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Propionibacterium

Propionibacterium is a genus of Gram-positive, nonmotile, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria belonging to the family Propionibacteriaceae within the phylum Actinobacteria, characterized by their ability to ferment carbohydrates and lactate to produce propionic acid as a major end product via the Wood-Werkman cycle.^[1] These bacteria are anaerobic to aerotolerant, with optimal growth temperatures between 25–35 °C and pH 6–7, and possess a high G+C content in their DNA ranging from 57% to 70%.^[1] In 2016, the genus underwent significant taxonomic revision based on phylogenetic analyses, resulting in the transfer of cutaneous species (e.g., P. acnes) to the novel genus Cutibacterium and certain classical species (e.g., P. acidipropionici) to Acidipropionibacterium, while retaining five validly named species, including the type species P. freudenreichii.^[2] Currently, Propionibacterium species are primarily associated with dairy environments, where they play key roles in food fermentation processes.^[1] The most notable species, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, is widely utilized as a ripening agent in the production of Swiss-type cheeses like Emmental, where it contributes to the formation of characteristic eyes (CO₂ bubbles), nutty flavors, and propionic acid content through the fermentation of lactate produced by preceding lactic acid bacteria.^[1] This species, along with others in the genus, is also recognized for its probiotic potential, producing beneficial metabolites such as vitamin B12 (cobalamin), folate (vitamin B9), conjugated linoleic acid, and trehalose, which support gut health, immunomodulation, and antioxidant activity.^[3] Additionally, Propionibacterium strains exhibit antimicrobial properties via bacteriocin production, aiding in the inhibition of spoilage organisms and pathogens in food systems.^[4] Beyond dairy applications, Propionibacterium species inhabit diverse anaerobic niches, including soil, rumen, silage, and occasionally human mucosa, though they are less pathogenic compared to their reclassified cutaneous relatives.^[1] Industrially, they are explored for the sustainable production of propionic acid as a natural preservative and platform chemical, as well as for biofuel and pharmaceutical precursors, leveraging their robust metabolic pathways.^[3] Ongoing research emphasizes their GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status, genetic diversity (e.g., 49 genome assemblies for P. freudenreichii as of 2021), and potential in functional foods to address nutritional deficiencies and microbiome modulation.^[1]

Overview

Etymology and history

The genus name Propionibacterium is derived from the New Latin neuter noun acidum propionicum (propionic acid) combined with the Greek neuter noun bakterion (small rod), reflecting the bacteria's characteristic production of propionic acid as a metabolic end product.^[5] The term "propionic" itself originates from the Greek words prōtos (first) and piōn (fat), denoting the acid as the shortest fatty acid chain beyond acetic acid. This nomenclature emphasizes the genus's defining physiological trait, distinguishing it from other rod-shaped bacteria. The genus Propionibacterium was first proposed in 1909 by the Danish bacteriologist Sigurd Orla-Jensen, who isolated propionic acid-producing bacteria from dairy sources such as cheese.^[5] These isolates were initially obtained in pure culture around 1906–1907 by Orla-Jensen in collaboration with Eduard von Freudenreich, who identified them as responsible for propionic fermentation in Swiss-type cheeses like Emmental.^[6] Orla-Jensen's work built on earlier observations of propionic acid fermentation in dairy, first noted by Louis Pasteur in the 19th century, but his 1909 description formalized the genus within a natural bacterial classification system based on physiological characteristics.^[7] Early 20th-century research further linked Propionibacterium species to dairy fermentation processes, particularly the formation of characteristic "eyes" (gas bubbles) in hard cheeses due to carbon dioxide production alongside propionic acid.^[8] A key milestone was the 1928 description of the type species P. freudenreichii by Cornelis B. van Niel, who differentiated it from other propionibacteria based on fermentation patterns and named it in honor of von Freudenreich's contributions.^[9] These studies established the genus's industrial relevance in cheese ripening, paving the way for later taxonomic refinements.^[10]

General characteristics

Propionibacterium species are Gram-positive, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli) that typically measure 1–5 μm in length. They lack spores and are catalase-positive. In anaerobic environments, cells often appear spherical (coccoid), while limited oxygen exposure can induce pleomorphic forms, including club-shaped, diphtheroid, or V/Y configurations.^[3] These bacteria lead an anaerobic to aerotolerant lifestyle, thriving as mesophiles with optimal growth temperatures between 30 and 37°C and a preferred pH range of 6.5–7.0. They tolerate moderate salt concentrations up to 6.5% NaCl and exhibit slow growth, often requiring several days for colony development on suitable media.^[3] Members of the genus are ubiquitous across diverse habitats, including soil, dairy products like milk and cheese, and the rumen of herbivores. They occasionally occur in human mucosa, including the gastrointestinal tract, where they may contribute to the microbiota, particularly through probiotic applications.^[3]^[1] Metabolically, Propionibacterium are distinguished by their fermentation of sugars such as glucose and lactose, as well as organic acids like lactic acid, yielding propionic acid as the primary end-product alongside acetic acid. This propionate-producing capability, from which the genus derives its name, underscores their ecological and physiological uniqueness.^[3]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Historical classification

The genus Propionibacterium was first established in 1909 by Danish microbiologist Sigurd Orla-Jensen, who described it as comprising Gram-positive bacteria capable of producing propionic acid from lactic acid fermentation. Orla-Jensen placed the genus within the order Actinomycetales, primarily due to morphological similarities in filamentous, branching growth patterns observed under certain culture conditions, akin to those of actinomycetes.^[2]^[11] This initial taxonomic assignment reflected the era's emphasis on phenotypic traits like cell morphology and metabolic products, with P. freudenreichii serving as the type species based on its isolation from dairy sources.^[2]^[9] Throughout the mid-20th century, classifications of Propionibacterium species remained largely phenotypic, focusing on acid production profiles, colony morphology, and habitat associations, such as dairy fermentation versus anaerobic environments. By the 1980s and 1990s, advancements in molecular techniques introduced 16S rRNA gene sequencing, which provided early phylogenetic insights and confirmed the genus's position within the Actinobacteria phylum while highlighting intrageneric diversity. These analyses, combined with traditional traits like propionic acid yield and saccharolytic capabilities, delineated two primary clusters: the "classical" group, comprising dairy-associated species such as P. freudenreichii and P. acidipropionici that exhibit robust aerobic growth and vitamin auxotrophies, and the "cutaneous" group, including skin commensals like P. acnes and P. granulosum characterized by stricter anaerobiosis and lipolytic activity.^[2] This dual clustering underscored ecological adaptations, with classical species linked to cheese ripening and cutaneous ones to human pilosebaceous units.^[2] Prior to 2016, the genus Propionibacterium encompassed approximately 10-15 species unified under these phenotypic and early molecular criteria, with P. freudenreichii retained as the type species to anchor the dairy-origin taxonomy established by Orla-Jensen. Species like P. acnes (first described in 1896 but reclassified into Propionibacterium in 1946) and P. granulosum were firmly included in the cutaneous cluster, supported by shared 16S rRNA signatures and biochemical profiles such as indole negativity and gelatin liquefaction.^[2]^[9] These pre-genomic era frameworks emphasized functional traits over deep phylogenetic resolution, occasionally leading to ambiguities in species delineation, such as the reclassification of Arachnia propionica to P. propionicum in 1988 based on 16S rRNA data. Overall, this historical taxonomy highlighted the genus's metabolic versatility while grouping species by isolation source and fermentation capabilities.^[2]

Current taxonomy and reclassifications

The genus Propionibacterium belongs to the phylum Actinomycetota, class Actinomycetia, order Propionibacteriales, and family Propionibacteriaceae.^[12] Following comprehensive genomic analyses in 2016, the genus was emended by Scholz and Kilian to encompass only the classical branch of species primarily associated with dairy products and soil environments, excluding divergent groups identified through phylogenetic studies.^[2] This reclassification addressed longstanding heterogeneity within the genus by establishing monophyletic taxa based on shared evolutionary histories. Cutaneous-associated species, such as Propionibacterium acnes, P. granulosum, and P. avidum, were transferred to the novel genus Cutibacterium gen. nov., with C. acnes designated as the type species.^[2] Similarly, acid-tolerant species including P. acidipropionici, P. jensenii, P. thoenii, and others were reclassified into Acidipropionibacterium gen. nov., exemplified by A. acidipropionici as the type species, while P. propionicus formed the monotypic Pseudopropionibacterium gen. nov.^[2] These changes were driven by evidence from 16S rRNA gene sequences and whole-genome comparisons revealing low sequence similarities (below 95% for 16S rRNA) between the classical and reclassified groups. Further support for these divisions comes from whole-genome sequencing and the Genome Taxonomy Database (GTDB), which delineate three primary clades within Propionibacteriaceae: the classical Propionibacterium clade (dairy/soil inhabitants), the skin-adapted cutaneous clade (Cutibacterium), and the acidophilic clade (Acidipropionibacterium).^[2] Since the 2016 emendation, an additional species, P. ruminifibrarum, was validly described in 2019 from rumen samples.^[13] As of November 2025, the emended genus Propionibacterium includes 5 validly published species according to the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and NCBI Taxonomy.^[5]^[14]

Species

Classical species

Propionibacterium freudenreichii serves as the type species of the genus and is a Gram-positive, non-motile, non-spore-forming, anaerobic to aerotolerant bacterium commonly isolated from dairy environments.^[15] It exhibits slow growth and low nutritional requirements, enabling its adaptation to various habitats, including cheese production settings where it contributes to carbon dioxide generation through propionic acid fermentation, forming characteristic "eyes" in Swiss-type cheeses.^[10] The species is divided into two subspecies: P. freudenreichii subsp. freudenreichii, which ferments lactose and lacks nitrate reductase activity, and P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii, which does not ferment lactose but possesses nitrate reductase; these distinctions are based on biochemical tests and have been retained in the current taxonomy following reclassifications that excluded cutaneous species.^[16]^[17] Propionibacterium acidifaciens is a Gram-positive, anaerobic, pleomorphic rod-shaped bacterium isolated from human carious dentine in the oral cavity.^[18] It grows optimally at 37 °C under strictly anaerobic conditions and pH 7.0, producing propionic acid as a major end product from the fermentation of carbohydrates such as glucose and maltose. The species is distinguished by its tolerance to acidic environments, inability to utilize certain sugars like mannitol, and a DNA G+C content of approximately 62 mol%, with 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity below 97% to other Propionibacterium species.^[18]^[19] Among other classical species remaining in Propionibacterium post-reclassification, P. australiense is a non-spore-forming, Gram-positive rod isolated from granulomatous lesions in cattle, indicating an ecological niche in animal tissues and potentially the bovine gastrointestinal tract. It grows optimally at 30–37°C under microaerophilic to anaerobic conditions, requires complex media for cultivation, and is differentiated from other propionibacteria by its inability to utilize certain sugars like ribose or xylose, weak propionic acid production, and a unique 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of less than 97% to close relatives.^[20] P. cyclohexanicum represents an acid-tolerant classical species, originally isolated from spoiled orange juice, suggesting adaptation to low-pH fruit environments with growth occurring across a broad pH range of 3.2–7.5.^[21] This Gram-positive, non-motile, non-spore-forming bacterium produces lactic, propionic, and acetic acids during fermentation of glucose and other sugars, and it uniquely tolerates cyclohexane, as indicated by its name and biochemical tests showing resistance to organic solvents; it requires anaerobic or microaerophilic conditions for optimal growth at 25–30°C and is distinguished by its DNA G+C content of approximately 66 mol% and fatty acid profile rich in anteiso-methyl branched chains.^[21] P. ruminifibrarum is a Gram-positive, aerotolerant, non-motile, non-spore-forming rod associated with the rumen of ruminants, isolated from cow rumen fibrous content, where it contributes to the degradation of plant material and propionic acid production.^[22] It exhibits optimal growth at 39 °C and pH 7.0 (range 35–45 °C and pH 6.5–8.0), utilizes a variety of carbohydrates including glucose and cellobiose for fermentation, and is differentiated from other species by its 16S rRNA gene sequence (96.5–98.4% similarity to closest relatives) and cellular fatty acid composition dominated by straight-chain saturated acids.^[22]^[23]

Reclassified species

Several species formerly assigned to the genus Propionibacterium have been reclassified into novel genera following comprehensive phylogenetic and genomic analyses conducted in 2016, which revealed non-monophyletic clustering within the original genus based on core-genome trees, 16S rRNA gene sequences, and DNA G+C content differences.^[24] The skin-associated species Propionibacterium acnes and Propionibacterium granulosum were transferred to the new genus Cutibacterium due to their shared phylogenetic clade, lower DNA G+C content (59–64 mol%), and adaptations such as gene losses in carbohydrate metabolism and acquisitions of lipases suited to the cutaneous environment, distinguishing them from the classical dairy-associated Propionibacterium species.^[24] Cutibacterium acnes is a common commensal on human skin, subdivided into phylotypes based on genomic and phenotypic traits; phylotypes I and II (including subtypes IA1 and IA2) are predominantly associated with acne vulgaris, whereas phylotype III prevails in healthy skin microbiomes.^[24]^[25] Cutibacterium granulosum similarly inhabits the skin and clusters phylogenetically with C. acnes, but it is recognized as an opportunistic pathogen involved in infections such as endocarditis and prosthetic joint issues.^[24]^[26] In parallel, certain classical species such as P. acidipropionici and P. thiodismutans were reassigned to the genus Acidipropionibacterium owing to their divergent phylogenetic position, reduced DNA G+C content (53.5–66 mol%), and distinct peptidoglycan composition (-APM type), aligning them more closely with acid-tolerant species separated by metabolic and 16S rRNA differences from the core Propionibacterium group.^[24]^[27]

Biology

Morphology and growth

Propionibacterium species are characterized as Gram-positive, non-spore-forming rods, with cells typically measuring 0.5–1.0 μm in width and 1–5 μm in length.^[28] Under stress conditions, cells often exhibit pleomorphism, appearing as irregular rods, coccoid forms, or branched structures arranged in pairs, short chains, or characteristic "Chinese character" patterns.^[29] Colonies of Propionibacterium on blood agar plates are small, reaching 1–3 mm in diameter after 3–7 days of incubation, and appear circular to irregular, convex, opaque, and white to cream-colored with a smooth surface.^[30] Growth is notably slow, often requiring 3–7 days under anaerobic to microaerobic conditions to become visible, reflecting the genus's adaptation to low-oxygen environments.^[30] Cultivation of Propionibacterium demands enriched anaerobic media, such as peptone-yeast extract-glucose (PYG) broth, to support growth at temperatures around 30–37°C and neutral pH.^[31] These bacteria are anaerobic but aerotolerant, with some strains growing under microaerobic conditions that enhance metabolic activity, and do not form spores under any conditions.^[32] Additionally, they demonstrate intrinsic resistance to metronidazole, consistent with their Gram-positive anaerobic physiology.^[33]

Metabolism

Propionibacterium species are primarily anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria that perform heterotrophic fermentation, relying on organic compounds as carbon and energy sources.^[34] Their metabolism is characterized by the Wood-Werkman cycle, a distinctive pathway that converts substrates such as lactate, sugars, and amino acids into propionic acid, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide (CO₂), with the propionic acid production serving as the genus's biochemical hallmark.^[3] This cycle enables efficient energy generation under anaerobic conditions, typically yielding a molar ratio of approximately 2:1 propionate to acetate from lactate fermentation.^[35] The Wood-Werkman pathway begins with the conversion of pyruvate (derived from lactate or sugars) to propionyl-CoA, followed by carboxylation to D-methylmalonyl-CoA and subsequent isomerization to L-methylmalonyl-CoA. Succinyl-CoA is then formed through a mutase reaction, which is decarboxylated and rearranged to regenerate propionyl-CoA, closing the cycle and producing CO₂. Key enzymes include the biotin-dependent transcarboxylase, which facilitates the reversible carboxylation-decarboxylation of propionyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA, and the vitamin B₁₂-dependent methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, which catalyzes the rearrangement of L-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA.^[3] In species like P. freudenreichii, the endogenous synthesis of vitamin B₁₂ (cobalamin) via the anaerobic biosynthetic pathway supports this mutase activity, enhancing metabolic efficiency.^[3] Nutritionally, Propionibacterium species exhibit complex requirements typical of chemoorganotrophs, with lactate serving as the preferred carbon source for optimal growth and propionate production.^[36] They are heterotrophic, fermenting carbohydrates and organic acids without the ability to fix CO₂ autotrophically, though some CO₂ is incorporated during the Wood-Werkman cycle. Additionally, certain species, such as P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii, can utilize thiosulfate as an alternative sulfur source in the presence of auxiliary nitrogen, supporting growth when sulfur-containing amino acids are limited.^[37]^[38]

Ecology and distribution

Natural habitats

Propionibacterium species, particularly those in the dairy group such as P. freudenreichii, are commonly isolated from soil environments, including anaerobic zones in paddy fields where they contribute to organic matter decomposition.^[32] These bacteria thrive in such terrestrial niches due to their ability to ferment plant-derived substrates under low-oxygen conditions.^[39] In agricultural settings, Propionibacterium is prevalent in silage, the fermented fodder used for animal feed, where it plays a role in stabilizing the material against aerobic spoilage through propionic acid production.^[8] Similarly, these bacteria inhabit the rumen of herbivores, such as cattle and goats, occupying microaerobic transition zones that support their growth and contribution to volatile fatty acid fermentation.^[8] Their metabolic adaptations to these fermentative environments enable efficient utilization of lactate and sugars from plant material.^[32] Dairy-associated habitats represent another primary niche, with Propionibacterium frequently isolated from raw milk at frequencies ranging from 50% to 97%, reflecting its natural presence in unprocessed dairy sources.^[40] In cheese production environments, particularly on rinds of traditional varieties, these bacteria are abundant, tolerating the low pH (as low as 2.5 for several hours) and high salt concentrations encountered during ripening.^[8] Additionally, Propionibacterium occurs naturally in decaying organic matter, such as fermented vegetables and grain silages, where it facilitates anaerobic breakdown processes.^[40]

Role in microbiomes

Propionibacterium species, particularly those reclassified as Cutibacterium, play significant roles in the human skin microbiome, where they act as commensals in sebum-rich areas such as pilosebaceous units. Cutibacterium acnes, formerly Propionibacterium acnes, dominates these sites, comprising up to 87% of the bacterial population in both healthy individuals and those with skin conditions, contributing to homeostasis by metabolizing sebum triacylglycerols into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like propionate via enzymes such as triacylglycerol lipase (GehA). This process helps maintain the skin's acidic pH (4.1–5.8), supporting barrier integrity and lipid homeostasis.^[41]^[42] In the gut microbiome, classical species like Propionibacterium freudenreichii contribute to microbial stability through fermentative metabolism, producing SCFAs such as propionate and acetate that aid digestion and modulate the microbiota by promoting bifidobacteria growth while inhibiting clostridia. This species exhibits probiotic effects, enhancing gut barrier function via surface layer proteins like SlpB, which upregulate mucin production (Muc2) and reduce inflammation in models of colitis. P. freudenreichii also supports vitamin B12 and B2 synthesis, further benefiting host nutrition. In the oral microbiome, species formerly classified in Propionibacterium, such as Arachnia propionica (formerly P. propionicum), are constituents of dental plaque and saliva, participating in the polymicrobial community on the tongue and gingival crevices as part of the normal flora.^[43]^[44]^[45] These bacteria engage in symbiotic interactions within host microbiomes, primarily through acid production that fosters competition with potential pathogens; for instance, SCFAs from C. acnes inhibit Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and growth on the skin, while P. freudenreichii propionate lowers gut pH to limit harmful bacteria. Dysbiosis involving reduced Propionibacterium abundance has been linked to conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), where supplementation with P. freudenreichii ameliorates symptoms by restoring microbial balance and barrier integrity, though it primarily serves protective roles in healthy states.^[41]^[43]

Applications

Food and dairy industry

Propionibacterium freudenreichii plays a central role in the ripening of Swiss-type cheeses, such as Emmental, where it is added as a starter culture after initial lactic fermentation. During the warm-room ripening phase at approximately 24°C, the bacterium ferments lactate produced by lactic acid bacteria into propionate, acetate, and carbon dioxide via the Wood-Werkman cycle. The CO₂ production drives the formation of characteristic eyes (holes) in the cheese, while propionic acid contributes to the nutty flavor and acts as a natural preservative by inhibiting spoilage microbes.^[46] This metabolic activity allows P. freudenreichii to reach populations exceeding 10⁹ colony-forming units per gram in fully ripened cheese, enhancing both texture and sensory qualities.^[46] In silage production, Acidipropionibacterium acidipropionici (formerly Propionibacterium acidipropionici) is used as a microbial inoculant to improve forage preservation, particularly in high-moisture crops like corn. The bacterium ferments sugars and lactate into propionate and acetate, elevating propionate levels in the silage and creating an environment that inhibits the growth of yeasts and molds.^[47] This enhances aerobic stability during feedout, reducing spoilage and dry matter losses, which in turn supports better nutritional quality for animal feed by maintaining higher levels of digestible nutrients.^[47] Studies demonstrate that inoculation at doses around 10⁵ to 10⁸ CFU/g can delay temperature rises in exposed silage by several hours, promoting safer storage and utilization in livestock diets.^[47] Dairy propionibacteria, including strains of P. freudenreichii, exhibit probiotic potential and are incorporated into yogurt and dietary supplements to support gut health. These strains survive gastrointestinal transit, modulate intestinal microbiota by stimulating bifidobacteria growth, and produce bioactive compounds like vitamins B9 and B12, which aid in metabolic health.^[8] Their safety is affirmed by Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status from the U.S. FDA and Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS) designation from the European Food Safety Authority, with no reported toxicity in human or animal consumption.^[8] In yogurt formulations, higher inoculum levels ensure viable delivery of these benefits, as demonstrated in fermented dairy products where they enhance fecal microbiota balance and defecation in clinical trials.^[48]

Biotechnological uses

Propionibacterium freudenreichii serves as a key industrial fermenter for vitamin B12 (cobalamin) production, leveraging its anaerobic biosynthetic pathway to achieve high yields in commercial processes.^[49] Optimized fermentations with this species have reported cobalamin titers up to 206 mg/L, making it one of the primary microbial sources for this essential vitamin used in supplements and fortification.^[49] This production relies on the bacterium's efficient metabolism of carbon sources like glucose and glycerol, which supports the complex corrin ring assembly in the cobalamin pathway.^[50] In biotechnological applications, Propionibacterium species and related propionibacteria are engineered for propionic acid production as a biobased chemical platform, serving as a precursor for preservatives, polymers, and potential biofuels.^[51] Strain improvements through genome shuffling and pathway engineering in species like Acidipropionibacterium acidipropionici and Acidipropionibacterium jensenii (formerly P. acidipropionici and P. jensenii) have enhanced yields from glucose fermentation, reaching up to 51.75 g/L in fed-batch processes with molar yields approaching 0.59 g/g substrate.^[52]^[53] These advancements address limitations in native strains, such as byproduct formation, to improve economic viability for industrial-scale bioconversion.^[54] Emerging biotechnological uses of Propionibacterium include the production of bacteriocins for biopreservation and exploration of their immunomodulatory properties. Dairy propionibacteria, such as P. thoenii and P. freudenreichii, produce antimicrobial peptides like propionicin T1, which inhibit Gram-positive pathogens and offer potential as natural antimicrobials in industrial formulations.^[55]^[56] Additionally, species like P. freudenreichii exhibit immunomodulatory capabilities by stimulating cytokine release and innate immunity, positioning them for development in therapeutic applications.^[57]

Clinical significance

Commensal roles

Skin-associated species formerly classified in Propionibacterium, such as P. acnes (now Cutibacterium acnes), play a key commensal role in maintaining the skin barrier by metabolizing sebum lipids into free fatty acids. These free fatty acids lower the skin's surface pH, creating an acidic environment that inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria and fungi, thereby preventing overgrowth and supporting overall skin homeostasis. Additionally, C. acnes induces the synthesis of essential epidermal lipids, including ceramides, triglycerides, and cholesterol, which strengthen the stratum corneum and enhance barrier function against environmental stressors.^[58]^[59]^[60] Species within the current Propionibacterium genus, such as P. freudenreichii, contribute to health in the gut by producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as propionate, through fermentation of dietary fibers and lactate. These SCFAs promote epithelial integrity by stimulating mucin production (e.g., MUC2) and restoring goblet cell function, which helps maintain the intestinal barrier and reduces inflammation in conditions like colitis. In ruminants, rumen-dwelling Propionibacterium species enhance fermentation efficiency by converting substrates to propionate, a major energy source that supports host metabolism and microbial balance without pathogenic effects.^[44]^[61]^[62] Propionibacterium strains also modulate host immunity by inducing tolerance and dampening allergic responses. For instance, P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 mitigates food allergy in murine models through surface layer protein SlpB-mediated immunomodulation, promoting regulatory T-cell responses and reducing Th2-driven inflammation. As probiotics, these bacteria support oral health by inhibiting Candida overgrowth in the elderly, fostering a balanced microbiome that limits opportunistic infections and enhances mucosal immunity.^[63]^[8]

Pathogenic associations

Pathogenic associations previously attributed to the genus Propionibacterium are primarily linked to species now reclassified in Cutibacterium, such as Cutibacterium acnes (formerly P. acnes), which acts as an opportunistic pathogen. It is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris, a chronic inflammatory skin disorder affecting pilosebaceous units, where it colonizes sebaceous follicles and triggers immune responses.^[64] The bacterium produces lipases that hydrolyze sebum into pro-inflammatory free fatty acids, activates Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) on keratinocytes and immune cells to induce cytokine release (e.g., IL-1β, IL-8, TNF-α), and forms biofilms that exacerbate follicular obstruction and persistence.^[64] Specific phylotypes, such as type IA1 strains (e.g., sequence types ST1, ST3), are enriched in acne lesions and correlate with disease severity, promoting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and chronic inflammation.^[64] Beyond acne, C. acnes is associated with implant-related infections due to its ability to form biofilms on biomaterials, evading host defenses and antibiotics. It accounts for approximately 10% of periprosthetic joint infections, particularly in shoulder arthroplasties, where symptoms often emerge 3–36 months post-implantation.^[65] Infections involving cardiac devices, such as prosthetic heart valves (with fewer than 50 reported cases), breast implants (up to 54% positive in sonication cultures), neurosurgical shunts (15% of external ventricular drain cases), and spinal hardware (3–50% of early postoperative infections) are also linked to C. acnes seeding from skin flora during surgery.^[65] Intracellular persistence of C. acnes has been implicated in chronic conditions like sarcoidosis, prostate inflammation, and possibly neurodegenerative diseases, though causality remains under investigation.^[66] Among other reclassified species, Cutibacterium avidum (formerly P. avidum) emerges as a rare but virulent opportunistic pathogen, primarily causing periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) after hip arthroplasty. In a series of 13 cases, C. avidum was isolated from hip PJIs, often presenting with acute symptoms and requiring implant removal and prolonged antibiotics.^[67] It has also been reported in breast abscesses post-reduction surgery and soft tissue infections without foreign bodies, highlighting its capacity for aggressive local invasion.^[68] Unlike C. acnes, C. avidum strains show phylogenetic clustering in PJI isolates, suggesting enhanced virulence in prosthetic settings.^[67] Species within the current Propionibacterium genus, such as P. freudenreichii, lack documented pathogenic associations and are generally regarded as safe (GRAS) for industrial and probiotic use.^[10] Overall, pathogenic roles formerly associated with the broader genus are now attributed to opportunists in Cutibacterium, with infections typically managed by surgical debridement, device explantation, and targeted antibiotics like penicillin or rifampin.^[65]

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Propionibacterium acidipropionici - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Natural Habitat of Dairy Propionibacteria. It is thought that the propionibacteria originate in the soil and are transported to the cow rumen via grass and ...
[21]
The genome sequence of Propionibacterium acidipropionici ...
Oct 19, 2012 · These bacteria are further classified into two groups: cutaneous, found on different areas of human skin; and dairy, isolated mainly from cheese ...
[22]
A Pan-Genome Guided Metabolic Network Reconstruction of Five ...
Of the 130 Propionibacterium genomes reported in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database at the time of performing the analysis, 21/ ...
[23]
Species: Propionibacterium australiense - LPSN
Species Propionibacterium australiense · Propionibacterium acidifaciens · Propionibacterium cyclohexanicum · Propionibacterium freudenreichii · Propionibacterium ...
[24]
Propionibacterium cyclohexanicum sp. nov., a new acid-tolerant ...
Propionibacterium cyclohexanicum is a non-spore-forming bacterium isolated from spoiled orange juice, growing at pH 3.2-7.5, producing lactic, propionic, and ...
[25]
The natural history of cutaneous propionibacteria, and ... - PubMed
The genus Propionibacterium in the family Propionibacteriaceaeconsists of species of various habitats, including mature cheese, cattle rumen and human skin.
[26]
Propionibacterium - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus Propionibacterium is divided into two groups based on its habitat. 'Dairy' propionibacteria are found in milk and cheese, and some other fermented ...
[27]
Skin dysbiosis and Cutibacterium acnes biofilm in inflammatory ...
Dec 6, 2022 · C. acnes IA1 is the predominant phylotype isolated from moderate to severe acne. In contrast, IB, II, and III phylotypes are more commonly ...
[28]
Propionibacterium - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Propionibacterium refers to a genus of Gram-positive or Gram-variable, anaerobic, nonsporulating rods that are a predominant component of skin flora and are ...
[29]
Gram stain of Propionibacterium acnes showing variably staining ...
Gram stain of Propionibacterium acnes showing variably staining Gram positive pleomorphic bacilli. When the organisms arefresh out ofthe eye the cell morphology ...
[30]
Propionibacterium - microbewiki - Kenyon College
Jul 8, 2011 · Propionibacteria are slow-growing, nonsporeforming, Gram-positive, anaerobic bacteria. They can be rod-shaped or branched and can occur ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology<|separator|>
[31]
Optimization of Periprosthetic Culture for Diagnosis of ... - NIH
We retrospectively determined that a 13-day culture incubation period is necessary for the recovery of P. acnes from patients with PJI.Missing: cultivation | Show results with:cultivation
[32]
[PDF] LABORATORY METHODS IN ANAEROBIC BACTERIOLOGY CDC ...
Incubate infusion agar slants and tubes of PYG broth in an anaerobe jar for 48 hours. Incubate other differential media at 35-37°C in an aerobic atmosphere or ...
[33]
Antibiotic susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes isolated from ...
Dec 23, 2014 · Results: All isolates (n = 55) were susceptible to most of the antibiotics tested, with the exception of 100% resistance to metronidazole, five ...
[34]
Propionibacterium - MiDAS Field Guide
Grow by fermentation of sugars, polyhydroxy alcohols, or lactate produced by the fermentation of other bacteria. Produce large amounts of propionic and acetic ...
[35]
Expanded metabolic diversity of Propionibacterium freudenreichii ...
... Wood–Werkman cycle [4]. Without external electron acceptors, P. freudenreichii converts lactate to acetate and propionate in a 2:1 propionate:acetate molar ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Adaptation of Propionibacterium freudenreichii to long-term survival ...
Dec 8, 2016 · Although lactate (the preferred carbon source for P. freudenreichii) was exhausted three days after inoculation, the strain sustained a high ...
[37]
[Utilization of different sulfur sources by propionic acid bacteria]
The object of this work was to study the ability of propionic bacteria to utilize sulfur compounds having various degrees of oxidation.Missing: Acidipropionibacterium thiodismutans
[38]
Role of reduced sulfur compounds in nutrition of Propionibacterium ...
In the presence of an auxiliary nitrogen source, thioglycolate or thiosulfate could replace sulfur-containing amino acids. The apparent requirement of P.
[39]
Propionibacterium freudenreichii thrives in microaerobic conditions ...
May 6, 2021 · The ecological niche of propionic acid bacteria can conceivably be extended to environments with oxygen gradients from oxic to anoxic, so‐called ...
[40]
Propionibacterium freudenreichii - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus Propionibacterium is divided into two groups based on its habitat. 'Dairy' propionibacteria are found in milk and cheese, and some other fermented ...
[41]
Dairy Propionibacteria: Probiotic Properties and Their Molecular ...
This review summarizes the current knowledge on the probiotic characteristics of dairy propionibacteria, represented by Propionibacterium freudenreichii.
[42]
Major Contributions of Cutibacterium acnes to Skin Homeostasis
Mar 18, 2021 · Cutibacterium acnes is the most abundant bacterium living in human, healthy and sebum-rich skin sites, such as the face and the back.
[43]
Propionibacterium acnes strain populations in the human skin ... - NIH
The human skin microbiome plays important roles in skin health and disease. However, bacterial population structure and diversity at the strain level is poorly ...Results · P. Acnes Dominates The... · Different P. Acnes Strain...
[44]
Differential Adaptation of Propionibacterium freudenreichii CIRM ...
P. freudenreichii grew in cow's milk but not in soymilk, but it did grow in soymilk when co-cultured with the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum.
[45]
Dairy Propionibacterium freudenreichii ameliorates acute colitis by ...
Mar 26, 2020 · Consequently, P. freudenreichii protects the host gut environment from DSS-induced acute colitis and also produces an anti-inflammatory effect.
[46]
Human oral, gut, and plaque microbiota in patients with ... - PNAS
Oct 11, 2010 · Besides these OTUs, we also detected Rothia, Granulicatella, and Propionibacterium in both the oral cavity and the atherosclerotic plaque within ...
[47]
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(98)75797-2
[48]
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1223741
[49]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11606883/
[50]
Fermentative production of vitamin B12 by Propionibacterium ... - NIH
These bacteria are famous for their capacity to synthesize both propionic acid and vitamin B12. Based on its habitat, the Propionibacterium genus is divided ...
[51]
Bioprocess Strategies for Vitamin B12 Production by Microbial ...
P. freudenreichii are facultative anaerobic strains that follow the anaerobic biosynthetic route for cobalamin production. Despite their only producing high ...
[52]
Propionic Acid: Method of Production, Current State and Perspectives
This article provides a comprehensive synthesis and review of important biotechnological aspects of propionic acid production as a common ingredient in food ...
[53]
Efficient Production of Propionic Acid in the Fed-Batch Fermentation ...
When the glucose/glycerol ratio was 4:1, the concentration of propionic acid reached 51.75 ± 3.62 g/L with a fermentation period of 132h, an increase of 79.25% ...
[54]
Pathway engineering of Propionibacterium jensenii for improved ...
Jan 27, 2016 · PA is mainly produced through petrochemical synthesis via the hydrocarboxylation of ethylene. Given the increasing concerns about environmental ...Missing: biofuels | Show results with:biofuels
[55]
Improved production of propionic acid using genome shuffling
Sep 27, 2016 · In this work, we use genome shuffling on two wild type strains to generate a better propionic acid producing strain. Using next generation ...Missing: biofuels | Show results with:biofuels
[56]
Biochemical and Genetic Characterization of Propionicin T1, a New ...
A collection of propionibacteria was screened for bacteriocin production. A new bacteriocin named propionicin T1 was isolated from two strains of ...
[57]
Bacteriocins of propionic acid bacteria - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · These dairy propionibacteria are food-grade organisms and their bacteriocins may be of interest as food preservatives. Some of their ...
[58]
Killed Propionibacterium acnes enhances immunogenicity and ...
Oct 9, 2018 · These results revealed the adjuvant effect of a killed P. acnes suspension, as it improved specific humoral and cellular immune responses ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[59]
Propionibacterium acnes Enhances the Immunogenicity of HIVBr18 ...
Feb 7, 2018 · With the aim of increasing the immunogenicity of this vaccine, the effect of Propionibacterium acnes as an adjuvant was evaluated. The adjuvant ...Missing: bacteriocins biopreservation
[60]
Propionibacterium acnes acts as an adjuvant in in vitro ... - PubMed
Aug 7, 2007 · P. acnes was found to augment the production of antigen-specific antibodies by PBMC, possibly through increased production of inflammatory cytokines and/or ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[61]
Commensal Cutibacterium acnes induce epidermal lipid synthesis ...
Aug 18, 2023 · Cutibacterium acnes induced a large increase in essential lipids including triglycerides, ceramides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids.
[62]
Study unveils how Cutibacterium acnes boosts epidermal lipids for ...
Aug 23, 2023 · In addition, it also contributes to barrier homeostasis by decreasing the surface pH via the metabolization of free fatty acids from sebum.
[63]
New insights into the role of Cutibacterium acnes-derived ... - Nature
Sep 25, 2023 · ... role in maintaining a healthy skin barrier ... They metabolize sebum and release fatty acids, which are necessary to preserve the skin's ...
[64]
Colorectal Cancer Cells Increase the Production of Short Chain ...
May 23, 2018 · This bacterium can exert protective effects particularly against colorectal cancer (CRC), via the production of short chain fatty acids (SCFA), ...
[65]
Propionibacteria in Ruminant's Diets: An Overview - Science Alert
Apr 11, 2019 · Propionibacteria in the rumen act to convert substrate to propionic acid, this leads to increase propionic acid concentration in the rumen and ...
[66]
Propionibacterium freudenreichii Prevents Food Allergy in Mice via ...
Nov 22, 2024 · The P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 strain can mitigate the food allergic response through its immunomodulatory effects mediated by the surface layer protein ...
[67]
Propionibacterium acnes and Acne Vulgaris: New Insights ... - NIH
May 13, 2019 · The anaerobic bacterium Propionibacterium acnes is believed to play an important role in the pathophysiology of the common skin disease acne ...
[68]
Propionibacterium acnes: An Underestimated Pathogen in Implant ...
In this paper, we review the pathogenic role of P. acnes in implant-associated infections such as prosthetic joints, cardiac devices, breast implants, ...
[69]
P. acnes-Driven Disease Pathology: Current Knowledge and Future ...
Intracellular persistence of P. acnes is implicated in diseases of the lungs and prostate gland and possibly the brain. This is a clear testimony for the ...
[70]
Propionibacterium avidum: A Virulent Pathogen Causing Hip ... - NIH
Propionibacteria are important members of the human skin microbiota, but are also opportunistic pathogens associated with periprosthetic joint infection (PJI).<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Identification of Propionibacterium avidum from a breast abscess - NIH
P. avidum seems to have a unique capacity of causing clinically significant infection in the absence of foreign bodies, particularly after breast surgery. It is ...