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Project Elephant

Project Elephant is a centrally sponsored conservation scheme launched by the Government of India in 1992 under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change to protect wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), their habitats, and migration corridors from threats including poaching and habitat fragmentation.^[1]^[2] The initiative provides financial and technical assistance to states for measures such as anti-poaching patrols, habitat restoration, and conflict mitigation between elephants and human populations, while also addressing the welfare of captive elephants used in forestry and tourism.^[2]^[3] Key achievements include the declaration of 24 elephant reserves across 12 states covering approximately 60,000 square kilometers, which facilitate genetic connectivity and reduce human-elephant conflicts through designated corridors.^[3]^[4] Despite these efforts, ongoing challenges persist, including habitat loss due to development pressures and retaliatory killings amid rising human-elephant encounters, underscoring the scheme's focus on long-term ecological balance over short-term economic gains.^[2]^[5]

Origins and Framework

Launch and Initial Objectives

Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (then Ministry of Environment and Forests) as a centrally sponsored scheme to address the conservation needs of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which had been facing population declines due to habitat fragmentation, poaching, and human-elephant conflicts.^[6] The initiative built upon earlier legal protections, including the elephants' inclusion in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, granting them the highest level of safeguarding against hunting and trade, and the ban on domestic ivory trade in 1986.^[6] Approved during the 1991-92 fiscal year with an initial outlay of Rs. 2.43 crores as an annual plan scheme, it transitioned into a dedicated program providing financial and technical assistance to state forest departments for targeted elephant conservation efforts.^[2] The primary initial objectives centered on protecting wild elephant populations, their habitats, and migratory corridors to ensure long-term viability of free-ranging herds.^[6] This included strengthening anti-poaching measures to curb illegal killing for ivory and other body parts, as well as moderating anthropogenic pressures such as encroachment, livestock grazing, and infrastructure development in core elephant ranges.^[7] Additional goals encompassed mitigating human-elephant conflicts through early interventions like habitat restoration and barrier construction, while promoting sustainable coexistence between elephant habitats and surrounding human settlements.^[8] The scheme also aimed to improve the welfare of captive elephants, addressing issues like inadequate care in temples and circuses, though wild population protection remained the core focus at inception.^[6] Early implementation involved notifying the first set of elephant reserves—initially around 10 across priority states—to delineate and manage critical habitats covering thousands of square kilometers, with technical support for census, monitoring, and conflict resolution protocols.^[6] These reserves, such as those in southern India like Bandipur, served as focal points for habitat improvement activities, including afforestation and water source development, to counteract fragmentation caused by agricultural expansion and linear infrastructure.^[7] The program's design emphasized coordination between central and state authorities, recognizing elephants' wide-ranging nature across state boundaries, to foster a unified national strategy without overriding local ecological variations.^[8]

Evolution of Policy and Administration

Project Elephant was formally launched on February 2, 1992, by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (now Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change) as a centrally sponsored scheme to extend financial and technical assistance to states and union territories for the conservation of wild Asian elephants, their habitats, and migration corridors, while addressing human-elephant conflicts through measures like anti-poaching efforts and habitat improvement.^[6] Initially administered through state forest departments with oversight from a central steering committee, the scheme emphasized ecological restoration in elephant ranges and capacity building for frontline staff, with funding allocated based on elephant population and habitat needs in participating states.^[9] In the early 2000s, policy evolved to include the formal notification of Elephant Reserves as priority landscapes for conservation, beginning with the Mayurjharna Reserve in West Bengal in 2001, followed by additional reserves in states like Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu by 2003, establishing a network of protected areas outside traditional national parks to secure contiguous habitats spanning approximately 58,000 square kilometers across 14 states.^[6] This administrative shift prioritized a landscape-level approach over site-specific protection, incorporating community involvement and corridor identification to facilitate seasonal migrations, with the number of reserves expanding to 32 by 2020 through phased notifications approved by the central government.^[10] A pivotal policy review occurred in 2010 with the submission of the Elephant Task Force report, titled "Gajah: Securing the Future for Elephants in India," which recommended elevating Project Elephant to a statutory authority, enhancing funding for conflict mitigation to $21 million over five years, and adopting a ten-landscape conservation framework with 88 identified corridors to address fragmentation and poaching threats more systematically.^[10] Although full implementation lagged, the report influenced subsequent administrative guidelines, including the creation of specialized committees for captive elephant welfare and the integration of scientific monitoring, such as GPS collaring and population censuses, under the steering committee's purview.^[5] Administrative consolidation advanced in fiscal year 2023-24 when Project Elephant was merged with Project Tiger into a unified "Project Tiger & Elephant" scheme under the broader Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats program, aiming to streamline funding—totaling over ₹1,000 crore annually—and reduce overlaps in staff and logistics across tiger and elephant ranges, with the merger formalized by June 2023 without altering core elephant-specific objectives.^[9] This restructuring placed administration under a single division in the ministry, facilitating coordinated responses to shared challenges like habitat connectivity, while retaining state-level implementation and periodic steering committee reviews, as evidenced by the 21st meeting held on June 26, 2025, which assessed progress on synchronized DNA-based censuses and reserve management plans.^[11] Recent emphases include mandatory Elephant Conservation Plans for reserves, completed or underway in key areas like Nilgiri by late 2025, to enforce evidence-based habitat security and conflict protocols.^[12]

Conservation Strategies

Habitat and Reserve Management

Project Elephant designates Elephant Reserves (ERs) as primary landscape-scale management units for conserving Asian elephant habitats, with 33 reserves notified across 14 states encompassing approximately 80,777 km². These reserves integrate protected areas, reserved forests, and eco-sensitive zones to address elephants' wide-ranging needs, fostering connectivity between habitats and mitigating fragmentation from infrastructure like roads and railways through measures such as wildlife underpasses and canopy bridges.^[13]^[14] Recent notifications include Lemru ER in Chhattisgarh (1,995 km², 2022), Agasthiyarmalai ER in Tamil Nadu (1,197 km², 2022), and Terai ER in Uttar Pradesh (3,049 km², 2023), expanding coverage to enhance habitat contiguity. Habitat management within ERs emphasizes restoration and improvement, including reforestation with native species, bamboo regeneration, and augmentation of water sources to ensure forage availability and seasonal reliability. Degraded areas are targeted for ecological recovery via vegetation surveys, invasive species control (e.g., Lantana removal), firebreak establishment, and overgrazing regulation to maintain biodiversity and carrying capacity.^[14] Reserves are zoned into inviolate conservation cores (prioritizing low-impact activities), coexistence buffers for regulated human use, and intensive management zones for conflict hotspots, supported by land-use planning that incentivizes fallow land conservation and voluntary relocations.^[14] Community forest resources under the Forest Rights Act, 2006, are mapped for sustainable non-timber product harvesting, balancing tribal livelihoods with habitat integrity.^[14] Vegetation and habitat monitoring employs remote sensing (e.g., NDVI indices via satellite imagery), GIS mapping, line transects, and dung counts to track forest cover, forage species distribution, and disturbance trends, informing adaptive strategies like corridor validation (150 ground-verified across 15 states as of 2023).^[14] A 2018 Land Use-Land Cover analysis guides prioritization, while pilot Management Effectiveness Evaluations (MEE) at sites like Shivalik, Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, Mayurbhanj, and Nilgiri assess implementation, revealing needs for enhanced patrols and resource allocation. Oversight occurs via Elephant Reserve Management Coordination Committees, integrating state-level plans with central funding for sustained protection.^[14]

Anti-Poaching and Population Protection

Project Elephant incorporates anti-poaching measures as a core component to safeguard elephant populations from illegal killing, primarily targeting ivory trade and habitat threats. The scheme's guidelines emphasize deploying patrolling squads, gathering intelligence on poaching networks, and maintaining databases on illegal hunting incidents to enable proactive interventions.^[2] Since January 2004, it has implemented the Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) program under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) across 10 elephant reserves, focusing on data collection from carcass recoveries to assess poaching levels and trends.^[15] To strengthen enforcement, the initiative supports the formation of specialized anti-poaching squads and camps, enhanced patrolling in high-risk areas, and incentives such as rewards for informants providing leads on poachers.^[16] Community involvement is prioritized through training village youths in anti-poaching units, equipping them with logistics for surveillance, and fostering tribal opposition to ivory trade, which leverages local knowledge to deter threats.^[11]^[17] In regions like Kaziranga National Park, anti-poaching camps specifically target elephant conservation amid broader wildlife threats.^[18] Population protection extends these efforts by integrating technological tools, including GPS collars for tracking individual elephants, drone surveillance for remote monitoring, satellite imagery for habitat threat detection, and AI-driven early warning systems to preempt poaching incursions.^[19] Funding under the scheme also aids in rapid response teams and translocation of conflict-prone individuals to reduce indirect vulnerabilities, though primary emphasis remains on curbing direct mortality from poaching, which has historically skewed sex ratios in affected populations, such as in Periyar Tiger Reserve during the 1970s-1980s.^[20]^[21] These strategies aim to maintain viable breeding populations by addressing anthropogenic mortality, with advisories issued to state agencies for coordinated preventive actions against illegal trade.^[22]

Migration Corridors and Connectivity

Elephant migration corridors in India consist of narrow land strips connecting fragmented habitats, enabling seasonal movements for foraging, water access, and genetic exchange among populations. These pathways, often following traditional routes, are essential for maintaining viable elephant numbers amid habitat loss from agriculture, settlements, and infrastructure, which has isolated core areas and heightened human-elephant conflicts. Under Project Elephant, corridors are defined as active (regularly used) or impaired (infrequently used due to barriers), with validation emphasizing ground surveys to confirm usage patterns.^[23] The Gajah report of 2010 initially identified 88 corridors, later expanded to 101 functional ones in the 2017 Right of Passage assessment across regions like central India (17 corridors), southern India (28 corridors), and the northeast (48 corridors in the 2023 update). By 2023, Project Elephant, in coordination with state forest departments, ground-validated 150 corridors spanning 15 elephant-range states, categorized regionally as east-central (52), northeast (48), southern (32), and northern (18). Of these, 59 show increased elephant usage, 29 remain stable, and 15 are impaired, underscoring the need for restoration to prevent population fragmentation and inbreeding. Examples include the 30 km Basanta Corridor linking Uttar Pradesh and Nepal, used by 13 elephants, and the 120 km Jampani-Bhagabilla route between Jharkhand and Odisha, traversed by 20-25 elephants seasonally.^[23]^[24] Project Elephant's connectivity strategies involve technical committees for delineation and monitoring, habitat enrichment through fodder plantations and water structures, and barrier mitigation such as railway underpasses, solar fencing, and speed regulations on highways. Legal notifications under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, alongside land acquisition and settlement relocations, secure these routes; for instance, 37 families were relocated in Kerala's Thirunelli-Kudrakote corridor, reducing conflicts by over 90%. Successful restorations include Karnataka's Kaniyanpura-Moyar, Uttarakhand's Chilla-Motichur, and Tamil Nadu's Segur, where court interventions halted encroachments. The 16th Steering Committee in 2022 prioritized these efforts, integrating community programs like "Green Corridor Champions" to curb biotic pressures, though challenges persist from linear infrastructure fragmenting 66.3% of corridors and encroachments affecting 78.2%.^[23]^[6]^[24]

Population Dynamics

Monitoring Techniques and Data Sources

The monitoring of elephant populations under Project Elephant relies primarily on periodic synchronized censuses organized by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), with the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) providing analytical support. These efforts, initiated post-1992, shifted from ad hoc state-level surveys to standardized national protocols to minimize double-counting and improve accuracy across elephant ranges.^[25]^[26] Traditional techniques included direct counts via total enumeration in core areas, sample block sampling for density estimation, and indirect methods such as line transect dung counts, which estimate abundance based on fecal density and decay rates calibrated to local conditions. These were employed in synchronized estimations of 2005, 2010, and 2017, yielding figures like 27,312 elephants in 2017. Waterhole observations supplemented sightings during dry seasons to capture congregations.^[27]^[26] The Synchronous All India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) 2021-25 introduced India's first nationwide DNA-based census, analyzing genetic markers from dung samples to distinguish individuals and avoid biases in visual methods, resulting in an estimate of 22,446 wild elephants across four landscapes: Western Ghats (13,964), Central India and Eastern Ghats (1,341), Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains (964), and Northeast India (6,177). This method enhances precision for fragmented populations but requires extensive sampling and lab validation.^[28]^[25]^[29] Data sources encompass field inputs from state forest departments during synchronized phases every four to five years, integrated with annual regional surveys under Project Elephant reserves. MoEFCC maintains a central database, including a growing repository of over 1,900 captive elephants for cross-referencing wild-captive dynamics, while WII reports provide validated trends. Systematic protocols evaluate intervention efficacy, though challenges like inconsistent ground coverage persist.^[11]^[30]^[31]

Trends in Elephant Numbers and Distribution

The Asian elephant population in India, comprising over 50% of the global total, has shown relative stability since the inception of Project Elephant in 1992, with periodic state-level censuses indicating estimates ranging from approximately 25,000 to 30,000 individuals in the 2010s, though methodological inconsistencies across states limited national comparability.^[30]^[32] Traditional censuses relied on direct sightings and dung counts, often conducted asynchronously, which tended to overestimate numbers due to double-counting in overlapping ranges. Poaching mortality has declined significantly under Project Elephant's anti-poaching measures, dropping from hundreds annually in the 1990s to fewer than 50 per year by the 2010s in most regions, contributing to localized population growth in southern states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.^[5]^[21] The first nationwide DNA-based Synchronous All India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) from 2021–2025, conducted by the Wildlife Institute of India using fecal DNA analysis for individual identification, estimated a population of 22,446 elephants (95% confidence interval: 18,255–26,645), suggesting a potential 18–25% decline from prior visual-based figures of around 27,000–30,000.^[33]^[34] Indian officials have cautioned that this figure establishes a new baseline rather than indicating an absolute decline, as the genetic method reduces errors from visibility biases and better accounts for dispersed subpopulations, though it highlights undercounting in fragmented habitats.^[35] State-specific trends vary: Tamil Nadu reported an increase from 2,761 in 2017 to 2,961 in 2023 via direct counts, while Northeast India hosts only about 40 elephants in surveyed areas like Intanki National Park as of 2024, reflecting ongoing declines from habitat conversion.^[36]^[11] Despite conservation efforts, annual mortality from human-elephant conflict and electrocution—1,468 human deaths and over 1,200 elephant deaths in Assam alone from 2000–2023—exerts downward pressure, outpacing recruitment in high-conflict zones.^[37] Elephant distribution has contracted and fragmented across India's 32 Project Elephant reserves, spanning 22 states with core populations in the Nilgiri-Kerala-Karnataka landscape (over 40% of total), Central India, and the Northeast.^[30] Habitat loss totals 21.5% of historical elephant range from 1930–2020, primarily from agriculture, plantations, and infrastructure, with larger losses (12.3%) pre-1975 but ongoing fragmentation accelerating isolation of subpopulations.^[38] Suitable habitat declined by 4.36% over the past two decades, with a tipping point around 2014 where net forest gain failed to offset edge effects and human disturbances, leading to stress indicators like elevated glucocorticoid levels in fragmented central Indian forests.^[39]^[40] This has shifted distributions toward human-dominated edges, exacerbating crop-raiding in areas like Karnataka's expanding plantations, while migration corridors under Project Elephant aim to reconnect isolates but face implementation gaps from linear infrastructure.^[41] Overall, while reserves protect core areas, peripheral range contraction—evident in reduced occupancy in non-forest matrices—signals vulnerability to demographic stochasticity in small, isolated groups.^[42]

Human-Elephant Interactions

Conflict Patterns and Incidents

Human-elephant conflicts in India, a persistent challenge under Project Elephant, primarily arise from habitat fragmentation, agricultural expansion into elephant corridors, and seasonal migrations, leading to crop raiding, property damage, and direct confrontations. These incidents are concentrated in elephant range states such as Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha, Karnataka, and Kerala, where overlapping human settlements and elephant habitats exacerbate encounters.^[43]^[44] Annually, conflicts result in approximately 400-500 human deaths, over 100 elephant deaths from human-induced causes like electrocution and poisoning, and crop losses affecting up to 500,000 families across 1 million hectares of farmland.^[45]^[46]^[47] Crop raiding constitutes the most common pattern, with elephants targeting nutrient-rich fields during post-monsoon periods when natural forage diminishes, often entering villages at night to avoid detection. In Assam, for instance, human-elephant conflict incidents peaked in post-monsoon months from 2000-2023, correlating with habitat loss from deforestation and mining.^[43] In Jharkhand, 1,340 human fatalities and 225 elephant deaths (152 human-caused) were recorded between 2000-2023, with electrocution accounting for a significant portion of elephant mortalities due to unsecured power lines in migration paths.^[44] Property damage, including destruction of homes and granaries, affects 10,000-15,000 structures yearly, intensifying retaliatory actions against elephants.^[45] Direct human injuries and fatalities often occur during attempts to deter raiding herds, with trampling and goring as primary causes; a four-year autopsy analysis in conflict zones revealed 91.3% of victims died at the scene from combined head and chest trauma.^[48] In Chhattisgarh, 828 conflict incidents from 2000-2023 involved 218 elephant deaths, driven by habitat degradation and human encroachment, highlighting hotspots in divisions like Bastar where population density intersects with elephant ranges.^[49] Elephant deaths from unnatural causes totaled 528 nationwide between 2017-2022, underscoring the bidirectional toll where human expansion causally displaces elephants into populated areas.^[50] These patterns reflect systemic pressures from land-use changes rather than inherent elephant aggression, as evidenced by spatiotemporal analyses linking conflicts to proximity of fragmented forests and settlements.^[51]

Mitigation Measures and Their Implementation

Mitigation measures under Project Elephant primarily address human-elephant conflict (HEC) through a combination of physical barriers, early warning systems, habitat interventions, and community-based strategies, funded via central assistance to states since the scheme's inception in 1992 and reinforced by the National Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation Strategy and Action Plan (HWC-NAP) for 2021-2026. These are implemented across 32 notified elephant reserves spanning approximately 65,000 square kilometers, with state forest departments (SFDs) executing site-specific plans under oversight from state-level coordination committees (SLCCs) and district-level committees (DLCCs).^[52] Central funding supports infrastructure like solar-powered fencing and rapid response teams, while guidelines emphasize participatory approaches involving local communities to ensure landscape-level connectivity and reduce habitat fragmentation.^[53] Physical barriers form a core component, including solar electric fences, elephant-proof trenches (EPTs), and bio-fences such as bee hive or chili-based deterrents, deployed along forest-cropland interfaces to prevent crop raiding. Implementation involves SFDs subsidizing installations under schemes like MGNREGA, with over 5,000 kilometers of solar fencing erected in high-conflict states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu by 2020, often integrated with maintenance protocols to address breaches from vegetation overgrowth or vandalism.^[54] Early warning and rapid response systems (EWRR) operate on a three-tier structure—community patrol response teams (PRTs), range rapid response teams (RRTs), and division-level teams—equipped with tools like GPS-collared elephants, drones, camera traps, and SMS alerts via toll-free helplines, piloted in areas such as Uttarakhand and West Bengal since 2018 to enable timely herding or diversion.^[53] Habitat-focused measures aim to alleviate conflict drivers by restoring degraded areas, securing migration corridors (101 identified nationally), and creating water sources or fodder plantations, implemented through Project Elephant's habitat management grants to states for activities like invasive species removal and linear infrastructure retrofitting with underpasses.^[53] Community engagement supplements these via awareness campaigns, skill development for alternate livelihoods, promotion of elephant-repellent crops, and ex-gratia compensation (ranging from ₹5-10 lakh for human deaths and crop assessments via mobile apps), coordinated by DLCCs chaired by district collectors to foster acceptance and reduce retaliatory actions.^[54] Non-lethal deterrents, such as chili smoke bombs, firecrackers, or kumki (captive) elephants, are deployed by trained anti-depredation squads in states like Odisha and Kerala, with training protocols standardized under MoEFCC guidelines since 2017.^[55] Zonation strategies delineate conservation, coexistence, and exclusion zones within reserves to minimize human-elephant overlap, enforced through boundary demarcation and encroachment monitoring using GIS.^[53]

Assessment and Challenges

Measured Outcomes and Effectiveness Metrics

India's Asian elephant population, constituting over 60% of the global total, has been monitored through periodic censuses since Project Elephant's inception in 1992, with estimates reflecting both conservation efforts and methodological advancements. The 2017 synchronized census reported approximately 27,312 wild elephants, while the first nationwide DNA-based survey in 2025 estimated 22,446 individuals, indicating an 18% decline that may stem from more precise dung-DNA sampling rather than unequivocal population loss.^[28] Regional trends vary; in Southwest Bengal, numbers increased from 22 elephants in 1985 (3 calves, 7 juveniles, 12 adults) to 225 in 2025 (22 calves, 54 juveniles, 149 adults), attributed to habitat restoration and microhabitat creation.^[11] Overall, earlier assessments suggested stability or modest growth to around 30,000 by the early 2020s, linked to expanded reserves and anti-poaching measures, though the recent downward revision highlights limitations in prior indirect counting methods like waterhole observations.^[56]^[5] Habitat management metrics under Project Elephant include the notification of 33 elephant reserves spanning 80,777 square kilometers as of 2024, alongside ground-validation of 150 migration corridors across 15 states to enhance connectivity.^[56] Management Effectiveness Evaluations (MEE), piloted on select reserves, scored the Nilgiri Elephant Reserve highest for conservation planning, resource allocation, and threat mitigation, revealing strengths in institutional frameworks but gaps in enforcement and community engagement elsewhere.^[57]^[13] Anti-poaching outcomes include reduced ivory seizures post-1990s, though poaching persists as a threat, with captive elephant initiatives like DNA profiling of over 600 individuals aiding genetic monitoring and conflict resolution via kumki (trained) elephants.^[11] Human-elephant conflict serves as a critical effectiveness indicator, with approximately 450 human deaths recorded annually across India from 2009 to 2020, concentrated in east-central regions despite mitigation tools like solar fencing and early-warning systems.^[58] Interventions, including guidelines for 110 high-risk railway sites over 1,800 kilometers and compensation schemes (e.g., ₹5 lakh per human fatality in some states), have yielded mixed results, as crop damage exceeds 12,000 hectares yearly and elephant mortality from electrocution, trains, and retaliatory killings continues unabated.^[56]^[59] These metrics underscore Project Elephant's role in stabilizing fragmented populations and habitats but reveal insufficient progress against escalating anthropogenic pressures, as evidenced by ongoing declines in some landscapes.

Criticisms of Implementation and Resource Allocation

Critics have pointed to chronic underfunding as a major barrier to effective implementation of Project Elephant. The 2010 Elephant Task Force (ETF) recommended an allocation of ₹600 crore for the scheme during India's 12th Five-Year Plan (2012–2017), but actual funding fell short of ₹100 crore, limiting habitat restoration, corridor development, and conflict mitigation efforts.^[10] Subsequent triennial funding for 2017–2020 amounted to approximately ₹120 crore, which experts argued was insufficient to address expanding elephant ranges amid habitat fragmentation and rising human-elephant conflicts.^[10] Implementation has been hampered by delays in adopting key ETF recommendations, with most remaining unexecuted even a decade later as of 2020. Only the declaration of the Asian elephant as India's National Heritage Animal was promptly acted upon, while proposals for a National Elephant Conservation Authority and coordinated landscape-level management across states have not materialized, leading to fragmented efforts and persistent gaps in anti-poaching and migration corridor protection.^[10] Human-elephant conflict responses under the project have been described as reactive and ad hoc, lacking the science-based, multi-stakeholder coordination envisioned, with compensation mechanisms plagued by bureaucratic delays despite average payouts rising to ₹4–5 lakh per incident.^[10] The 2023 merger of Project Elephant with Project Tiger under the centrally sponsored Development of Wildlife Habitats scheme has drawn scrutiny for opaque resource allocation and procedural shortcomings. Conducted without adequate consultations with state governments or elephant range experts, the integration risks diluting species-specific priorities, as funding formulas remain ambiguous and could prioritize tiger habitats over elephant corridors, potentially exacerbating implementation bottlenecks in non-overlapping areas.^[61] Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audits have highlighted broader execution failures in wildlife management that undermine Project Elephant's objectives, including inadequate habitat protection and poor inter-agency coordination. For instance, a 2021 CAG review of elephant-train collisions from 2016–2019 documented over 100 deaths despite initiated measures, attributing lapses to the forest department's failure to map high-risk tracks effectively or enforce speed restrictions with railways, reflecting systemic inefficiencies in on-ground protection.^[62]^[63] A 2024 CAG report on Kerala further criticized the state forest department for neglecting ecosystem preservation and leaving elephant habitats vulnerable, contributing to escalated conflicts without proactive interventions aligned with national schemes like Project Elephant.^[64]

Broader Impacts on Human Communities and Development

Project Elephant has facilitated eco-development programs in elephant habitats, aiming to provide alternative livelihoods and infrastructure improvements to forest-dependent communities, such as water supply schemes and skill training for marginalized groups.^[14] These initiatives, implemented through Elephant Reserves, have supported community participation in conservation, potentially reducing reliance on forest resources for poverty alleviation.^[6] However, empirical data indicate limited scalability, with benefits often unevenly distributed and overshadowed by persistent human-elephant conflicts (HEC) that impose substantial economic burdens on local farmers.^[65] Tourism linked to elephant conservation under Project Elephant has generated economic opportunities in regions like Corbett and Kaziranga, contributing to job creation in guiding, hospitality, and handicrafts, thereby boosting local incomes and infrastructure development.^[66] For instance, elephant-centric ecotourism has led to improved roads and facilities in reserve areas, with ripple effects enhancing community welfare through increased revenue sharing.^[66] Yet, these gains are concentrated in high-visibility reserves, while peripheral communities face opportunity costs, including restrictions on land conversion for agriculture or urbanization to maintain migration corridors, potentially constraining broader regional development.^[67] HEC remains a dominant negative impact, with annual crop losses estimated at significant scales—such as affecting over 500,000 families in India through direct damage—and human fatalities averaging 450 per year between 2009 and 2020, disproportionately affecting rural, low-income households in elephant range states like Odisha and Kerala.^[5]^[68] These incidents result in psychosocial stress, livestock depredation, and forced migration, exacerbating poverty cycles without adequate compensation efficacy, as household surveys reveal perceived shortfalls in addressing full costs like property destruction and forgone productivity.^[69]^[70] Project Elephant's mitigation efforts, including habitat management, have not proportionally curbed these socio-economic tolls, leading to retaliatory actions and diminished community support for conservation.^[6] On development fronts, the project's emphasis on habitat connectivity has influenced policy to limit linear infrastructure (e.g., roads, railways) in critical elephant zones, aiming to prevent fragmentation but raising concerns over slowed economic growth in agrarian economies where habitat overlaps with high-population densities.^[58] Studies highlight that while conservation yields long-term biodiversity benefits, short-term human costs— including forgone agricultural expansion and infrastructure delays—disproportionately burden subsistence farmers, with hidden expenses like fear-induced livelihood shifts amplifying inequality.^[71]^[72] Overall, Project Elephant's community impacts underscore a tension between ecological goals and human welfare, where empirical conflict data suggest a need for more robust integration of local economic priorities to foster sustainable coexistence.^[73]

Recent and Future Directions

Key Developments Since 2020

In 2021, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) initiated the Synchronous All India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) program for 2021-25, marking the first nationwide DNA-based census to assess wild elephant populations more accurately than previous methods reliant on direct sightings.^[25] Preliminary phases involved waterhole sampling and genetic analysis across elephant ranges, with Phase-I completed by mid-2025.^[12] The 2023-24 fiscal year saw Project Elephant merged with Project Tiger into a unified scheme, Project Tiger & Elephant, to streamline funding and implementation for large mammal conservation; this included an allocation of approximately ₹290 crore in the 2025 budget, reflecting an 18% increase from prior years.^[74] ^[75] Under this framework, efforts advanced on securing elephant corridors, with mitigation infrastructure developed in collaboration with Indian Railways to reduce train-elephant collisions, and notification of additional reserves to expand protected habitats.^[76] A landmark outcome of the SAIEE was released in October 2025, estimating India's wild elephant population at 22,446—a decline of 18% from the 27,312 counted in 2017—attributed to habitat fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, and poaching pressures, though the DNA method improved detection of individuals in dense forests.^[28] ^[77] Concurrently, a national database for captive elephants progressed, capturing data on over 1,900 individuals to enhance management and welfare tracking.^[11] Mitigation innovations gained traction, including the RE-HAB project piloted in Karnataka since 2023, deploying beehives along forest edges to deter elephants via natural aversion to bees, reducing crop raids in test areas.^[78] In 2025, an AI-powered acoustic monitoring system was introduced in select regions to detect elephant infrasound calls and alert communities preemptively, aiming to curb lethal encounters.^[79] The 21st Steering Committee meeting in June 2025 reviewed these advances, emphasizing habitat restoration covering 1,293 hectares of crops damaged by elephants in 2023-24 and finalizing conservation plans like the Nilgiri reserve model by December.^[11] ^[80]

Ongoing Initiatives and Proposed Reforms

From fiscal year 2023–24, Project Elephant has been integrated with Project Tiger into a unified centrally sponsored scheme named Project Tiger & Elephant, facilitating coordinated funding and management for shared habitats and species interactions.^[9] This merger allocates a combined budget of approximately ₹331 crore for 2023–24, emphasizing streamlined implementation of conservation activities such as habitat restoration and conflict mitigation across elephant range states.^[81] Ongoing initiatives under the scheme include the preparation of Regional Action Plans to address human-elephant conflicts, with drafts completed for southern India and subcommittees formed for the northeastern region following meetings in January 2025.^[11] Surveys of 3,452.4 km of railway tracks have pinpointed 77 high-risk stretches spanning 1,965.2 km, prompting recommendations for 705 structures like underpasses and overpasses to reduce elephant-train collisions, as detailed in a report released on June 26, 2025.^[82] DNA profiling for captive elephants has advanced, with 1,911 genetic profiles compiled from biological samples across 22 states to support population management and welfare.^[82] Capacity-building efforts encompass workshops for frontline staff and mahouts, including a January 2025 session in Guwahati for northeastern handlers, alongside initiatives like the Lantana Elephant Project, which engages 120 indigenous artisans in awareness campaigns and has generated ₹3.5 crore in revenue over five years.^[11] The 21st Steering Committee Meeting, convened on June 26, 2025, in Dehradun under Union Minister Bhupender Yadav, underscored priorities such as enhancing community involvement in conflict resolution, improving social security for forest personnel, and fostering coordination with entities like Indian Railways, the Ministry of Power, NHAI, and mining developers to minimize infrastructure-related threats.^[82] Released documents from the meeting include 23-year analyses of conflicts in Assam, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand (2000–2023) and an advisory on safe tusk trimming protocols.^[82] Proposed reforms focus on standardizing conservation strategies through Elephant Conservation Plans (ECPs), with a dedicated framework issued to guide landscape-level planning for all 32 elephant reserves, addressing habitat security, migration corridors, and biodiversity integration.^[14] The Model ECP for the Nilgiri Elephant Reserve is slated for finalization by December 2025, serving as a template for other reserves.^[82] Additional measures include initiating a three-year radio-collaring and tracking study in Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve to inform movement patterns and habitat needs, alongside proposals to declare human-elephant conflict a natural calamity for expedited compensation via app-based systems and expanded tribal community roles in monitoring.^[82] These build on guidelines for conflict mitigation, updated in 2023 to promote participatory, landscape-scale interventions like early warning systems and fodder habitat creation.^[83]

References

[1]
Home || Project Elephant (PE)
हाथी उष्णकटिबंधीय वन पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र में बीज वितरण, पोषक तत्वों के चक्रण, जैविक पदार्थों की हटाने और दबाने और अन्य प्रभावों के माध्यम से वन समुदायों को आकार देने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं। हाथी के जंगल भी वायुमंडल में उत्सर्जित ...
[2]
[PDF] project elephant - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
of both elephant as well as the human population, the Government of India launched a 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme the "Project Elephant" in 1991-92.
[3]
Project Elephant - English Releases
Project Elephant has declared 24 elephant reserves in 12 states to protect elephant populations in the wild and develop their habitat.
[4]
[PDF] 20giant
'Project Elephant' was launched by the Government of India during 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored. Scheme with the objectives to protect elephants, their habitat ...
[5]
Elephant conservation in India: Striking a balance between ...
Feb 25, 2024 · Guiding the overarching strategy of Project Elephant is the National Wildlife Action Plan (2017-31), which is a comprehensive policy document ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
[PDF] Trumpet-Special-Edition-30-Years-of-Project-Elephant.pdf
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, FOREST & CLIMATE CHANGE 2022. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ... Government of India launched Project Elephant during the year 1992 as a ...
[7]
https://moef.gov.in/project-elephant/
[8]
https://wii.gov.in/project_elephant
[9]
Protection of Elephants - PIB
Jul 25, 2024 · * The Project Tiger and Project Elephant Scheme has been merged from FY 2023-24 and now known as Project Tiger & Elephant. This information ...
[10]
Elephant Task Force report: 10 years of a progressive policy that ...
Aug 14, 2020 · Project Elephant should provide incentives to people for maintaining their land as corridors and they should be included in reserve management ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[11]
[PDF] PROJECT ELEPHANT
Aug 1, 2025 · Project Elephant, under the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, focuses on the conservation and protection of elephants.
[12]
Review of Project Elephant - Drishti IAS
Jun 28, 2025 · The Union Environment Ministry reviewed key initiatives under Project Elephant (1992) , highlighting the completion of Phase-I of the synchronized elephant ...Missing: milestones amendments
[13]
[PDF] MEE of Elephant Reserves
The MEE of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in India was initiated in 2006 and by 2020, one cycle of all National parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries have ...
[14]
[PDF] FRAMEWORK FOR PREPARATION OF ELEPHANT ...
The Project Elephant initiated the synchronised All-India elephant ... monitor vegetation health and implement habitat management strategies; conduct.
[15]
Project Elephant - A Comprehensive Guide on Asian Elephants
Project Elephant – Objectives 1. To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors. 2. To address issues of man-animal conflict. 3. The welfare of captive ...
[16]
Project Elephant: Measures Taken for Elephant Conservation
Project Elephant in India focuses on conserving elephants and their habitats through habitat management, conflict mitigation, and community involvement.Missing: milestones amendments
[17]
[PDF] A Final report on Strengthening Community Based Anti Poaching ...
This project is also encouraging village youths in community based anti–poaching units by providing capacity development training, logistic and equipment ...
[18]
[PDF] FY 2015 Summary of Projects - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Anti-poaching and anti-depredation camps for conservation of Asian elephants in Kaziranga. National Park, Assam, India. In partnership with Wildlife Areas ...<|separator|>
[19]
Project Elephant 1992 – Key Features & Vital Conservation
Aug 20, 2025 · The scheme covers wild and captive elephants, focusing on their protection from threats such as poaching and habitat loss. It also ensures ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[20]
project elephant - Karnataka Forest Department
Project Elephant is a centrally sponsored scheme that envisages protection of elephant habitats in National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and territorial ...
[21]
[PDF] VOLUME III ISSUE 1-2 (APRIL - 2023) PROJECT ELEPHANT ...
Mar 24, 2022 · Therefore, management of the habitats of the reserve suitable for elephants are being carried out. Ochlandra reeds and grasslands cover.
[22]
Poaching of Elephants - Press Release:Press Information Bureau
Aug 7, 2023 · The Project Elephant scheme launched by Government of India with major objectives to protect elephants, their habitat and corridors.
[23]
[PDF] Elephant Corridors of India 2023
The Project Elephant reiterates that the first step towards safeguarding an elephant corridor is to identify it on time. After identification, it would be ...
[24]
[PDF] right of passage - elephant corridors of india
Elephant corridors are essential for habitat availability, genetic exchange, and minimizing human-elephant conflict, supported by the Asian Elephant Alliance.
[25]
https://imgs.mongabay.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2025/10/23113056/elephant-estimation_2021-25-1_251021_103549_compressed.pdf
[26]
[PDF] All India Synchronous Elephant Estimation - Indiaspend
The Project Elephant Division, in the Ministry has records of elephant population since 1993 after every 4-5 years in past the population data was estimated by ...
[27]
https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/why-do-elephants-face-a-jumbo-challenge-explained/article70180130.ece
[28]
India's wild elephant numbers drop by 18%, first DNA-based count ...
Oct 14, 2025 · India's wild elephant population has been estimated at 22,446, lower than the 2017 figure of 27,312, according to the country's first-ever DNA- ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[29]
India has 22446 elephants, as per new census - Down To Earth
Oct 15, 2025 · The survey divided elephant populations into four regions: Western Ghats, Central India and Eastern Ghats, Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains ...
[30]
(PDF) Monitoring Elephant Populations in India - ResearchGate
Jun 30, 2025 · Systematic monitoring of elephant populations forms the backbone to evaluate the efficacy of various management interventions on the elephant ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[31]
[PDF] PROGRESS REPORT - 2023 - National CAMPA
In India, where elephants are an integral part of the ecosystem and a cultural symbol, several methods have been used to estimate their population.
[32]
Population & Conservation Status - Asian Elephant (Elephas ...
Sep 9, 2025 · The best estimate is 48,000-52,000 wild Asian elephants, with 60% in India, 13-14% in Sri Lanka, and 70% of habitat lost in one generation.
[33]
DNA Based Synchronous All India Population Estimate of Elephants ...
Oct 14, 2025 · STATUS OF ELEPHANTS IN INDIA: DNA BASED SYNCHRONOUS ALL INDIA POPULATION ESTIMATION OF ELEPHANTS (SAIEE) : 2021-2025.
[34]
https://india.mongabay.com/short-article/2025/10/dna-based-elephant-census-sets-new-baseline/
[35]
India's elephant numbers fall by 18% to 22446 - The Indian Express
Oct 15, 2025 · India's elephant numbers fall by 18% to 22,446 – but Centre says 'not comparable' to past estimate. India Elephant Population 2025: According to ...Missing: synchronized | Show results with:synchronized
[36]
[PDF] synchronized elephant population estimation - 2023
According to the 2017 estimation, there were 2761 Elephants in Tamil Nadu forest area. In the current estimation, 2961 elephants. Prepared & Issued by. TAMIL ...<|separator|>
[37]
https://news.mongabay.com/2025/10/ai-system-eavesdrops-on-elephants-to-prevent-deadly-encounters-in-india/amp/
[38]
Tracking forest loss and fragmentation between 1930 and 2020 in ...
Overall, 21.5% of elephant habitat was lost between 1930 and 2020, with a larger (12.3%) forest cover loss between 1930 and 1975. Area of the large forests ( ...
[39]
Reversing net loss but aggravating fragmentation of habitat in the ...
Our findings revealed a significant 4.36 % decline in suitable habitat areas over two decades. Interestingly, a tipping point occurred around 2014.<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
Fragmented forests and human disturbances create stress in Asian ...
Oct 1, 2025 · A new study shows elephants living in fragmented habitats in central India and facing frequent encounters with humans experience ...Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[41]
Karnataka's elephant habitats fragmenting amid expanding ...
Oct 17, 2025 · The report highlights that reserves such as Kali, Bhadra, and the habitats in the Mysuru plateau experience forest fragmentation challenges ...
[42]
https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/up-front/story/20251103-elephant-population-jumbo-crisis-in-india-2807925-2025-10-24
[43]
[PDF] records - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Distribution of Human-Elephant Conflict Incidents Across Villages in Assam. 2.5. Discussion. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the factors ...
[44]
[PDF] Jharkhand_Elephant_Human_C...
To curb poaching, strengthening on-ground patrols, deploying rapid response teams, engaging communities in monitoring efforts, and utilizing surveillance.
[45]
Human casualties are the dominant cost of human–wildlife conflict in ...
Feb 15, 2021 · * For example, India's cost of human–elephant conflict is estimated at 1 million ha of destroyed crops, 10,000 to 15,000 damaged properties, 400 ...
[46]
Human-elephant conflict: What it is and why it's a major threat
Jul 20, 2023 · In India, around 400 people a year die from conflict with elephants. In Kenya, around 200 people died in human-elephant conflicts between 2010 ...
[47]
Patterns and correlates of human–elephant conflict around a south ...
Each year, nearly 400 people and 100 elephants are killed in conflict related instances in India, and nearly 500,000 families are affected by crop damage (MOEF, ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[48]
Understanding the Human Toll of Human-Elephant Conflicts
Jan 1, 2025 · Most died (91.3%) at the scene of the incident, with two patients (8.7%) dying at medical facilities. Death was primarily due to combined head ...
[49]
[PDF] Chhattishgarh_Elephant_Human...
The study examined 218 elephant mortalities and 828 human-elephant conflict incidents between 2000 and 2023 in Chhattisgarh, driven by habitat degradation and ...
[50]
(PDF) Human-elephant conflicts in India - ResearchGate
Mar 10, 2025 · Abstract ; conflict (Shaffer et al., 2019). Between 2017 and 2022, India lost about 528. elephants due to unnatural causes, including human- ...
[51]
Spatiotemporal distribution of negative human-elephant interactions ...
Elephants in the farm—changing temporal and seasonal patterns of human-elephant interactions in a forest-agriculture matrix in the Western Ghats, India.
[52]
[PDF] EVALUATION - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
The present report elucidates on the pilot MEE-ER process and brings revised criteria and indicators for evaluating management effectiveness of the ERs.
[53]
[PDF] Guidelines for Human–Elephant Conflict Mitigation
Jul 13, 2023 · ... Project on Human–Wildlife Conflict Mitigation in India. The Ministry ... Elephant -friendly mitigation measures to address. HEC. For ...
[54]
None
### Summary of Best Practices for Human-Elephant Conflict Management in India under Project Elephant
[55]
https://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/01-HEC-guidelines.pdf
[56]
None
### Summary of Habitat and Reserve Management under Project Elephant (2024)
[57]
(PDF) Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) of Elephant ...
Jun 29, 2025 · Landscape units commensurate with elephants' large range needs were notified as Elephant Reserves (ERs). Presently, 33 ERs have been notified in ...<|separator|>
[58]
Long-term trends in human fatalities from human–elephant conflict ...
Jul 27, 2025 · Division-wise patterns of human fatalities and injuries by elephants in the State of Chhattisgarh over the past 23 years (2000–2023). Hotspots ...
[59]
Effectiveness of physical barriers in mitigating human–elephant ...
Sep 20, 2022 · Physical barriers, like solar fences, elephant-proof trenches, stone, or rubble walls, are installed as conflict mitigation interventions in India's major ...
[60]
Jumbo drop in estimates of India elephant population - Phys.org
Oct 15, 2025 · India's wild elephant population estimates have dropped sharply by a quarter, a government survey incorporating a new DNA system has found, ...
[61]
[Commentary] Ambiguity on fund allocation shrouds Project Tiger ...
The merger of the centrally-sponsored schemes Project Tiger and Project Elephant was carried out without consultations and is not clear in ...Missing: criticisms | Show results with:criticisms
[62]
CAG raps Ministries for elephant deaths - The Hindu
Dec 16, 2021 · Elephants continue to die on rail tracks despite the Ministries jointly initiating short- and long-term measures, the CAG says in its latest ...
[63]
Elephants continue to die: CAG slams forest department, railways in ...
Dec 1, 2021 · The CAG audit examined instances of elephant deaths on tracks during from 2016-17 to 2018-19 and the steps taken by Railways for elephant ...Missing: Project | Show results with:Project
[64]
CAG report punches holes in Kerala's human-wildlife conflict ...
Jul 16, 2024 · The CAG audit report highlighted critical lapses in the Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department's management of wildlife habitats.
[65]
Community mitigation decisions in elephant conflict zones ... - Nature
Oct 6, 2025 · Driven by escalating conflict, anthropogenic impacts and habitat degradation, wild Asian elephant populations in India face formidable threats ...
[66]
Project Elephant at 30 Celebrating Conservation Success Stories ...
According to recent surveys, the elephant population in India has seen a steady increase over the past three decades. This positive trend is attributed to the ...
[67]
Asian Elephant Conservation - Shankar IAS Parliament
Oct 4, 2024 · Reduced Seed Dispersal - Elephants play a vital role in dispersing seeds, helping to regenerate forests and maintain plant diversity.
[68]
Human-Elephant Conflict: A Review of Current Management ...
India alone reports annual deaths of 400 people and 100 elephants during conflict incidents, with additional direct effects to 500,000 families through crop ...
[69]
Long-term trends in human fatalities from human–elephant conflict ...
Jul 27, 2025 · ... India from 2000–2023 ... An elephantine challenge: Human-elephant conflict distribution in the largest Asian elephant population, Southern India.
[70]
Cost of human-elephant conflict and perceptions of compensation
The household survey conducted in nine villages within the Nilagiri forest range, captured various costs of conflict such as crop damage, human fatalities and ...
[71]
Human casualties are the dominant cost of human–wildlife conflict in ...
Feb 15, 2021 · * For example, India's cost of human–elephant conflict is estimated at 1 million ha of destroyed crops, 10,000 to 15,000 damaged properties ...
[72]
[PDF] The costs of human elephant conflict
It has been suggested that hidden costs play the most important role in explaining human attitudes to wildlife. A meta-analysis found that hidden costs (e.g. ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Assessing impacts of human-elephant conflict on human wellbeing
Sep 18, 2020 · More recently, human-elephant conflict has been seen to extend well beyond the physical, to the psychological and social sides of wellbeing.
[74]
Elephant Conservation in India - Drishti IAS
Aug 12, 2025 · Project Tiger and Project Elephant Scheme has been merged from FY 2023-24 and is now known as Project Tiger & Elephant. Project RE-HAB ...<|separator|>
[75]
India's Wildlife Conservation Milestones - PIB
Mar 3, 2025 · From strengthening flagship programs like Project Tiger and Project Elephant to pioneering new conservation efforts for species such as the ...
[76]
(PDF) Project Elephant: 20 Gaint Steps - ResearchGate
Apr 15, 2025 · 1 Noti cation of new elephant reserves · 2 Securing elephant corridors · 3 Mitigation works with Indian Railways and Wildlife Institute of India.<|separator|>
[77]
Wild Elephant Numbers Decline by 18% - DNA-Based Census
Oct 15, 2025 · India's first-ever DNA-based elephant census estimates the population of wild elephants at 22446, marking an 18% decline from 2017.
[78]
Elephant Reserves in India - UPSC - LotusArise
Dec 19, 2024 · Shivalik Elephant Reserve. It was notified in 2002 under the 'Project Elephant'. The Kansora-Barkot Elephant Corridor is located near to it.
[79]
https://news.mongabay.com/2025/10/ai-system-eavesdrops-on-elephants-to-prevent-deadly-encounters-in-india/
[80]
Project Elephant Update - TNPSC Current Affairs
Progress is being made on the Model Elephant Conservation Plan (ECP) for the Nilgiri Elephant Reserve, expected to be finalized by December 2025.
[81]
Project Tiger merges with Project Elephant — but questions on fund ...
Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been merged, meaning a common allocation will fund ...
[82]
Union Minister Shri Bhupender Yadav chairs the 21st Steering ... - PIB
Jun 26, 2025 · The 21st Steering Committee Meeting of Project Elephant was held on June 26, 2025, at the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), ...
[83]
[PDF] Guidelines for Human–Elephant Conflict Mitigation
Apr 25, 2023 · These guidelines aim to facilitate a common understanding among key stakeholders on what constitutes effective and efficient mitigation of HEC ...