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Propolis

Propolis, also known as bee glue, is a sticky, resinous substance produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera) from plant exudates such as tree buds, sap flows, and resins, which they mix with beeswax and salivary secretions to create a versatile hive material.^[1] Bees utilize propolis to seal cracks and crevices in the hive, embalm dead intruders to prevent decomposition, and maintain an aseptic environment against bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens.^[1] Its chemical composition is highly variable depending on the bees' geographic location, season, and available flora, but generally comprises approximately 50% resins and balsams, 30% wax, 10% essential oils, 5% pollen, and 5% other organic compounds including amino acids.^[2] Key bioactive components include flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, galangin), phenolic acids (e.g., caffeic acid), terpenoids, and aromatic compounds, which contribute to its broad spectrum of pharmacological activities.^[3] Historically, propolis has been employed in traditional medicine since at least 300 BC, with records from ancient civilizations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome documenting its use for wound healing, as an antiseptic, and in embalming processes.^[4] In early modern Europe, such as in 17th-century London pharmacopoeias, and in traditional Balkan medicine, it was applied to treat burns, ulcers, sore throats, and infections, often incorporated into tinctures or ointments.^[2] The substance's antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties were intuitively recognized long before modern scientific validation, positioning it as a staple in folk remedies across various cultures.^[5] In contemporary research, propolis is classified into various types based on botanical origins and chemical profiles, such as poplar-type (common in temperate regions), birch-type, and tropical varieties like Brazilian green propolis rich in artepillin C.^[3] Its pharmacological potential has been extensively studied, revealing strong evidence for antioxidant effects that combat oxidative stress, antibacterial activity against pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms via inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines.^[5] Emerging applications span pharmaceuticals for treating oral diseases, dermatological conditions, and even potential anticancer therapies, alongside uses in cosmetics for skin protection and in functional foods as a natural preservative.^[2] Despite its promise, variability in composition necessitates standardized extracts for therapeutic reliability, and ongoing clinical trials continue to explore its efficacy and safety.^[3]

Definition and Overview

What is Propolis

Propolis is a resinous mixture produced by honeybees, primarily Apis mellifera and related species, through the collection of exudates from tree buds, sap flows, and other botanical sources, which are then combined with beeswax and salivary secretions.^[6] This sticky material serves as a versatile substance distinct from honey, which derives from nectar processing, and beeswax, which is directly secreted by bees for comb construction, due to its unique resin-based composition and multifunctional properties.^[6] Physically, propolis exhibits temperature-dependent characteristics: it remains soft, pliable, and highly adhesive between 25°C and 45°C, facilitating its application within the hive, but hardens into a brittle state at lower temperatures, such as when frozen.^[2] These properties allow bees to manipulate it effectively under varying environmental conditions. The term "propolis" originates from Greek words "pro" (before or at the entrance) and "polis" (city), reflecting its role in defending the bee colony, often metaphorically called the "city of bees."^[2] As an evolved adaptation, propolis collection and use by honeybees contribute to hive maintenance by providing antimicrobial benefits and structural enhancements, a behavior integrated into their social immunity over evolutionary time.^[7]

Role in the Hive

Propolis plays a vital role in maintaining the structural integrity and hygiene of the beehive. Honeybees apply it to seal cracks, gaps, and small openings in the hive, effectively preventing drafts, excess moisture accumulation, and the intrusion of predators or pests. This sealing action creates a more insulated and stable microclimate within the colony, protecting the brood and stored resources from environmental stressors.^[2]^[5] Beyond structural support, propolis acts as a potent microbial barrier, lining the interior walls, brood cells, and other surfaces of the hive to inhibit the proliferation of bacteria, fungi, and parasites. This coating forms a protective envelope that reduces the overall pathogen load and promotes a relatively sterile environment, essential for preventing infections in the densely populated hive. Research has confirmed its broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy against numerous bacterial species, with particularly strong inhibition of Gram-positive pathogens commonly found in hive settings.^[8]^[9]^[10] In defensive applications, bees use propolis to embalm deceased intruders, such as mice or lizards, that enter the hive but are too large to be expelled. By rapidly coating these corpses with layers of propolis, bees halt decomposition, neutralize odors, and block the release of disease-causing microbes, thereby safeguarding the colony's health and preventing secondary infections. This embalming process highlights propolis's contribution to hive sanitation and long-term hygiene.^[10] Ecologically, propolis enhances colony resilience and survival, particularly in temperate regions where bees have access to abundant resin-producing plants like poplars and conifers. Studies show that hives with higher propolis deposition exhibit improved immune function, lower disease incidence, and increased overwintering success, as the substance modulates the bees' microbiome and reinforces collective defenses against environmental threats.^[11]^[12]

History

Etymology

The term "propolis" originates from the Ancient Greek word própolis (πρόπολις), composed of pro- ("before" or "in front of") and pólis ("city"), literally translating to "before the city" or "suburb." This nomenclature metaphorically describes the substance's role in fortifying the entrance of the beehive, akin to a protective outer layer or suburb around a city.^[13] The term is credited to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who coined it around 350 BCE in his work Historia Animalium, where he discussed its use by bees to seal and defend their hive.^[14] In Latin texts, "propolis" was adopted and described by the Roman author Pliny the Elder in the 1st century CE, in his encyclopedic Naturalis Historia, where he detailed its properties and practical applications by bees.^[15] The substance was further documented around 60 CE by the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in De Materia Medica, an early pharmacopeia that highlighted its medicinal attributes alongside its apian uses, marking one of the first comprehensive ancient references linking the name to therapeutic contexts.^[15] Historical equivalents appear in other languages, such as tzori in Hebrew, referenced in ancient Jewish texts as a medicinal resin, and ʿukbur or ʿikbar in Arabic, denoting a similar bee-produced glue-like material.^[15] In modern apiculture, the term "propolis" remains standard, while common English descriptors include "bee glue" for its adhesive qualities and "bee resin" for its origin from plant exudates, reflecting its role in hive maintenance.^[10]

Historical Uses

The use of propolis by ancient civilizations dates back to at least 3000 BCE, with evidence from Egyptian practices where it served as a key component in mummification processes to preserve bodies and prevent decay due to its antimicrobial properties.^[16] Egyptians also applied propolis medicinally to treat various ailments, as depicted in artifacts showing bees and propolis production.^[15] In ancient Greece around the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates recommended propolis for healing wounds and ulcers, both internally and externally, while it was further documented in texts for oral care and as an antiseptic.^[15] Roman physicians such as Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen expanded on these applications, employing propolis for wound treatment, abscesses, and as a mouth disinfectant, integrating it into military medicine for soldiers.^[17] During the medieval period in Europe, propolis fell out of favor in formal medicine but persisted in folk remedies for treating infections, wounds, and skin conditions, often as an antiseptic and cicatrizant.^[15] This knowledge was preserved through oral traditions and herbal compendia, with its use revived during the Renaissance as European scholars rediscovered ancient Greek and Roman texts, leading to renewed incorporation into apothecary preparations for healing and preservation.^[17] In parallel, Persian manuscripts from the medieval era described propolis for alleviating eczemas, myalgia, and rheumatism, reflecting its role in broader Middle Eastern folk medicine.^[15] Indigenous South American cultures, including the Incas, utilized propolis as an antipyretic agent to soothe fevers and other ailments, integrating it into traditional healing practices long before European contact.^[2] By the 19th century in Europe, propolis regained prominence in apothecaries, where it was formulated into tinctures for topical applications to promote wound healing and combat infections, as studied by French chemist Nicolas Louis Vauquelin in his analyses of its properties.^[15] Propolis appears in numerous ancient medical texts and recipes across these cultures, though its prominence in Western pharmacopeias waned in the early 20th century with the rise of synthetic drugs.^[18]

Production

Bee Collection Process

Worker bees of the species Apis mellifera forage for resins primarily from tree sources, including poplar buds, conifer sap, and birch exudates, using their mandibles to scrape and front legs to gather the sticky material.^[19] These foragers target resin-rich plant parts such as buds, bark cracks, and sap flows, which provide the raw botanical exudates essential for propolis formation.^[20] The collection occurs mainly during active foraging periods, with peaks in spring and summer when resin availability from blooming and budding plants is highest, influenced by local floral diversity and environmental conditions.^[21] Once collected, the resin is processed in the bee's mouth, where it is masticated and mixed with secretions from the maxillary glands—containing salivary enzymes that aid in softening and modifying the material—along with beeswax to create a malleable substance.^[22] This mixture is then shaped into small pellets and transported back to the hive on the hind legs' corbiculae (pollen baskets), where it is applied to seal cracks and crevices.^[23] The enzymatic action during mastication helps break down complex plant compounds, enhancing the resin's adhesive and antimicrobial properties for hive maintenance.^[24] While Apis mellifera produces standard propolis, tropical stingless bees such as those in the Meliponini tribe create a variant known as geopropolis by incorporating soil particles along with plant resins, beeswax, and mandibular secretions during the collection and processing steps.^[25] This adaptation reflects regional environmental influences, where soil additives provide additional structural support for nest construction in soil-rich habitats.^[26] A typical Apis mellifera colony harvests between 50 and 600 grams of propolis annually, with yields varying based on resin source availability, colony size, and seasonal foraging intensity.^[27] This production supports essential hive functions, such as sealing gaps to prevent drafts and microbial entry.^[28]

Human Harvesting Methods

Human harvesting of propolis involves techniques designed to collect the resinous material from beehives while minimizing disruption to the colony. Traditional methods primarily rely on manual scraping, where beekeepers use tools such as knives or scrapers to remove propolis from hive frames, inner walls, and entrances after removing honey supers. This approach yields irregular chunks of raw propolis but typically results in low volumes, often contaminated with wax, debris, and bee parts, requiring subsequent cleaning.^[29] Modern harvesting employs specialized traps to facilitate collection without direct hive disturbance. These devices, such as plastic grids or screens coated with beeswax, are inserted into hive supers or inner covers, encouraging bees to deposit propolis on the rough surfaces for sealing purposes. After a period of 2-4 weeks, the traps are removed, and the propolis is harvested by freezing the trap to make the material brittle, allowing it to be easily peeled or knocked off. Traps can yield 50-100 grams of raw propolis per hive per season, depending on colony strength and environmental factors.^[30]^[31] Post-harvest processing is essential to purify the crude propolis, separating it from wax, wood particles, and other impurities. Common methods include freezing the raw material to facilitate grinding, followed by water flotation where propolis sinks due to its density while lighter wax and debris float to the surface for skimming. Further purification often involves alcohol extraction, immersing the cleaned propolis in ethanol to dissolve the resins, yielding a tincture or purified product with approximately 20-40% recovery of pure propolis after filtration and evaporation. These steps ensure the material is suitable for various applications while maintaining its bioactive properties.^[32]^[33] Sustainable practices emphasize harvesting no more than 10-20% of a hive's propolis to prevent stressing the bees, as excessive removal can compromise the colony's ability to seal and protect the hive. Global production of raw propolis is estimated at 1,800 to 2,400 tons annually in the 2020s, primarily from apiculture in regions with diverse flora.^[34]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Characteristics

Propolis exhibits a variable appearance depending on its botanical and geographical origins, typically presenting as a resinous substance ranging in color from dark brown to greenish-yellow.^[35] This material is sticky and tacky when warm, specifically above approximately 20°C, transitioning to a hard and brittle state below 10°C, which facilitates its use by bees in sealing hive structures.^[22]^[36] In terms of texture and density, propolis possesses a soft, pliable, gum-like consistency at ambient temperatures, with a reported density of 1.11 to 1.14 g/cm³.^[37] It demonstrates thermoplastic behavior, softening and becoming moldable upon gentle heating, which allows for shaping without permanent deformation upon cooling. Thermal analysis indicates that propolis melts between 60°C and 80°C, though it begins to decompose above 150°C, limiting high-temperature processing.^[16]^[38] Sensory properties of propolis include a strong aromatic odor attributed to its volatile oils and a distinctly bitter taste.^[2]^[39] It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alcohol and oils, influencing extraction and application methods.^[40]^[41] Over time, exposure to ultraviolet light contributes to darkening and progressive hardening of the material.^[42]^[43]

Chemical Composition

Propolis is a complex mixture primarily consisting of resins and balsams (approximately 50%), which are rich in phenolic compounds such as flavonoids including pinocembrin and galangin; waxes (about 30%); essential and aromatic oils (10%); pollen grains (5%); and miscellaneous substances like amino acids, sugars, and minerals (5%).^[2] These proportions can vary based on botanical sources and environmental factors, but resins form the core bioactive fraction.^[44] Among the key chemical constituents, phenolic acids such as caffeic acid, terpenoids, and aromatic alcohols predominate, contributing to the material's diverse properties.^[3] Over 300 distinct compounds have been identified across propolis samples worldwide, with flavonoids representing a major class known for their structural diversity and potential antioxidant roles.^[45] For instance, representative flavonoids include chrysin, quercetin, and naringenin, often isolated from resinous components.^[10] The chemical profile of propolis is analyzed using techniques like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for polar phenolics and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for volatile oils and terpenoids, enabling detailed metabolite identification.^[46] These methods reveal variability in composition, with individual samples typically containing 80 to 150 compounds on average.^[47] A notable example is Brazilian green propolis, which is enriched in artepillin C, a prenylated cinnamic acid derivative sourced from Baccharis dracunculifolia.^[48] The acidity of propolis, with a pH typically ranging from 4.0 to 5.5, stems from organic acids within the phenolic fraction.^[49] This range influences its solubility in polar solvents, linking to broader physical behaviors.^[49]

Types and Variations

Geographical Types

Propolis exhibits significant geographical variation due to the diverse botanical sources available to bees in different regions, leading to distinct chemical profiles that influence its properties. Numerous types of propolis have been identified based on these regional differences, with composition varying according to local flora, climate, and bee species.^[50]^[51] The European poplar-type propolis, one of the most widespread varieties, is primarily produced in temperate zones of Central Europe, North America, and parts of Asia where poplar trees (Populus spp., such as Populus nigra) predominate as the main resin source. This type is characterized by a high content of flavonoids, including chrysin, galangin, and pinocembrin, along with phenolic acids like caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE).^[52]^[53]^[54] These components contribute to its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, though the exact potency can vary with local environmental factors.^[31] In tropical regions, propolis types reflect the rich biodiversity of subtropical flora. Brazilian green propolis, sourced mainly from the leaves and buds of Baccharis dracunculifolia (alecrim-do-campo), is notable for its abundance of prenylated phenolics, such as artepillin C and baccharin, which are less common in temperate varieties and linked to enhanced anti-inflammatory effects.^[52]^[55] Similarly, Cuban propolis often derives from the floral resin of Clusia rosea, featuring prenylated flavonoids such as vestitol and neovestitol, along with polyisoprenylated benzophenones, that provide unique cytotoxic and antiparasitic properties.^[52]^[16] Asian varieties further illustrate regional specificity; in Russia, birch-type propolis is collected from Betula verrucosa buds in areas lacking poplars, resulting in a profile rich in triterpenoids and sesquiterpenes distinct from poplar-derived types.^[56] In Venezuela, propolis from Clusia spp. (such as Clusia minor and Clusia major) contains polyprenylated benzophenones and isoflavonoids, contributing to its specialized bioactivity.^[57] Additionally, geopropolis, produced by stingless bees like Melipona and Scaptotrigona spp. in Mexico, incorporates clay or soil along with plant resins, yielding a powdery material with minerals and altered phenolic content that enhances structural durability in hives.^[58]^[59]^[60] The Mediterranean type, prevalent in southern Europe (e.g., Greece, Sicily, Crete), is sourced from conifers such as Pinus spp. and Cupressus sempervirens, featuring diterpenes like communic acid and totarol that confer strong antibacterial potency compared to poplar types.^[61]^[62]^[63] Overall, these geographical differences in botanical origins directly impact the chemical diversity and functional potency of propolis, as temperate types emphasize flavonoids while tropical and Mediterranean variants highlight prenylated compounds and terpenoids.^[16]^[64]

Color and Form Classifications

Propolis exhibits a wide spectrum of colors influenced by its botanical sources and geographical origins, ranging from yellow and green to red, brown, and black. Yellow and green varieties are commonly associated with poplar (Populus spp.) resin sources, particularly in temperate regions where bees collect from bud exudates rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds.^[65] Red propolis, a distinctive type, derives primarily from the resin of Dalbergia ecastaphyllum trees in northeastern Brazil, imparting its vibrant hue due to specific prenylated compounds.^[66] Brown and black forms predominate in conifer-heavy environments, such as those with pine or spruce, resulting in darker tones from higher resin densities and oxidation.^[20] While color provides a loose indicator of source vegetation, it does not reliably correlate with biological potency, as efficacy depends more on chemical composition than visual traits.^[2] In its natural state within the hive, propolis appears as sticky envelopes or thin layers sealing cracks and coating surfaces, serving as a resinous barrier. For human use, it is processed into various forms to enhance accessibility and stability. Raw chunks consist of unrefined, waxy pieces directly harvested from hives, retaining full resin content but requiring careful handling to avoid contamination. Powdered propolis is obtained by grinding raw material after wax removal, often encapsulated for supplements to deliver consistent doses of bioactive compounds. Tinctures involve alcohol extraction of raw propolis, yielding a liquid form that concentrates flavonoids and phenolics for easy administration or topical application. Capsules encase powdered or extract forms, providing a convenient, shelf-stable option for oral consumption.^[32]^[67] Standardization ensures quality and consistency in commercial propolis, with grading based on purity, active compound levels, and physical properties. In Europe, propolis is often classified by ethanol extractability and flavonoid content; for instance, high-grade extracts may achieve high purity levels in refined forms, often with resin content exceeding 80%. Moisture content is controlled below 10% during processing and storage to prevent microbial growth and degradation, typically achieved through drying and airtight packaging at cool temperatures. Authentication methods, including UV fluorescence spectroscopy, aid in verifying propolis integrity by detecting characteristic emission patterns from phenolic structures, distinguishing genuine samples from adulterated ones.^[68]^[69]^[31]

Uses

Medicinal Applications

Propolis has long been employed in traditional remedies as an oral rinse to alleviate sore throats, leveraging its natural disinfectant properties documented in ancient practices.^[2] Additionally, it serves as a wound dressing for burns and cuts, applied topically to promote healing in folk healing traditions across various cultures.^[70] In folk medicine, propolis is valued for its anti-inflammatory effects, particularly in managing arthritis symptoms through external applications or infusions.^[71] In contemporary settings, propolis features in topical ointments designed to treat skin conditions such as acne and dermatitis, where it is applied directly to affected areas for soothing relief.^[72] Oral supplements incorporating propolis are commonly used for immune support, with dosages varying by product; consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended.^[73] Within clinical contexts, propolis finds application in dentistry for addressing canker sores, often administered as an oral preparation to reduce recurrence and discomfort.^[74] In veterinary practice, it is utilized to combat infections in livestock, including mastitis in dairy animals, through targeted administration to enhance recovery.^[75] Propolis is integrated into European over-the-counter products, such as lozenges for throat relief, reflecting its established role in medicinal applications.^[15]

Non-Medicinal Applications

In beekeeping, propolis is applied to hive frames and wooden structures as a natural varnish to seal cracks, smooth surfaces, and promote colony acceptance of new equipment.^[76] This application leverages its sticky, adhesive qualities to mimic the bees' own use of the substance for hive maintenance, enhancing structural integrity and airflow control within the colony.^[23] Beekeepers often dissolve propolis in alcohol and apply multiple coats to the interior of hives, where it dries quickly and provides a protective layer against moisture and drafts.^[77] Beyond beekeeping, propolis finds industrial applications in cosmetics, where it serves as an emollient in products like lip balms and creams due to its moisturizing and softening effects on skin.^[78] These formulations benefit from propolis's waxy texture, which contributes to product stability and a smooth application. The cosmetics segment drives significant demand, with the global propolis market—largely propelled by such uses—valued at approximately $670 million in 2023 and projected to reach $955 million by 2034.^[79] In food preservation, propolis acts as a natural antimicrobial agent, particularly in dairy products like cheese, where extracts inhibit bacterial growth and extend shelf life without synthetic additives.^[80] Studies on gorgonzola-type and processed cheeses demonstrate its efficacy in reducing contaminants such as Listeria monocytogenes when incorporated into packaging or directly onto the product.^[81] Niche uses of propolis include varnishes for musical instruments, such as violins, where it is blended into spirit-based formulas to create an elastic, sound-preserving coating that enhances shine and protects wood.^[82] Historical recipes, including those purportedly used on Stradivarius instruments, highlight its role in achieving a soft, resonant finish.^[83] In traditional crafts, propolis is shaped into cones and burned as incense, valued for its aromatic resin that clears air and harmonizes spaces in rituals across cultures like ancient Egyptian and Chinese practices.^[84] Modern artisanal blends, such as propolis-artemisia incense, continue this tradition for its natural, calming smoke.^[85]

Health Effects and Safety

Potential Benefits and Research

Propolis has garnered significant scientific interest for its potential health benefits, supported by a growing body of preclinical and clinical research. As a complex mixture rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds, it exhibits multifaceted bioactivities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, primarily attributed to components like caffeic acid and its derivatives. Studies suggest these properties may contribute to therapeutic applications in various conditions, though results vary by propolis type and extraction method.^[86]^[87] The antimicrobial effects of propolis are well-documented, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative pathogens like Escherichia coli, mediated through flavonoids that disrupt bacterial cell membranes and inhibit biofilm formation. In vitro studies have reported minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 117 to 1,840 µg/mL against these bacteria, demonstrating dose-dependent inhibition comparable to some conventional antibiotics. These activities extend to antifungal effects against Candida species, supporting propolis's role in preventing microbial overgrowth in oral and wound environments.^[9]^[88]^[89] Propolis also displays potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, largely due to caffeic acid, which scavenges free radicals and modulates inflammatory pathways like NF-κB. Clinical trials in patients with type 2 diabetes have shown that propolis supplementation (typically 500–1,000 mg/day for 8–12 weeks) significantly reduces oxidative stress markers and lowers HbA1c levels by approximately 0.5–1%, alongside improvements in insulin sensitivity and fasting blood glucose. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) confirm these effects, with propolis decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and hs-CRP by 20–30% in various populations. Recent 2025 meta-analyses further support its role in improving cardiometabolic health in type 2 diabetes, including reductions in waist circumference and enhancements in quality of life.^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93] Emerging research highlights propolis's anticancer potential, where extracts induce apoptosis in cancer cell lines, such as colon and gastric carcinoma cells, by upregulating Bax and p53 expression while downregulating anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2. In vitro and animal models demonstrate inhibition of proliferation and metastasis at concentrations of 50–200 µg/mL, with mechanisms involving cell cycle arrest and angiogenesis suppression. Additionally, studies from 2020 to 2024 have explored propolis as an adjunct for COVID-19, showing reduced hospital stay duration and respiratory inflammation in patients receiving standardized extracts (e.g., Brazilian green propolis at 900 mg/day), potentially via antiviral interference with SARS-CoV-2 replication and cytokine storm mitigation.^[94]^[95]^[96] As of November 2025, PubMed indexes over 5,400 studies on propolis, reflecting its expanding research landscape. Meta-analyses affirm its efficacy in reducing the incidence and severity of oral mucositis in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy, with propolis mouthwashes delaying onset and shortening duration compared to placebo, though experts emphasize the need for more large-scale RCTs to standardize protocols and confirm long-term outcomes. Ongoing 2025 research also explores its immunomodulatory role in conditions like hypoxia and tumor microenvironments.^[97]^[98]^[99]^[100]

Risks and Contraindications

Propolis can cause allergic reactions, primarily manifesting as contact dermatitis, in susceptible individuals. Symptoms typically include skin rash, redness, swelling, and itching at the site of exposure.^[101] These reactions occur more frequently in people allergic to bee products, such as honey or bee venom, due to shared allergenic components like flavonoids and phenolic compounds.^[102] The prevalence of propolis allergy among patients undergoing patch testing for dermatitis ranges from 1.2% to 3.3%, with higher rates observed in occupational groups like beekeepers exposed to the substance.^[101] Studies from the 2020s, including those up to 2025, report hypersensitivity rates ranging from 0.5% to 6.2% or higher in dermatitis patients and general populations, underscoring the importance of patch testing prior to use to identify sensitization.^[103]^[104] Contraindications for propolis include avoidance during pregnancy and breastfeeding, as there is insufficient reliable data on its safety in these populations.^[105] Limited evidence suggests it may be possibly safe at low doses during breastfeeding, such as 300 mg daily for up to 10 months, but higher amounts should be avoided due to potential risks.^[102] Additionally, propolis may interact with anticoagulant medications like warfarin, potentially reducing their effectiveness and increasing the risk of blood clots, as evidenced by decreased INR values in studies.^[106] Individuals on such therapies should consult healthcare providers before using propolis.^[67] Regarding toxicity, propolis is generally considered safe for oral consumption at doses below 1 g per day in adults, with clinical studies supporting tolerability up to 500 mg daily for several months without adverse effects.^[73] Rare cases of hepatotoxicity have been reported, often linked to contaminated sources containing impurities like heavy metals or solvents used in extraction.^[107] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies propolis as a dietary supplement rather than a food additive with Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status, meaning it has not undergone formal FDA review for safety or efficacy, and users should select products from reputable sources to minimize contamination risks.^[73]

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Geopropolis is produced by stingless bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, and Meliponinae) [1] from a mixture of wax, pollen, and the mandibular secretions of bees ...
[27]
[PDF] EVALUATION OF PROPOLIS PRODUCTION BY DIFFERENT ...
Apr 20, 2024 · Propolis yield of honeybee colony ranged from 50-600 g for different honey bee races (Ghisalberti, 1979). Differences morphological in honeybee ...
[28]
Comparison of Traps Collecting Propolis by Honey Bees - Scirp.org.
The average production of propolis per colony per year has been described as 10 to 300g but the production depends on the bees, the forest resources, the ...Missing: annual | Show results with:annual
[29]
Methods for Collecting Propolis from Beehives - Agriculture Institute
Nov 15, 2023 · Seasonal considerations: Late summer and early fall typically provide the best propolis collection opportunities. During these periods, bees are ...
[30]
Thriving Hives: Propolis - Harvest and Usage | USU
Feb 19, 2025 · Propolis is a type of adhesive that bees use to construct their hives and keep unwanted invaders out. Every beehive produces differing amounts of propolis.Missing: dammar | Show results with:dammar
[31]
Full article: Standard methods for Apis mellifera propolis research
To harvest the propolis from the traps, it is best to freeze the traps so that the propolis becomes hard and brittle (Krell, 1996). It then can be knocked or ...
[32]
Processing Propolis: Part 1 | Bee Culture
Sep 26, 2016 · Propolis can be collected by catching the hive scrapings when cleaning out the honey supers during the honey harvest as well. Unlike propolis ...
[33]
Now's The Perfect Time to Harvest Propolis... And Here's How! -
Oct 9, 2020 · Empty the container of propolis into the bucket of water. The wax, debris, and other hive detritus will float while the propolis will sink.
[34]
Propolis Market: Global Industry Analysis and Forecast (2025-2032)
This study estimates the total annual commercial production of raw propolis at between 1,800 and 2,400 tons per annum. Furthermore, Propolis was not famous for ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[35]
Propolis: a new frontier for wound healing? - PMC - NIH
Jul 22, 2015 · Propolis contains a huge number of compounds that explicate some biological effects that speeds up the healing process and is widely used in folk remedies.<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Best Practices for Storing Propolis to Maintain Quality
Nov 18, 2023 · It's firm enough to handle without becoming brittle, yet not so soft that it becomes unmanageably sticky.
[37]
Organoleptic and chemical properties of propolis: a review
Mar 27, 2025 · Propolis, for instance, is hard and fragile at lower temperatures (generally below 15 °C), but it becomes soft and sticky at higher ...
[38]
Propolis as a Cariostatic Agent in Lozenges and Impact of Storage ...
Jun 19, 2023 · They showed that MIC and MBC of ethanolic extract of the Iranian propolis were 250 μg/mL for Streptococcus mutans and 500 μg/mL for ...
[39]
The Effect of Enriching Honey with Propolis on the Antioxidant ...
Mar 5, 2020 · The evaluation of taste showed a clear increase in sharp acid and bitter taste with a persistent aftertaste. The propolis addition to honey ...
[40]
Characterization and stability evaluation of Egyptian propolis extract ...
Sep 26, 2023 · Raw propolis is not soluble in water and is extracted by solvents. Propolis is purified to preserve its polyphenolic fraction. These ...
[41]
Alternative preparation of propolis extracts - PubMed Central - NIH
May 27, 2015 · The active substances of propolis are easily soluble in ethanol. However ethanolic extracts cannot be used in treatment of certain diseases ...Missing: odor taste
[42]
Effect of accelerated aging on the color changes of wood treated ...
The aim of this work was to determine the effect of propolis extract and propolis-silane formulations on the color of wood.Missing: hardening | Show results with:hardening
[43]
A Closer Look at Propolis - Chatham County Beekeepers Association
May 15, 2020 · The highly antimicrobial properties of propolis make it an ideal substance with which to embalm dead creatures that are too large to be carried ...
[44]
Chemical and Functional Characterization of Propolis Collected ...
In general, propolis is characterized by 50% resin (phenolic compounds) and vegetable balms, 30% wax, 10% essential and aromatic oils, 5% pollen and 5% other ...
[45]
Recent Advances in the Chemical Composition of Propolis - PMC
Nov 26, 2014 · Until 2000, over 300 chemical components belonging to the flavonoids, terpenes, and phenolics have been identified in propolis. Some ...
[46]
Applying GC-MS analysis to identify chemical composition of Iranian ...
GC-MS analysis of Iranian propolis identified aromatics, acids, esters, flavonoids, flavonoid derivatives, and terpenes. Flavanone was the most dominant ...
[47]
Advances in the Propolis Chemical Composition between 2013 and ...
Nov 14, 2019 · Propolis or sometimes called “bee glue” is a lipophilic, adhesive, gummy, and resinous substance collected by different species of bees, ...
[48]
Baccharis dracunculifolia, the main source of green propolis ...
Baccharis dracunculifolia DC (Asteraceae) is the main botanical source used by honeybees to produce Brazilian green propolis whose hepatoprotective ...
[49]
Determination of Phenolic Compounds in Various Propolis Samples ...
The pH value of all analyzed propolis samples varies between 4.2 to 5.2. The pH results were similar to those of others studies [8,26,29]. Moreover, an ash ...Missing: 4.5-6.5 | Show results with:4.5-6.5
[50]
Propolis: chemical diversity and challenges in quality control
May 24, 2022 · GC–MS is a powerful analytical technique that has been extensively ... HPLC-ESI-MS/MS methods for metabolite profiling of propolis extracts.
[51]
Impact of biodiversification on propolis composition, functionality ...
This review article has first-ever highlighted the biodiversification of propolis (such as Poplar, Aspen, Birch, Alecrim, Red, Brown, Caribbean, Mediterranean ...
[52]
Plants: Sources of Diversity in Propolis Properties - PMC - NIH
Sep 2, 2022 · The main three types of propolis are European propolis, called poplar type propolis; Green Brazilian propolis (derived mainly from the leaf ...
[53]
Botanical Origins and Antioxidant Activities of Two Types of ... - NIH
Jun 7, 2023 · Poplar-type propolis is one of the most widespread types and is primarily found in Europe, North America, and non-tropical regions of Asia. In ...
[54]
Propolis: A Complex Natural Product with a Plethora of Biological ...
Propolis is a lipophilic material that is hard and breakable when cold but soft, flexible, and very sticky when warm; it possesses an enjoyable aromatic smell ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[55]
Propolis: types, composition, biological activities, and veterinary ...
Sep 5, 2019 · Brazilian propolis is highly valued in the international market due to its beneficial effects on health and it is increasingly gaining ...INTRODUCTION · PROPOLIS · BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES · TECHNOLOGICAL...
[56]
The cytotoxic effects of brown Cuban propolis depend on the ...
Feb 25, 2015 · In this study, brown Cuban propolis extracts were found cytotoxic against HepG2 cells and primary rat hepatocytes, in close association with the ...
[57]
Physical-Chemical Characterization and Thin Layer ...
Jan 31, 2020 · Mango (Mangifera indica) is an abundant tree of Cuban flora that is known for many healing properties and a deposit of bees as a source of ...
[58]
Mangifera indica as propolis source: what exactly do bees collect?
Dec 13, 2021 · There are two different materials which bees can collect from a mango tree to produce propolis: the resin of the tree bark, and the latex found on the fruits.Missing: Cuban | Show results with:Cuban
[59]
NPC Natural Product Communications - Plant Sources of Propolis
The fact that in the northern parts of Russia, from the region where poplars do not grow, birch buds (Betula verrucosa) supply bees with resin for propolis.
[60]
Is propolis safe as an alternative medicine? - PMC - PubMed Central
Propolis is not completely innocuous, with some patients showing sensitivity. Quality control is needed, as lack of it may be harmful.
[61]
Melipona scutellaris Geopropolis: Chemical Composition and ... - NIH
On the other hand, geopropolis is created by stingless bees of the Melipona family, which mix propolis with clay or soil. As a result, geopropolis has a powdery ...
[62]
Stingless bee propolis: composition, biological activities and its ...
May 4, 2023 · There is another product known as geopropolis, which basically is propolis mixed with soil, and which only a few species of stingless bees can ...Introduction · Propolis · Coumarins In Stingless Bee...
[63]
Scaptotrigona mexicana Propolis from Totonacapan Region - NIH
Mar 19, 2025 · The propolis produced by stingless bees is a complex mixture of natural sticky components mixed with soil or clay.
[64]
Mediterranean Propolis from the Adriatic Sea Islands as a Source of ...
The samples from the islands Krk, Rab, Pag, Biševo and Korčula were collected. Comprehensive methods were used to unlock their chemical biodiversity.
[65]
Identification of the Plant Origin of the Botanical Biomarkers of ...
Our data support the hypothesis that the diterpene-rich. Mediterranean propolis originates mainly from the resin of the common cypress C. sempervirens. This ...
[66]
Composition and bioactivity of propolis derived from New Zealand ...
Other varieties include Mediterranean type derived from conifer trees in the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae, principally Cupressus sempervirens [2,3,4] and which ...
[67]
Characterisation of New Zealand Propolis from Different Regions ...
Jul 2, 2024 · (birch) found in Russia; 'Mediterranean' derived from conifers (e.g., pine) found in Greece, Sicily, Crete, and Malta; 'Clusia' derived from ...
[68]
Poplar-type Propolis: Chemical Composition, Botanical Origin and ...
Thus, the main source of Brazilian propolis is Araucaria angustifolia, Baccharis dracunculifolia and Eucalyptus citriodora; propolis from Venezuela and Cuba ...
[69]
Brazilian Red Propolis—Chemical Composition and Botanical Origin
Dec 7, 2006 · The bees were observed to collect red resinous exudates on Dalbergia ecastophyllum (L) Taub. (Leguminosae) to make propolis. The flavonoids of ...
[70]
Propolis: Benefits, Uses and Side Effects
Sep 26, 2024 · These days, propolis is sold in capsules (pills) ... The natural supplement may help with weight loss, lower blood sugar and protect your heart.
[71]
Propolis and flavonoids in propolis related health claims - EFSA
Oct 19, 2010 · Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to propolis (ID 1242, 1245, 1246, 1247, 1248, 3184) and flavonoids in propolis.
[72]
Characteristics of propolis encapsulated with gelatin and sodium ...
Feb 22, 2023 · Despite the benefits that propolis has to offer, propolis also has a bitter taste and pungent aroma. These characteristics of propolis could ...
[73]
Applications of propolis-based materials in wound healing - PMC - NIH
Dec 27, 2023 · In particular, propolis was recommended in folk medicine for wound healing, skin regeneration, treatment of purulent diseases, relief of all ...Propolis Role In The Wound... · Propolis Composites For... · Textiles And Nanofibers
[74]
Does propolis have any effect on rheumatoid arthritis? A review study
Propolis is a natural substance extracted from beehives, which have confirmed anti‐inflammatory and antioxidant effects.
[75]
Treatment of acne with a combination of propolis, tea tree oil, and ...
Dec 13, 2018 · In this study, it has been shown that the cream containing propolis, tea tree oil, and A. vera is more effective in reducing acne compared to the preparation ...
[76]
Propolis Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com
Aug 7, 2025 · Propolis exhibits antimicrobial action against gram-positive bacteria, yeasts, and some viruses. Commonly used in oral and dental preparations.
[77]
The effect of bee propolis on recurrent aphthous stomatitis - PubMed
This study has shown propolis to be effective in decreasing the number of recurrences and improve the quality of life in patients who suffer from RAS.
[78]
Potential Benefits of Propolis in Large and Small Animal Practices
Aug 4, 2025 · Propolis has been applied to treat caseous lymphadenitis and parasitic diseases in sheep and goats. Furthermore, it improves the immune status ...
[79]
Propolis collection, role in hive hygiene & webinar
Nov 3, 2020 · I use it to paint the inside of new hives - two or three coats usually (dries in seconds). It gives the bees a start as they always propolise ...Missing: reduce | Show results with:reduce
[80]
In the hive propolis "varnish" | Beesource Beekeeping Forums
Jul 13, 2012 · The book showed that hives with a layer of propolis would condense water better with all other contributing factors remaining constant. With ...Missing: reduce | Show results with:reduce
[81]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331664017_Effect_of_Brazilian_green_propolis_on_microorganism_contaminants_of_surface_of_Gorgonzola-type_cheese
[82]
Propolis Market Size, Share, Growth | Forecast Analysis 2034
The global propolis market size was valued at $670.3 million in 2023, and is projected to reach $955.0 million by 2034, growing at a CAGR of 3.4% from 2024 to ...
[83]
Effect of an Italian propolis on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes ...
Propolis antimicrobial activity has been limitedly studied in food, particularly in dairy products. We studied the antimicrobial activity of an alcoholic ...
[84]
Effect of Brazilian green propolis on microorganism contaminants of ...
In addition, propolis extract has been found to be an effective growth inhibitor of bacteria present in gorgonzola cheese, demonstrating its preservative ...
[85]
Propolis varnish - Hammerl GmbH & Co. KG
This creates a soft, elastic varnish that excellently preserves the full sound of an instrument. The varnish is based on natural propolis extracts and ...
[86]
Bee Propolis Varnish - WCHA Forums
Apr 28, 2006 · Originally used to varnish fine Stradivarius violins, now used to refinish fine museum quality wood items like musical instruments, this recipe ...
[87]
Propolis | Herbs - Herbal Reality
Mar 19, 2024 · In traditional Chinese medicine, propolis is believed to hold “yang ... They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine.Propolis · Sustainability Status · Additional Information
[88]
Propolis Incense
The Propolis contained in Tennendo's incense is a completely natural product, and its origin is quite surprising. Honeybees specifically seek out pine trees, ...
[89]
Stingless bee propolis: a comprehensive review of chemical ...
Sep 4, 2025 · Propolis, consisting of plant-derived materials, wax, and bee secretions, is abundant in bioactive constituents like flavonoids, phenolic ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[90]
The multifaceted therapeutic potential of propolis: an integrative ...
Aug 21, 2025 · In addition to the antimicrobial properties, propolis exerts anti-inflammatory ... inflammation in conditions such as colitis, arthritis ...
[91]
Propolis characterization and antimicrobial activities against ...
The extracts of most types of propolis showed greater antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria: particularly on S. aureus, as well as on C. ...
[92]
A Promising Antibacterial Inhibition of Propolis Extracts Against ...
Aug 30, 2025 · The antimicrobial activity of propolis extract was tested against Acinetobacter baumannii (K17, K16, and K21), Klebsiella pneumoniae (K22, and ...
[93]
Molecular and cellular mechanisms of the effects of Propolis in ...
Aug 12, 2020 · This review aims to summarise evidences for the cellular and molecular mechanism of Propolis in inflammation, oxidative stress, and glycemic ...
[94]
Effects of Bee Propolis on FBG, HbA1c, and Insulin Resistance ... - NIH
Bee propolis results in a significant decrease in the blood glucose levels, serum glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, and serum insulin levels.
[95]
Propolis effects on blood sugar and lipid metabolism, inflammatory ...
Conclusion: Propolis may improve lipid and glucose profiles and reduce inflammation in T2DM. While current evidence does not confirm significant effects on ...
[96]
Propolis: A Detailed Insight of Its Anticancer Molecular Mechanisms
Mar 16, 2023 · Propolis exerts anticancer effects primarily by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis through regulating various signaling pathways and ...
[97]
Anticancer Activity of Propolis and Its Compounds - MDPI
The results of the latest research show that propolis can inhibit proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells and stimulate apoptosis.
[98]
Standardized Brazilian green propolis extract (EPP-AF®) in COVID ...
Oct 27, 2023 · We demonstrated that standardized Brazilian green propolis extract (EPP-AF®) reduces length of hospital stay in adult patients with COVID-19.
[99]
Propolis Stands out as a Multifaceted Natural Product - ResearchGate
Oct 10, 2025 · In summary, propolis stands out as a multifaceted natural product with a broad spectrum of biological activities. This review aims to provide ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[100]
Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of the efficacy of ...
Jul 19, 2018 · This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of propolis mouthwash in cancer patients with therapy-induced oral mucositis.
[101]
Efficacy of natural products in preventing oral mucositis resulting ...
This network meta-analysis supports the use of honey, propolis, chamomile, and P. major L. as effective natural products in the prevention and treatment of ...
[102]
[Propolis allergy] - PubMed
The incidence of propolis contact sensitivity was 1.2-3.3% among 7483 hospital patients during the period 1981-1987, while the prevalence among 1558 healthy ...
[103]
Propolis - Uses, Side Effects, And More - WebMD
Propolis is a resin-like material made by bees from the buds of poplar and cone-bearing trees. Bees use it to build hives, and it may contain beehive ...
[104]
Contact Allergy in Western Sweden to Propolis of Four Different ...
Sep 8, 2020 · Frequencies of positive patch-test reactions ranged from 2.4% to 3.6%. There were some, not statistically significant, differences in frequency ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
[105]
Propolis: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose & Precautions
Greeks have used propolis for abscesses; Assyrians have used it for healing wounds and tumors; and Egyptians have used it for mummification.
[106]
Effects of propolis on warfarin efficacy - PMC - NIH
Propolis interactions, especially with warfarin, should be kept in mind and further studied. Healthcare specialists should be aware of this possible interaction ...Missing: contraindications pregnancy breastfeeding
[107]
Effects of short‐ and long‐term use of propolis extracts on liver and ...
May 13, 2024 · According to the results, ethanol, used as a common solvent in propolis products, may adversely affect the liver in long-term use. The data ...Missing: contaminated | Show results with:contaminated