing, emphasizing completeness to avoid downstream revisions.^[13] In contrast, agile methodologies integrate requirements analysis iteratively across sprints, allowing for continuous refinement through user stories and feedback loops to adapt to evolving needs while maintaining alignment.^[14] DevOps approaches further embed it within continuous integration and delivery pipelines, promoting collaborative, automated validation of requirements to accelerate deployment and enhance reliability in dynamic environments.^[15] This iterative emphasis in modern lifecycles ensures requirements remain relevant, supporting faster time-to-market without compromising quality. Real-world impacts illustrate the stakes: the 1996 Ariane 5 Flight 501 explosion, which destroyed a $370 million payload, resulted from overlooked requirements in reusing Ariane 4 software, leading to an unhandled integer overflow in the guidance system just 37 seconds after launch.^[16] Conversely, NASA's rigorous requirements engineering has contributed to mission successes, such as the Mars Perseverance rover, where systematic analysis and validation of over 10,000 requirements ensured safe landing and operational integrity in 2021, demonstrating how structured processes safeguard high-stakes endeavors.^[17]

The Requirements Engineering Process

Elicitation Phase

The elicitation phase in requirements analysis involves systematically discovering and gathering requirements from stakeholders through interactive and observational methods to uncover explicit and implicit needs for the system under development. This process aims to bridge the gap between stakeholders' expectations and the system's intended functionality by identifying what the system should do, how it should perform, and any constraints it must satisfy. Elicitation is foundational, as incomplete or misunderstood requirements can lead to project failures, with studies indicating that over 50% of software products fail to meet user needs due to poor elicitation practices.^[18] Key techniques for elicitation include interviews, surveys, workshops, observation, and document analysis, each suited to different contexts based on stakeholder availability and project complexity.

Interviews: Structured or semi-structured discussions with individual stakeholders to probe needs, clarify ambiguities, and explore domain-specific knowledge. They are effective for initial information gathering or resolving conflicts, particularly when stakeholders are geographically dispersed or inaccessible for group settings, but require skilled facilitation to avoid bias.^[19]^[18]
Surveys (Questionnaires): Distributed tools to collect quantitative and qualitative data from a large number of stakeholders efficiently, ideal for identifying common patterns or prioritizing features. Challenges include low response rates and superficial answers, necessitating clear, targeted questions.^[19]
Workshops, including Joint Application Design (JAD) or Joint Requirements Development Sessions: Facilitated group sessions bringing together stakeholders, users, and experts to collaboratively define requirements, foster consensus, and reduce misunderstandings through real-time discussion and visual aids. Originating from IBM in the 1970s, JAD involves preparation, structured working sessions, and follow-up to document outcomes, making it suitable for complex projects with multiple viewpoints.^[19]^[20]
Observation: Direct watching of users in their natural environment (e.g., ethnography or job shadowing) to capture tacit behaviors and unarticulated needs that may not emerge in verbal interactions. This qualitative method is time-intensive and best supplemented with other techniques to interpret observations.^[19]^[18]
Document Analysis: Review of existing artifacts such as manuals, policies, or legacy system specifications to extract baseline requirements and identify gaps or improvements. It is cost-effective for stable domains but risks relying on outdated information.^[19]

Elicitation faces several challenges, including incomplete information from stakeholders who may lack clarity on their own needs or the system's capabilities, leading to vague or omitted details that contribute to up to 56% of errors in deployed systems. Tacit knowledge—implicit, "obvious" understandings held by domain experts—often goes unexpressed, complicating capture without probing tools. Varying stakeholder perspectives, arising from diverse roles (e.g., users, developers, sponsors), can introduce conflicts or inconsistencies, exacerbated by communication barriers and differing backgrounds.^[20]^[20] Best practices mitigate these issues by prioritizing stakeholders through initial identification to focus efforts on high-impact sources, using structured questionnaires in surveys to ensure comprehensive coverage, and maintaining detailed documentation of raw elicitation data (e.g., notes, recordings) for traceability and later validation. Experts recommend situational selection of techniques based on factors like stakeholder diversity and domain familiarity, often combining methods iteratively to build a complete picture.^[18]^[19]^[18]

Analysis and Negotiation Phase

The analysis and negotiation phase of requirements engineering involves systematically evaluating the elicited requirements to ensure they are consistent, complete, and feasible, while resolving any conflicts among stakeholders to produce a refined set of requirements. This phase transforms raw inputs from elicitation into a coherent foundation for subsequent specification, emphasizing quality assurance through iterative refinement. Key activities include identifying inconsistencies, such as conflicting functional and non-functional requirements, and assessing overall viability within project constraints like time and budget.^[21] Core activities in this phase encompass prioritization, conflict detection, feasibility assessment, and stakeholder negotiation. Prioritization techniques, such as the MoSCoW method—which categorizes requirements as Must have, Should have, Could have, or Won't have—help allocate resources effectively by focusing on essential features first. Conflict detection involves examining requirements for contradictions, for instance, when one stakeholder's performance goal clashes with another's cost limitation, using structured reviews to pinpoint issues. Feasibility assessment evaluates technical, economic, and operational viability, often through prototyping or cost-benefit analysis to determine if requirements can be realistically implemented. Negotiation then facilitates resolution, employing collaborative approaches to reconcile differences and achieve mutual agreement.^[22]^[23] Tools and models support these activities, including requirements traceability matrices (RTMs), which map requirements to their sources and dependencies to detect gaps or overlaps, ensuring forward and backward traceability for consistency. The WinWin spiral model, a framework for conflict resolution, structures negotiations around stakeholder win conditions, iteratively refining agreements through theory-based discussions to balance competing interests. For metrics, completeness checks measure the extent to which all necessary requirements are covered, often via coverage ratios against stakeholder needs, while ambiguity detection identifies vague language—such as terms like "user-friendly" without criteria—using basic natural language processing techniques like lexical analysis for imprecise modifiers. These metrics quantify quality, with high levels of non-ambiguity targeted in mature processes, such as 90% or more, to minimize interpretation risks.^[24]^[25]^[26] Outcomes of this phase include a prioritized, conflict-free set of requirements ready for specification, reducing downstream rework in complex projects. In multi-stakeholder scenarios, such as enterprise software development, negotiation might resolve a conflict where marketing demands rapid feature deployment while engineering prioritizes stability; using WinWin, stakeholders negotiate phased rollouts, with core stability features as "Must haves" and enhancements as "Could haves," ensuring alignment. Another example involves healthcare systems, where patient privacy requirements conflict with data-sharing needs for research—negotiation yields hybrid solutions like anonymized datasets, validated through traceability to confirm feasibility. These refined requirements provide a solid basis for validation later in the process.^[27]^[23]

Specification Phase

The specification phase involves documenting the refined requirements from the analysis and negotiation phase into clear, structured formats that serve as a contractual basis for development, ensuring they are unambiguous and traceable. This phase transforms stakeholder needs and derived requirements into a comprehensive specification that guides implementation while minimizing misinterpretation. Derived requirements, emerging from analysis, are integrated here as explicit outputs to support system design. Requirements specifications commonly employ natural language documents, such as Software Requirements Specifications (SRS), which describe system functions, interfaces, and constraints in prose supplemented by diagrams.^[28] These documents prioritize qualities like completeness, consistency, and verifiability to facilitate downstream activities.^[29] For instance, an SRS might outline external interfaces and performance criteria in a modular format to avoid redundancy.^[29] Formal specification languages offer a mathematical alternative to natural language, reducing ambiguity through precise notation. Z notation, a model-based formalism, uses schemas to define system states, operations, and invariants via set theory and predicate calculus, enabling rigorous verification of requirements.^[30] Core concepts in Z include given sets for inputs, schemas for state descriptions (e.g., \Delta State for state changes), and predicates to enforce constraints, making it suitable for safety-critical systems.^[30] Standards like ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148:2018 (which supersedes IEEE 830-1998) provide recommended practices for SRS structure, emphasizing sections such as introduction, overall description, specific requirements, and supporting information, with sample outlines like functional hierarchy or user-class based templates.^[29] This standard advocates for ranked requirements (e.g., essential vs. optional) and traceable elements to ensure modifiability.^[29] Similarly, ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148 outlines attributes including unique identification (ID), priority, and source to categorize requirements systematically. Key elements of specifications include attributes such as ID for unique referencing, priority for ranking importance (e.g., high/medium/low), and source to trace origins to stakeholders. Structures often adopt hierarchical formats, organizing requirements into parent-child relationships for decomposition, or modular approaches for independent sections like functional and non-functional categories. Versioning mechanisms, such as baseline releases and change logs, track modifications to maintain consistency across iterations. Requirements management tools support specification by enabling collaborative authoring and traceability. IBM Engineering Requirements Management DOORS facilitates capturing, linking, and versioning requirements in a database-like environment, supporting hierarchical views and attribute customization.^[31] Atlassian Jira, extended via custom issue types and apps like Requirements & Test Management for Jira, allows teams to document requirements as traceable issues integrated with Confluence for natural language elaboration.^[32] Common pitfalls in this phase include linguistic ambiguity, where terms like "user-friendly" allow multiple interpretations, and over-specification, which details implementation prematurely and constrains flexibility.^[33] To mitigate these, standardized templates from IEEE 830-1998 promote consistent phrasing and glossaries, while peer reviews identify vague elements early.^[29] Guidelines emphasize atomic requirements—each stating one fact—and measurable criteria to enhance verifiability.^[33]

Validation and Verification Phase

In the validation and verification phase of requirements analysis, verification ensures that the requirements documentation and related artifacts are built correctly by confirming they adhere to predefined standards, syntax, and internal consistency, often summarized as "are we building the product right?".^[34] In contrast, validation confirms that the requirements accurately reflect stakeholder needs and the intended system purpose, encapsulated as "are we building the right product?".^[34] These processes are integral to the requirements engineering lifecycle, applied through systematic activities to mitigate errors before downstream development.^[35] Key methods for verification include formal reviews, walkthroughs, and inspections, where stakeholders or experts examine requirements documents for completeness, consistency, and adherence to templates.^[36] Walkthroughs involve step-by-step peer discussions to identify ambiguities or omissions, while inspections apply structured checklists to detect defects systematically.^[35] Traceability analysis supports both verification and validation by mapping requirements to sources, designs, and tests via matrices, ensuring bidirectional links and facilitating impact assessment of changes.^[37] Acceptance criteria emphasize that requirements must be testable, meaning they are unambiguous, measurable, and verifiable against objective outcomes to support later implementation and testing.^[38] Prototypes serve as a validation tool by allowing stakeholders to interact with early system representations, confirming alignment with user expectations without delving into full development details.^[35] Metrics for assessing this phase include requirements coverage ratios, calculated as the percentage of requirements traced to verification activities or artifacts, which indicate completeness and risk exposure if below 100%.^[39] Defect rates, often expressed as defect density (defects per requirement or per page in the document), measure quality; for instance, mentoring interventions have reduced requirements defect density by enhancing training effectiveness. These metrics guide process improvements, with low defect rates signaling robust validation.

Types of Requirements

Functional Requirements

Functional requirements specify the specific functions or services that a system must perform in response to inputs, events, or user interactions, defining the core behaviors and operations of the system. They outline what the system does, such as processing data, generating outputs, or managing interactions, without detailing how these functions are implemented internally. According to ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148:2018, functional requirements describe the fundamental actions the software must take, including handling inputs, producing outputs, and responding to abnormal situations like errors or overflows, typically phrased as mandatory "shall" statements to ensure clarity and enforceability.^[40] Key characteristics of functional requirements include being observable through the system's external behavior, testable via verification methods such as unit tests or integration checks, and atomic, meaning each requirement stands alone as a complete, self-contained statement without relying on or combining multiple unrelated elements. These traits ensure that requirements can be independently validated during development and maintenance, promoting unambiguous interpretation and traceability back to stakeholder needs. For instance, a requirement like "The system shall validate email addresses entered by users against a standard format" is observable in the validation outcome, testable by inputting various email strings, and atomic as it addresses one distinct function.^[40]^[41] Examples of functional requirements span various domains. In software systems, they often involve data processing, such as "The application shall compute employee payroll by multiplying hours worked by the hourly rate and deducting applicable taxes." In hardware engineering, they focus on signal handling or control mechanisms, for example, "The sensor module shall detect temperature changes exceeding 50°C and trigger an alert output signal within 100 milliseconds." For business systems, they define workflow steps, like "The procurement platform shall generate a purchase order form and route it to the finance department for review upon vendor selection." These examples illustrate how functional requirements capture essential actions tailored to the system's purpose.^[40]^[42] Functional requirements are typically elicited through techniques like use cases and scenarios, which model sequences of user-system interactions to uncover necessary behaviors. By documenting user goals, tasks, and alternative paths in collaborative sessions, analysts derive precise requirements from these models, ensuring alignment with stakeholder expectations. This approach, as outlined by Wiegers, facilitates the identification of functions through iterative exploration of "what if" situations and business rules.^[43]

Non-Functional Requirements

Non-functional requirements (NFRs) define the operational qualities, constraints, and performance attributes of a system that go beyond its core functionalities, ensuring it meets standards for efficiency, dependability, and user satisfaction.^[44] These requirements are guided by established quality models, such as ISO/IEC 25010, which outlines characteristics like performance efficiency, reliability, usability, security, and aspects of scalability.^[45] By specifying measurable criteria, NFRs help balance system design against real-world demands, influencing everything from resource allocation to end-user experience.^[46] Common categories of NFRs include performance, which addresses response time and throughput to ensure timely operations; for example, a system might require processing 1,000 transactions per second without delays exceeding specified thresholds.^[44] Reliability focuses on the system's consistent operation, often quantified using mean time between failures (MTBF), where a target MTBF of 10,000 hours indicates robust fault tolerance under normal conditions.^[47] Usability emphasizes learnability, requiring that users can complete core tasks with minimal training, such as achieving proficiency in under 30 minutes through intuitive interfaces.^[48] Security NFRs mandate protections like multi-factor authentication to prevent unauthorized access, ensuring compliance with standards such as data encryption at rest and in transit.^[45] Scalability requirements enable the system to handle growing loads, such as supporting a 50% increase in users while maintaining performance levels.^[46] Specifying NFRs involves challenges in establishing quantifiable metrics, like requiring "system uptime greater than 99.9%," which demands precise definitions to avoid ambiguity.^[49] Trade-offs are inherent, as enhancing one quality—such as boosting security through additional checks—may degrade another, like performance, necessitating prioritization during analysis.^[50] In contemporary applications, cloud systems often impose NFRs for low latency, such as maintaining response times under 200 milliseconds to support real-time interactions in distributed environments.^[51] For Internet of Things (IoT) deployments, power constraints are paramount, requiring devices to operate with energy consumption optimized for extended battery life, such as minimizing power per data packet through adjustable sensing frequencies.^[52] Verification of NFRs relies on specialized methods, including benchmarks to measure performance metrics like throughput under load and simulations to predict reliability outcomes such as MTBF in varied scenarios.^[53] These approaches provide empirical evidence that the system adheres to its quality constraints, often through automated testing tools or modeling software.^[54]

Business and Stakeholder Requirements

Business requirements represent the high-level strategic objectives and goals of an organization that drive the development of a system or project, such as achieving specific return on investment (ROI) targets or expanding market share by a defined percentage.^[55] These requirements focus on the overarching "why" behind the initiative, ensuring that the solution aligns with the enterprise's mission, vision, and long-term viability, as outlined in standards like ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 for systems and software engineering. Stakeholder requirements, in contrast, capture the specific needs, expectations, and constraints articulated by individuals or groups affected by or influencing the system, such as ensuring accessibility features for users with disabilities or usability for end-users in daily operations.^[56] According to the Business Analysis Body of Knowledge (BABOK Guide), these requirements bridge organizational goals and detailed solution specifications by detailing the "who" the system serves, often derived from stakeholder input to address diverse perspectives like operational efficiency for internal teams. Common sources for eliciting business and stakeholder requirements include organizational vision statements that articulate strategic aspirations, market analysis reports assessing competitive landscapes and customer demands through surveys or trend data, and regulatory compliance mandates that impose legal obligations.^[55] For instance, in the finance industry, business requirements may stem from the need to comply with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), requiring systems to incorporate data privacy measures to avoid penalties and maintain trust, thereby supporting broader strategic goals like risk mitigation and customer retention.^[55] Alignment of these requirements with organizational strategy involves mapping them to mission, goals, and objectives (MGOs), ensuring traceability from high-level business aims to stakeholder needs for cohesive project outcomes.^[55] This mapping process, as emphasized in INCOSE guidelines, prevents scope creep by verifying that stakeholder requirements directly support business objectives, such as linking user accessibility needs to a company's diversity and inclusion strategy.^[57] While business requirements emphasize the rationale for project existence, stakeholder requirements highlight the beneficiaries, with elicitation techniques briefly applied to transform raw inputs into formalized statements.

Derived and Allocated Requirements

Derived requirements are those that emerge from the analysis of higher-level requirements, constraints, or stakeholder needs, often inferred to address implied aspects such as safety measures derived from identified business risks.^[58] For instance, a high-level requirement for operational reliability in a critical system may lead to derived requirements specifying fault-tolerant mechanisms in software components.^[59] These requirements must be explicitly traced back to at least one originating higher-level requirement to ensure validity and avoid introducing unrelated specifications.^[58] Allocated requirements, in contrast, involve the systematic distribution of higher-level requirements across system elements, subsystems, or components to define specific responsibilities and performance expectations.^[60] This allocation ensures that the collective fulfillment of lower-level requirements satisfies the overall system objectives, such as dividing a total system weight limit among structural, propulsion, and avionics subsystems.^[61] The process typically employs allocation matrices to map and balance these distributions, facilitating verification that no gaps or overlaps exist in coverage.^[62] In practice, the flow-down process begins with business and functional requirements, progressing through iterative analysis to generate and allocate derived requirements to appropriate system layers.^[63] Tools like requirements allocation matrices document this progression, capturing how top-level needs translate into detailed, implementable specifications while maintaining balance across design trades.^[62] For example, in aerospace systems, a system-level reliability target of 99.9% availability might be allocated to components like engines (requiring 99.5% uptime) and control systems (99.7%), ensuring the integrated system's performance meets mission-critical demands.^[64] This approach is particularly vital in complex systems, where interdependent components demand precise allocation to mitigate risks like cascading failures.^[62] Traceability forms the backbone of managing derived and allocated requirements, establishing bi-directional links between levels via requirements traceability matrices (RTMs) to verify completeness and enable impact assessment.^[61] By documenting these links, engineers can trace derived requirements back to their sources and forward to verification activities, which helps prevent scope creep through controlled change management and early detection of inconsistencies.^[63] In allocated contexts, this ensures that subsystem modifications do not inadvertently violate higher-level intents, supporting disciplined evolution in large-scale projects.^[62]

Techniques and Methods

Stakeholder Identification and Engagement

Stakeholder identification is a foundational activity in requirements analysis, involving the systematic recognition of individuals, groups, or organizations that influence or are affected by the system's requirements. This process ensures that diverse perspectives are captured to develop comprehensive and feasible requirements. According to Glinz and Wieringa, stakeholders include end users, developers, sponsors, regulators, and even those negatively impacted, such as communities affected by system deployment.^[65] In systems engineering contexts, identification begins early in the life cycle, using tools like stakeholder registers to catalog roles across phases from concept to operations.^[56] Common identification techniques include the RACI matrix, which assigns roles—Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, Informed—to stakeholders for specific activities, aiding in clarifying involvement and responsibilities. Stakeholder maps visualize relationships and influences, often through network diagrams where nodes represent stakeholders and edges denote interactions, helping to uncover dependencies.^[66] The power-interest grid categorizes stakeholders based on their authority (power) to influence the project and their level of interest in outcomes, dividing them into quadrants such as high-power/high-interest (manage closely) or low-power/low-interest (monitor). This grid, integrated into project management standards like PMBOK, supports prioritization by plotting stakeholders to tailor engagement strategies.^[66] Sharp et al. propose a five-step iterative approach starting with baseline roles (e.g., users, decision-makers) and expanding to suppliers, clients, and satellite stakeholders via interaction analysis, reducing the risk of oversight.^[67] Engagement methods focus on active involvement to elicit and validate requirements collaboratively. Workshops bring stakeholders together for structured discussions, fostering consensus on needs and priorities through techniques like brainstorming and prioritization exercises.^[56] Joint Application Design (JAD) sessions, facilitated by trained leaders, involve users, developers, and analysts in intensive workshops to define specifications, improving requirements quality in 10-30% of applicable projects by enhancing participation.^[68] Feedback loops, such as iterative reviews and surveys, maintain ongoing communication, allowing stakeholders to refine inputs and address emerging concerns throughout the analysis phase. These methods play a key role in the subsequent elicitation process by building trust and ensuring representative input.^[56] Challenges in stakeholder identification and engagement include uncovering hidden stakeholders, such as end-users overlooked in favor of sponsors or indirect parties like maintenance crews, which can lead to incomplete requirements and project failure.^[65] Bias mitigation requires deliberate efforts, like diverse selection criteria and risk assessments, to avoid favoring influential voices over marginalized ones. A systematic review highlights that poor identification often stems from inadequate coverage of stakeholder characteristics, resulting in gaps in requirements elicitation.^[69] Effective identification and engagement yield comprehensive stakeholder buy-in, reducing conflicts and enhancing requirement acceptance. Integration with frameworks like PMBOK's stakeholder management processes ensures alignment with project goals, as seen in examples where power-interest grids inform communication plans, leading to higher project success rates through proactive involvement.^[66]

Use Cases and Scenarios

Use cases serve as a key technique in requirements analysis for modeling the interactions between users and a system to capture and specify functional behaviors, providing a narrative description of how the system should respond to user goals.^[70] They originated in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) framework and are widely adopted for eliciting functional requirements by focusing on observable system responses rather than internal implementation details. The standard structure of a use case, as defined in UML, includes several core elements to ensure comprehensive coverage of user-system interactions. Actors represent external entities, such as users or other systems, that initiate or participate in the use case; they are classified as primary (those driving the goal), supporting (those providing services), or secondary (those affected indirectly). Preconditions specify the state or conditions that must hold true before the use case can begin, such as user authentication or system availability. The main flow outlines the primary success scenario as a step-by-step sequence of interactions between the actor and the system. Alternative flows describe variations or optional branches from the main flow, often triggered by specific conditions, while exception flows handle error conditions or failures, detailing recovery steps or termination.^[70] This structure promotes clarity and completeness in documenting behaviors.^[71] Use cases offer significant benefits in requirements analysis by visualizing complex interactions, which helps stakeholders understand system scope and identify gaps in requirements early. They facilitate communication among team members, reduce ambiguity in functional specifications, and serve as a foundation for deriving test cases and user documentation. Tools like Lucidchart support the creation of use case diagrams and textual descriptions, enabling collaborative modeling and integration with other UML artifacts.^[72] Additionally, by emphasizing user goals, use cases manage project complexity and promote iterative refinement during analysis.^[73] A representative example is the "User Login" use case for an e-commerce system. The primary actor is the customer, with preconditions that the system is operational and the customer has a registered account. The main flow involves: 1) the customer entering username and password on the login page; 2) the system validating credentials against the database; 3) upon success, redirecting to the homepage and establishing a session. An alternative flow might include "forgot password," where the customer requests a reset link via email. An exception flow handles invalid credentials by displaying an error message and limiting retry attempts to prevent brute-force attacks. This example illustrates how use cases capture core functional behaviors while incorporating extensions for robustness.^[74] Despite their strengths, use cases have limitations, including a tendency to overemphasize "happy path" scenarios at the expense of rare or edge cases, which may require additional effort to uncover. They primarily focus on functional requirements and often necessitate supplementary techniques to address non-functional aspects, such as performance or security constraints. Furthermore, developing detailed use cases can be time-intensive for large systems, potentially leading to incomplete coverage if not iterated upon.^[73]^[75]

Prototyping and Modeling

Prototyping and modeling serve as essential techniques in requirements analysis, enabling stakeholders to visualize, explore, and refine system requirements through iterative representations rather than solely textual descriptions. Prototypes provide tangible simulations of proposed functionalities, allowing early detection of ambiguities or misalignments, while models offer structured diagrams to abstract and analyze system behaviors, data flows, and relationships. These methods facilitate iterative validation, reducing the risk of costly revisions later in development.^[76] Prototypes in requirements analysis are categorized into throwaway and evolutionary types. Throwaway prototypes, also known as rapid or disposable prototypes, are built quickly to elicit and clarify initial requirements but are discarded once their purpose is served, avoiding the overhead of refining incomplete implementations. In contrast, evolutionary prototypes are incrementally developed and refined over time, serving as the foundation for the final system by incorporating ongoing feedback to evolve requirements progressively. This distinction originates from Barry Boehm's spiral model, which emphasizes prototyping to manage risks in uncertain requirements phases. Prototypes further vary by fidelity levels, particularly in user interface (UI) design contexts. Low-fidelity prototypes, such as paper sketches or wireframes, emphasize quick iteration and conceptual exploration without detailed interactions, making them cost-effective for early stakeholder discussions. High-fidelity prototypes, conversely, incorporate interactive elements and visual realism, simulating closer-to-final experiences to assess usability and refine requirements more precisely. The choice between low- and high-fidelity depends on project stage and goals, with low-fidelity often preferred initially to avoid premature commitment to designs.^[77]^[77] Modeling approaches complement prototyping by providing formal abstractions of system elements. Data flow diagrams (DFDs), developed by Tom DeMarco and Edward Yourdon, graphically depict the flow of data through processes, external entities, and data stores, helping analysts identify requirements for information handling without specifying implementation details. Entity-relationship (ER) models, introduced by Peter Chen, represent data requirements through entities, attributes, and relationships, ensuring a unified view of the database structure essential for informational systems. State machines, advanced by David Harel's statecharts, model behavioral requirements by illustrating states, transitions, and concurrent activities, particularly useful for reactive or event-driven systems. These models promote clarity and consistency in requirements specification.^[78]^[79]^[80] In practice, prototyping and modeling reduce risks in domains with high uncertainty, such as UI design, by enabling early exploration of user interactions and system behaviors. For instance, in agile environments, prototypes integrate into sprints to validate evolving requirements iteratively, mitigating issues like incomplete documentation or miscommunication, as demonstrated in a case study of a large agile project where prototyping improved requirements quality and stakeholder motivation. The Scaled Agile Framework highlights how prototypes focus efforts on high-risk aspects, such as novel UI elements, to align requirements with technical feasibility.^[76]^[81]^[76] Evaluation of prototypes relies on user feedback loops to iteratively refine requirements. Stakeholders interact with prototypes to provide insights on usability and functionality, leading to adjustments that enhance requirement accuracy. In app development, tools like Figma facilitate this by allowing collaborative creation of interactive prototypes, where wireframing and high-fidelity simulations gather targeted feedback to resolve UI ambiguities early. This process supports validation by simulating real-world usage, ensuring requirements reflect user needs without extensive coding.^[82]^[83]

Measurable Goals and Contract-Style Lists

In requirements analysis, measurable goals provide a structured approach to defining objectives that can be objectively evaluated, ensuring alignment with project outcomes and facilitating verification during later phases. These goals emphasize quantifiable targets over vague aspirations, reducing ambiguity and enabling progress tracking. A widely adopted framework for crafting such goals is the SMART criteria, adapted for software engineering contexts as Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Traceable.^[84] Specificity ensures the goal addresses a precise aspect of the system, such as functionality or performance; measurability involves defining clear metrics, like response time or error rates; attainability assesses feasibility given resources; realism evaluates practicality within constraints; and traceability links the goal back to stakeholder needs or business objectives.^[84] For instance, a measurable goal might state: "The system shall reduce data processing time by 20% compared to the current baseline of 5 seconds per transaction, achievable within the allocated hardware budget and traceable to the efficiency requirement in the stakeholder analysis."^[85] This approach ties directly to non-functional metrics, such as performance thresholds, by incorporating verifiable indicators.^[86] Contract-style lists represent a formal, enumerated format for documenting requirements, treating each as a distinct, contractual obligation with associated attributes like unique identifiers, descriptions, priorities, and verification criteria. These lists promote precision by structuring requirements as standalone items, often numbered sequentially for easy reference and contractual enforceability. Strengths include enhanced clarity and unambiguity, as each requirement stands alone without implied dependencies, making it easier to negotiate, review, and test individually. However, weaknesses arise from their rigidity, which can foster a false sense of completeness by overlooking system interactions or emergent behaviors, and they offer limited support for design activities since they do not naturally lend themselves to modeling or iteration. As an alternative in more flexible environments, agile user stories shift focus to narrative descriptions emphasizing user value, such as "As a [user], I want [feature] so that [benefit]," allowing for evolving priorities without strict enumeration. Implementation of measurable goals and contract-style lists often involves standardized templates and prioritization techniques to ensure comprehensiveness and focus. The Volere requirements specification template, developed by Suzanne and James Robertson, provides a comprehensive structure for contract-style lists, including sections for functional requirements, constraints, and atomic requirements with fields for rationale, fit criteria, and supporting materials, facilitating measurable goal integration through quantifiable fit criteria like performance benchmarks.^[85] For prioritization, the Kano model categorizes requirements into must-be (basic expectations), one-dimensional (linear satisfaction), and attractive (delighters), helping analysts allocate effort to high-impact items based on customer satisfaction potential rather than equal weighting. Originating from Noriaki Kano's work on quality management, the model uses surveys to classify features, ensuring measurable goals align with user-perceived value. In contractual projects, such as government procurement, measurable goals and contract-style lists are particularly prevalent to enforce accountability and compliance. For example, U.S. Department of Defense Performance Work Statements (PWS) employ enumerated lists with specific, quantifiable objectives, like achieving 99% uptime for mission-critical systems, to define contractor deliverables and enable objective evaluation against federal acquisition regulations.^[86] Similarly, Contract Data Requirements Lists (CDRL) specify data items with measurable delivery criteria, ensuring traceability and verifiability in large-scale procurements.^[87] This format minimizes disputes by providing a clear, auditable baseline for acceptance, though it requires careful scoping to avoid over-specification.

Emerging AI Techniques

Recent advancements as of 2025 incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) into requirements engineering techniques, enhancing traditional methods with automation and analysis. Generative AI tools assist in elicitation by generating initial requirement drafts from stakeholder interviews or natural language processing of documents, improving efficiency and completeness.^[88] Machine learning models support validation by detecting inconsistencies, ambiguities, or conflicts in specifications, drawing from historical data to suggest refinements.^[89] These AI-driven approaches, explored in workshops like AIRE'25, address challenges in complex systems but require integration with human oversight to ensure accuracy and ethical considerations.^[90]

Challenges and Contemporary Issues

Stakeholder and Communication Challenges

Stakeholder and communication challenges in requirements analysis often stem from diverse perspectives among participants, leading to misaligned expectations about project needs and outcomes. These misalignments arise when stakeholders, including end-users, managers, and technical teams, interpret requirements differently due to varying priorities and backgrounds, resulting in incomplete or ambiguous specifications.^[91] Scope creep frequently exacerbates this issue, as evolving stakeholder demands introduce uncontrolled changes to project scope without corresponding adjustments to timelines or resources; according to 2018 Project Management Institute (PMI) data, 52% of projects encounter such creep, significantly altering original plans.^[92] Cultural and language barriers further complicate interactions in multicultural teams, hindering clear articulation of needs and fostering misunderstandings during elicitation sessions.^[93] The impacts of these challenges are profound, manifesting as project delays and cost overruns that undermine overall success. Ineffective communication contributes to failure in approximately 30% of projects, while poor requirements gathering accounts for 39% of software project failures, often leading to rework and extended timelines.^[94]^[91] PMI's 2025 Pulse of the Profession report highlights that 93% of professionals prioritize stakeholder management for scope challenges and 94% for timeline issues, with projects led by professionals with high business acumen experiencing 8% failure rates compared to 11% for others.^[95] Economically, ineffective communications account for 56% of budget risks, with $75 million at risk per $1 billion spent on projects.^[96] In the UK National Health Service's National Programme for IT (NPfIT), a £10 billion initiative launched in 2002, stakeholder resistance from clinicians and local trusts—due to perceived top-down imposition and inadequate consultation—led to implementation delays, partial rollouts, and eventual program dismantlement in 2011.^[97] In modern contexts, these challenges have intensified with the rise of remote and hybrid work models post-2020, particularly in global projects where distributed teams face heightened communication barriers. The shift to virtual collaboration, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has disrupted traditional face-to-face elicitation, with 22 out of 49 surveyed requirements engineers reporting negative impacts on practices like negotiation and documentation due to reduced non-verbal cues and time zone differences.^[98] In multinational settings, cultural nuances and language discordance amplify these issues, slowing knowledge transfer and increasing the risk of overlooked requirements.^[99] Effective stakeholder engagement techniques, such as structured virtual workshops, can mitigate these barriers by fostering inclusive dialogue. As of 2025, evolving regulations like amendments to the EU AI Act introduce additional volatility in stakeholder needs for AI-integrated systems, further complicating communication in global teams.

Technical and Process Challenges

Ambiguity in software requirements specifications remains a persistent technical challenge, often arising from the use of natural language, which introduces vagueness, incompleteness, or multiple interpretations that can lead to implementation errors and project rework. Studies have identified common types of ambiguity, such as lexical, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic issues, which complicate validation and verification during analysis. For instance, ambiguous phrasing in requirements documents has been shown to increase defect rates in downstream development phases, necessitating automated detection techniques like natural language processing tools to mitigate risks. Requirements volatility, defined as frequent changes to specifications due to evolving needs or uncertainties, poses significant process challenges, particularly when contrasting agile and traditional development approaches. In traditional waterfall models, volatility disrupts sequential phases, leading to costly rework in high-change environments, while agile methods embrace iterative refinement but struggle with maintaining consistency across sprints. Industrial case studies highlight that without robust change control mechanisms, such as prioritized backlogs or impact analysis, volatility can amplify scope creep and delay delivery in large projects.^[100]^[5] Integrating new requirements with legacy systems introduces technical hurdles related to architectural mismatches and data incompatibilities, often requiring reverse engineering of undocumented codebases to align modern specifications. This process is complicated by outdated technologies that lack support for contemporary standards, resulting in integration failures without thorough gap analysis. Systems engineering practices emphasize the need for modular decomposition to isolate legacy components, yet challenges persist in ensuring bidirectional traceability between old and new requirements to avoid operational disruptions. Scalability issues in requirements analysis for large-scale systems stem from the exponential growth in complexity, where managing thousands of interdependent specifications overwhelms manual processes and existing tools. Research indicates that in systems with over 10,000 requirements, analysis is prolonged without scalable techniques like hierarchical modeling or automated partitioning, leading to overlooked dependencies and performance bottlenecks. For real-time systems, scalability challenges further intensify due to timing constraints, demanding advanced verification methods to handle combinatorial explosions in validation scenarios.^[5]^[101] Cybersecurity oversights during requirements engineering often occur when security is treated as an afterthought rather than an integrated non-functional aspect, resulting in vulnerabilities in software systems. Common gaps include incomplete threat modeling and failure to specify access controls or encryption needs early, as evidenced by analyses of recent incidents where overlooked requirements led to compliance violations and financial losses exceeding millions. Frameworks like Security Quality Requirements Engineering advocate for proactive elicitation to embed cybersecurity from the outset, yet adoption remains low due to perceived overhead in initial analysis phases.^[102]^[103] Inadequate traceability in requirements engineering undermines process integrity by hindering impact assessment of changes and verification of compliance, with industrial reports showing that poor traceability contributes to defects escaping to production. In complex projects, manual linking of requirements to design and test artifacts often fails under scale, leading to "traceability debt" where links become outdated or erroneous. Empirical studies from automotive and aerospace domains reveal that without automated tools, maintaining end-to-end traceability can consume significant engineering effort, exacerbating errors in regulated environments.^[104]^[105] Over-reliance on manual methods in requirements analysis amplifies error rates through subjective interpretations and oversight, with studies estimating that human-induced inconsistencies account for specification flaws. These methods lack precision in handling voluminous data, resulting in omissions or contradictions that propagate to coding and testing, increasing correction costs by factors of 10-100 as the project advances. Transitioning to semi-automated validation, such as rule-based checks, has been shown to reduce such errors in safety-critical applications.^[106]^[107] The integration of AI and machine learning (AI/ML) into systems introduces novel technical challenges in requirements analysis, particularly around explainability requirements, which ensure model decisions are interpretable to stakeholders as of 2025 standards. Unlike traditional software, AI/ML systems exhibit non-deterministic behaviors, making it difficult to specify and verify explainability without dedicated elicitation processes, leading to regulatory non-compliance in sectors like healthcare and finance. Recent frameworks highlight that eliciting explainability as a functional requirement involves balancing accuracy with transparency, yet challenges persist in documenting post-deployment drifts, with industrial surveys reporting 70% of AI projects facing unmet interpretability needs.^[108]^[109]

Emerging Solutions and Best Practices

In agile methodologies, iterative refinement of requirements involves continuous feedback loops where requirements are elicited, prioritized, and adjusted throughout sprints to adapt to evolving stakeholder needs and reduce rework.^[110] This practice enhances alignment between business objectives and technical delivery by incorporating regular reviews and validations at each iteration.^[110] Similarly, peer reviews in requirements analysis promote quality by involving independent reviewers to detect ambiguities, inconsistencies, and omissions early, fostering collaborative validation without formal inspections.^[111] Requirements reuse libraries further streamline processes by maintaining repositories of validated, modular requirements patterns that can be adapted across projects, minimizing redundancy and accelerating elicitation.^[112] Emerging solutions leverage artificial intelligence (AI) for enhanced elicitation, such as natural language processing (NLP) techniques that automatically detect ambiguities in textual requirements, improving clarity and reducing manual effort.^[89] For instance, tools like ReqView incorporate NLP and machine learning to identify semantically similar requirements, aiding in traceability and conflict resolution during analysis.^[113] Model-based systems engineering (MBSE) represents another advancement, using standardized models like SysML to integrate requirements with system architecture, enabling simulation-driven validation and holistic impact assessment.^[114] AI-assisted MBSE further automates model generation and inconsistency checks, as demonstrated in frameworks that combine generative AI with axiomatic design principles for requirements management.^[115] Integrated platforms support these practices through seamless DevOps integrations; for example, Polarion offers native connections to tools like GitHub, allowing requirements to flow directly into version control and CI/CD pipelines for real-time collaboration and automated testing.^[116] Such tools facilitate end-to-end traceability, from elicitation to deployment, in distributed teams. Looking ahead, future trends emphasize incorporating sustainability requirements into analysis, with frameworks defining specification levels for environmental impacts like energy efficiency and carbon footprints to ensure systems align with net-zero goals.^[117] Ethical AI considerations are also gaining prominence, requiring requirements engineering for AI-based systems to explicitly address bias mitigation, transparency, and fairness from the outset, as outlined in maturity assessments of RE4AI practices.^[118] These trends promote proactive inclusion of non-functional attributes to build responsible, resilient systems.

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Aug 24, 2025 · Poor communication causes 30% of project failures. Communication issues are the number one reason for bad project management. According to ...
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[PDF] 2025 PMI Pulse of the Profession
Mar 25, 2025 · stakeholder management & engagement (93%) and timeline management (89%). ▷ For budget issues, stakeholder management (91%) and scope ...
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Reasons Behind The NHS IT System & Project Failure Case Study
May 19, 2021 · Reasons Behind the NHS IT System Failure: What Happened? To understand what happened with the NHS failed IT project, NPfIT, it's important to go ...
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[PDF] Exploring Remote and Hybrid Requirements Engineering Practices ...
RE practices such as elicitation, negotiation, and documentation are negatively impacted due to this challenge. 22/49 survey participants and all 12 interview ...
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(PDF) Towards Requirements Elicitation and Analysis Model for ...
May 6, 2025 · By reviewing the literature review, there are many challenges involved in the elicitation process, i.e., lack of proper communication and ...
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Causes and Mitigation Practices of Requirement Volatility in Agile ...
Mar 13, 2024 · One of the main obstacles in software development projects is requirement volatility (RV), which is defined as uncertainty or changes in ...
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Scalable Analysis of Real-Time Requirements - IEEE Xplore
Current analysis techniques for real-time requirements suffer from scalability issues - larger sets of such requirements are usually intractable. We present ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
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Security Requirements Engineering: A Review and Analysis - MDPI
Recent cybersecurity breaches have exposed the costly consequences of weak security measures.
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[PDF] Cyber security requirement management with Systems Engineering
May 30, 2025 · The main results show that early integration of cybersecurity requirements into systems engineering processes can improve project outcomes and ...
[99]
When traceability goes awry: An industrial experience report
In this experience report, we discuss lessons learned about the practical value of creating and maintaining traceability links in complex industrial settings.
[100]
(PDF) Why Software Requirements Traceability Remains a Challenge
This article shows why neither manual traceability methods nor existing COTS traceability tools are adequate for the current needs of the software engineering ...
[101]
[PDF] Questioning the Role of Requirements Engineering in the Causes of ...
Abstract. Many software failures stem from inadequate requirements engineering. This view has been supported both by detailed accident investigations and by ...Missing: manual challenges
[102]
[PDF] Challenges in Requirements Engineering and Its Solutions
To answer the defined research questions, we identified in the selected studies the main challenges faced in Requirements Engineering activities and then ...
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https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/892015/Lehto_Riku.pdf?sequence=2
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[PDF] Elicitation and Documentation of Explainability Requirements in a ...
In context of a ML system, explainability targets the ML algorithm, the ML model, and its results. Hence, such require- ments must be defined precisely. The ...
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[PDF] GAO-24-105506, GAO Agile Assessment Guide
Dec 15, 2024 · Figure 7: Overview of Requirements Management Best Practices in Agile. Table 6: Summary of Agile Requirements Management Best Practices. Best ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[106]
Software Peer Reviews and Inspections for Requirements, Plans ...
Feb 14, 2017 · Keep the review focused on the technical integrity and quality of the product. · Keep the review simple and informal. · Concentrate on review of ...
[107]
(PDF) Eight key issues for an effective reuse-based requirements ...
Aug 5, 2025 · In this paper we identify eight key issues to be considered for an effective and practical reuse-based RE process.
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https://arxiv.org/pdf/2511.01324
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Requirements Analysis Using Machine Learning and NLP - ReqView
Our task was to use Natural Language Processing (NLP) and deep learning networks to identify semantically similar requirements.Missing: AI 2024
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MBSE Co‐Pilot: A Research Roadmap - Zhang - Systems Engineering
Sep 5, 2025 · In this work, we adapt the concept of an AI Co-Pilot to describe a machine that incorporates AI technologies to support systems engineering ...
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AI-MBSE-Assisted Requirements Writing and Management
Jan 15, 2024 · This paper proposes an artificial Intelligence (AI) assisted tech-driven requirements writing and management framework based on the axiomatic ...Missing: best analysis
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Requirements Management - Polarion - Siemens
Effectively plan, orchestrate and track requirements for complex software, product, and embedded systems across projects and throughout the lifecycle.
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Environmental Sustainability Requirement Specification Levels for ...
Oct 23, 2025 · This article introduces a novel approach for systematically integrating sustainability into requirements engineering by establishing ...
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How mature is requirements engineering for AI-based systems? A ...
Oct 23, 2024 · Technique: A technique is a specific method applied during a part of the procedure, focusing on actions that are observable and measurable by ...