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Quadrantanopia

Quadrantanopia is a type of visual field defect characterized by the loss of vision in approximately one-quarter of the visual field, affecting a specific quadrant such as the upper or lower right or left portion.^[1]^[2] This condition arises from damage to the visual pathways in the brain, particularly the optic radiations, rather than the eyes themselves, and it usually impacts both eyes in a corresponding manner, known as homonymous quadrantanopia.^[1]^[2] Common causes of quadrantanopia include strokes, traumatic brain injuries, tumors, or other lesions that disrupt the optic radiations or occipital lobe, with the specific quadrant affected depending on the lesion's location—superior quadrantanopia often stems from temporal lobe damage ("pie in the sky" defect), while inferior quadrantanopia results from parietal lobe involvement ("pie on the floor").^[1]^[2] Rarer forms, such as binasal or bitemporal quadrantanopia, may occur due to chiasmal compression from pituitary tumors or other midline structures, leading to nasal or temporal field losses in both eyes.^[1] Symptoms typically manifest as missing objects in the affected quadrant, such as overlooking overhead signs in superior defects or tripping over low obstacles in inferior ones, often prompting compensatory head tilting or turning to scan the blind area.^[1]^[2] Diagnosis involves comprehensive eye examinations, including visual field testing (perimetry) to map the defect precisely, and imaging like MRI to identify underlying brain lesions.^[1] Treatment focuses on addressing the root cause, such as surgery for tumors or managing stroke risk factors, though the visual loss itself has no direct cure; spontaneous partial recovery may occur within 3 to 6 months post-injury, and visual rehabilitation therapies, including scanning techniques and low-vision aids, help patients adapt.^[1] Prognosis varies by etiology, with vascular causes like stroke offering better potential for improvement compared to progressive tumors, emphasizing early intervention to mitigate long-term impacts on daily activities like driving or reading.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Quadrantanopia is a visual field defect characterized by the loss of vision in one quarter (quadrant) of the visual field, typically resulting from lesions in the post-chiasmal visual pathways.^[3] This condition differs from hemianopia, which involves blindness in half of the visual field, and scotoma, which refers to a localized, isolated area of diminished vision.^[4] The human visual field is divided into four quadrants: the superior temporal, superior nasal, inferior temporal, and inferior nasal regions, each spanning approximately 90 degrees. Quadrantanopia may manifest unilaterally, affecting one eye, or bilaterally as a homonymous defect involving the corresponding quadrant in both eyes, with variations depending on the underlying pathology.^[3] The term quadrantanopia originates from the Latin quadrans, meaning "quarter," combined with the Greek anopia, denoting "absence of vision" or "blindness."^[5] Quadrant-specific visual field losses were first documented in 19th-century neurology texts, with the precise terminology emerging in early 20th-century medical literature, such as in descriptions from 1909 onward.^[6] The prevalence of quadrantanopia among stroke patients with visual field defects varies across studies, with reports of up to 17% in some cohorts.^[7]

Classification

Quadrantanopia is classified primarily based on the laterality of the visual field defect and the specific quadrants affected, distinguishing between homonymous and heteronymous types. Homonymous quadrantanopia involves loss of vision in the same quadrant of the visual field in both eyes, typically resulting from post-chiasmal lesions along the optic radiations or visual cortex.^[8] In contrast, heteronymous quadrantanopia refers to defects where different quadrants are affected in each eye, often arising from pre-chiasmal or chiasmal pathologies that disrupt crossing fibers.^[1] Homonymous quadrantanopia can be further subdivided into superior and inferior forms. Superior homonymous quadrantanopia, known as "pie in the sky," affects the upper visual quadrant bilaterally and is associated with temporal lobe lesions impacting Meyer's loop.^[4] Inferior homonymous quadrantanopia, or "pie on the floor," involves the lower visual quadrant in both eyes and is linked to parietal lobe involvement.^[9] These patterns reflect partial disruptions in the post-chiasmal visual pathways, with superior defects more common in certain vascular or neoplastic events.^[8] Heteronymous quadrantanopia includes bitemporal and binasal subtypes. Bitemporal quadrantanopia affects the temporal (outer) quadrants of both eyes, either superior or inferior, commonly due to chiasmal compression from pituitary adenomas or other midline masses.^[1] Binasal quadrantanopia, a rarer variant, involves the nasal (inner) quadrants bilaterally and is often attributed to bilateral pre-chiasmal optic nerve or internal carotid artery abnormalities.^[10] Within homonymous quadrantanopia, defects are also characterized by congruity. Congruent homonymous quadrantanopia features symmetric, identical field loss in both eyes, typically from more posterior lesions such as in the occipital lobe.^[8] Incongruent variants show asymmetric or differing defects between eyes, more frequently associated with anterior post-chiasmal sites like the optic tract or radiations.^[8] These distinctions aid in localizing the underlying pathology.^[11]

Anatomy and Pathophysiology

Visual Pathways Involved

The visual pathway begins with the optic nerve, formed by axons of retinal ganglion cells that exit the eye at the optic disc and travel posteriorly through the orbit to the optic canal. These fibers convey visual information from the retina, maintaining retinotopic organization where adjacent retinal points remain adjacent in the nerve. The pathway continues to the optic chiasm, where nasal retinal fibers from each eye decussate to join the contralateral optic tract, while temporal fibers remain uncrossed, thus preserving hemifield representation.^[12] Beyond the chiasm, the optic tract carries crossed nasal and uncrossed temporal fibers to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus, relaying information for conscious vision. The LGN is organized into six layers: magnocellular layers 1 and 2 for motion and low-contrast detection, parvocellular layers 3-6 for color and detail, with alternating inputs from ipsilateral (layers 2, 3, 5) and contralateral (layers 1, 4, 6) eyes. This layered structure, along with precise topographic mapping, preserves quadrant specificity by segregating upper and lower visual field inputs, ensuring that disruptions can affect specific quadrants without broader field loss.^[13] From the LGN, axons form the optic radiations, a fan-like bundle that sweeps posteriorly to the primary visual cortex (V1) in the occipital lobe. The radiations exhibit distinct loops: the inferior bundle, known as Meyer's loop, arcs anteriorly into the temporal lobe, looping around the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle to reach the lower bank of the calcarine sulcus, representing the upper visual field. The superior bundle travels through the parietal lobe, curving around the atrium and occipital horn of the ventricle to project to the upper calcarine bank, corresponding to the lower visual field. This ventricular looping creates a characteristic topographic organization where nasal hemifields project medially and temporal hemifields laterally in V1, with upper fields mapping to the lower cortex and lower fields to the upper.^[14]^[12] In schematic representations, the optic radiations are depicted as curving around the lateral ventricle's horns, highlighting how the temporal (Meyer's) loop extends farthest anteriorly—up to 4-5 cm into the temporal lobe—while the parietal loop remains more direct posteriorly, underscoring the pathway's spatial vulnerability to localized interruptions that could isolate quadrant projections.^[15]

Lesion Sites and Mechanisms

Quadrantanopia arises primarily from lesions in the post-chiasmal visual pathways, where damage to specific segments of the optic radiations produces homonymous defects affecting the contralateral visual fields of both eyes. In the temporal lobe, lesions involving Meyer's loop—the anterior, inferior portion of the optic radiations—disrupt fibers carrying superior visual field information, resulting in contralateral homonymous superior quadrantanopia, often termed "pie in the sky."^[4] Conversely, lesions in the parietal lobe affecting the superior optic radiations lead to contralateral homonymous inferior quadrantanopia, known as "pie on the floor," by interrupting fibers responsible for the inferior visual field.^[12] These post-chiasmal defects are typically incongruous when originating in the optic radiations due to the looping trajectory of fibers, becoming more congruous closer to the occipital cortex.^[9] Chiasmal lesions can produce non-homonymous quadrantanopia through selective compression. Lateral compression of the chiasm, such as from internal carotid artery aneurysms, may cause binasal quadrantanopia by affecting the uncrossed temporal fibers.^[9] Central compression, such as from pituitary adenomas acting from below, typically causes bitemporal superior quadrantanopia by affecting the crossing nasal fibers carrying superior temporal field information; however, atypical inferior bitemporal quadrantanopia may occur in cases of pituitary adenomas due to excessive bending of the optic nerve at the optic canal exit, exacerbating compression on the superior optic nerve surface and contributing to defects through demyelination or ischemic changes.^[16] Lesions in the occipital cortex, particularly along the calcarine sulcus, generate quadrantanopia by directly impairing neuronal processing in the primary visual cortex (Brodmann area 17). Superior quadrant defects result from damage to the inferior bank below the calcarine fissure, while inferior defects arise from superior bank involvement; these are often congruous and may spare the macula due to the dual blood supply from the posterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery to the occipital pole.^[9] The underlying mechanisms involve axonal disruption in the geniculocalcarine tract, often triggered by ischemia, edema, or direct compression, leading to anterograde Wallerian degeneration where distal axonal segments degenerate following proximal injury.^[17] This degeneration propagates trans-synaptically, potentially causing secondary retinal thinning observable via optical coherence tomography.^[18] In some instances, partial recovery occurs through neuroplasticity, with visual field improvements possible within 3-6 months post-lesion, though full restoration is rare and limited to less than 20% of cases.^[4]

Causes

Vascular Etiologies

Vascular etiologies represent the predominant cause of quadrantanopia, accounting for approximately 69% of cases, primarily through ischemic strokes that disrupt the retrochiasmal visual pathways.^[4] These events are most prevalent in older adults, where the incidence rises due to age-related cerebrovascular risks.^[4] Among stroke subtypes, infarction in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) territory commonly affects the optic radiations, leading to incongruous quadrantanopias; for instance, lesions in the parietal lobe branch produce inferior quadrant defects, while temporal lobe involvement (Meyer's loop) results in superior ones.^[19] In contrast, posterior cerebral artery (PCA) infarctions target the occipital cortex, often causing congruous inferior quadrantanopias with macular sparing due to collateral blood supply.^[19] Risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and atrial fibrillation significantly elevate the likelihood of these vascular insults, with atrial fibrillation implicated in up to 23% of related cases.^[19] Embolic strokes, frequently cardioembolic, manifest as acute, sudden-onset quadrantanopias, whereas chronic small vessel disease contributes to gradual progression through cumulative ischemic damage.^[20] Specific examples include lacunar infarcts in the internal capsule or thalamus, which can disrupt inputs to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and yield isolated quadrantanopic defects, though such occurrences are less common than cortical or radiation lesions.^[21]

Neoplastic and Other Structural Causes

Neoplastic causes of quadrantanopia primarily involve tumors that compress or infiltrate the optic radiations or related visual pathways, leading to homonymous field defects. Brain tumors such as gliomas, meningiomas, or metastases in the temporal or parietal lobes can disrupt the inferior optic radiations, resulting in superior quadrantanopia, as seen in cases where lesions affect the contralateral posterior visual pathway.^[4] In a series of 33 patients with primary intracranial tumors, superior quadrantanopia occurred in 6.1% of cases, often linked to compressive effects on the optic radiations.^[22] For instance, cerebral metastasis from an invasive mole in the left occipital lobe produced right homonymous inferior quadrantanopsia in a documented case, confirmed by MRI and visual field testing.^[23] Pituitary adenomas, while classically associated with bitemporal hemianopia from chiasmal compression, can also produce atypical inferior temporal quadrantanopia through excessive bending of the optic nerve at the optic canal, leading to superior surface compression and potential demyelination.^[16] In a study of 220 patients with pituitary adenomas, 6.3% of those with visual defects exhibited this inferior temporal pattern, contrasting with more common superior defects in 16.1%.^[16] Rare histiocytic disorders like Erdheim-Chester disease may infiltrate the optic radiations, causing homonymous superior quadrantanopia due to sclerosing lesions in the posterior pathways.^[24] Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a key structural cause, where shearing forces damage the optic radiations, particularly in the temporal or parietal lobes, resulting in homonymous quadrantanopia.^[25] This defect arises from coup-contrecoup mechanisms affecting postchiasmal pathways, contributing to broader visual processing impairments in mild-to-moderate TBI.^[25] Visual field defects, including quadrantanopia, occur in approximately 10-20% of severe TBI cases, often alongside other neuro-ophthalmic issues like spatial neglect.^[26] Inflammatory and demyelinating conditions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), infrequently cause quadrantanopia through plaques in the optic radiations, producing congruous homonymous defects from even small white matter lesions in the trigone area.^[27] These lesions disrupt retrochiasmal pathways, though full recovery is possible with remission.^[27] Infectious processes like brain abscesses can mimic neoplastic compression, leading to quadrantanopia via mass effect on the optic radiations or adjacent structures, as reported in cases of space-occupying lesions in the parietal cortex.^[28] Congenital structural anomalies rarely manifest as quadrantanopia, typically involving partial visual field loss from developmental disruptions in the visual pathways. Septo-optic dysplasia, characterized by optic nerve hypoplasia and midline brain defects, can result in variable field defects including incomplete bitemporal or homonymous patterns, though isolated quadrantanopia is uncommon and often accompanies broader hypoplasia.^[29] These anomalies stem from embryologic malformations affecting the chiasm or radiations, with visual impairment present from birth in affected individuals.^[29]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms and Signs

Patients with quadrantanopia experience a loss of vision in one quadrant of the visual field affecting both eyes on the same side, often manifesting as an absence or blurring of visual input in that sector.^[4] This visual deficit commonly leads to collisions with objects located in the blind quadrant, particularly on the contralateral side to the lesion.^[4] Reading difficulties are frequent, including skipping lines or words when the defect intersects the horizontal meridian, disrupting text scanning.^[4] Associated neurological signs may accompany the visual loss, such as headaches from increased intracranial pressure or irritation, and hemiparesis if the lesion extends to adjacent motor pathways.^[8] In right-hemisphere lesions, patients may exhibit anosognosia, denying the presence of the visual defect despite objective evidence.^[30] The condition impacts daily functioning, creating hazards during driving by impairing detection of pedestrians or vehicles in the affected quadrant, potentially leading to restricted licensing.^[31] Reduced depth perception and a higher risk of falls or navigation errors can further complicate mobility. Mild unilateral peripheral quadrantanopias are frequently unnoticed by patients, remaining asymptomatic until formal testing.^[4] Onset patterns vary by etiology: vascular events like stroke produce sudden visual field loss, often alerting patients acutely.^[32] Neoplastic or compressive causes, such as tumors, typically result in progressive worsening over time.^[33]

Specific Types

Homonymous superior quadrantanopia, often referred to as a "pie in the sky" defect, manifests as a loss of vision in the upper quadrant of the visual field in both eyes on the same side, respecting the vertical meridian.^[4] This type of field loss can impair activities requiring upper visual field input, such as reading, where patients may experience difficulty tracking lines of text, and face recognition, as superior field defects are associated with higher-order visual processing issues like prosopagnosia.^[34] In contrast, homonymous inferior quadrantanopia, known as a "pie on the floor" defect, involves vision loss in the lower quadrant of both eyes on the contralateral side, also respecting the vertical meridian.^[8] This presentation particularly affects mobility and obstacle avoidance, as the lower visual field is crucial for detecting ground-level hazards, potentially leading to tripping or navigation challenges in daily environments.^[35] Bitemporal quadrantanopia results in peripheral vision loss in the temporal quadrants of both eyes, often starting as a subtle superior or inferior defect that expands with progression.^[36] It serves as an early indicator of chiasmal compression and may accompany hormonal symptoms, such as endocrine disturbances, highlighting its clinical significance in detecting underlying pituitary pathology.^[37] Binasal quadrantanopia is a rare form characterized by vision loss in the nasal quadrants of both eyes, either superior or inferior, leading to central field constriction and challenges in binocular vision.^[10] This defect is infrequently encountered and typically arises from bilateral optic nerve involvement, distinguishing it from more common homonymous patterns.^[38]

Diagnosis

Clinical Examination

The clinical examination for quadrantanopia begins with a detailed history taking to elicit the patient's visual symptoms and contextual factors. Patients often report subtle visual loss in one quadrant, such as difficulty navigating obstacles or reading text in specific areas, though awareness may be delayed, particularly with right hemispheric lesions.^[4] Inquiry should focus on the onset (acute versus gradual), laterality (superior or inferior quadrant affected), duration, and associated features like headaches, seizures, or motor deficits, alongside risk factors such as recent stroke or vascular disease.^[39] This helps differentiate quadrantanopia from other field defects and guides suspicion toward retrochiasmal lesions.^[40] Confrontation visual field testing serves as the cornerstone bedside assessment to detect quadrantanopia, performed by having the patient fixate on the examiner's eye while testing each eye separately. The examiner extends an arm to present stimuli, such as finger counting (showing 1-5 fingers randomly in each of the four quadrants) or gentle finger wiggling, asking the patient to report the number or movement detected; defects are identified if responses are inconsistent in a specific quadrant compared to the examiner's own field.^[41] For greater precision, a small red target (e.g., a 5-mm red pin or cap) can be moved from the periphery toward the fixation point, with the patient signaling "now" upon detection; this method has approximately 70% sensitivity for homonymous defects like quadrantanopia and high specificity (97%) for localizing retrochiasmal pathology.^[42] Testing respects the vertical and horizontal meridians to confirm the quadrant-specific nature of the defect.^[43] Fundoscopy and pupillary examination are essential to exclude anterior visual pathway involvement that might mimic or coexist with quadrantanopia. Direct ophthalmoscopy evaluates the optic disc for edema, pallor, or atrophy, which could indicate optic nerve compression rather than a post-chiasmal lesion; dilation may enhance visualization of the retina and macula.^[40] The pupillary light reflex, assessed via the swinging flashlight test, checks for relative afferent pupillary defects (Marcus Gunn pupil) by alternating illumination between eyes—if present, it suggests optic nerve dysfunction, though typically absent in pure quadrantanopia from optic radiation or cortical damage.^[39] These findings help rule out pre-chiasmal causes.^[42] A comprehensive neurological examination complements the ocular assessment by identifying associated deficits that localize the lesion causing quadrantanopia. Contralateral hemianesthesia or hemiparesis may indicate involvement of adjacent pathways, such as the internal capsule, while aphasia or neglect suggests dominant or non-dominant hemispheric lesions, respectively; superior quadrantanopia often correlates with temporal lobe involvement (Meyer's loop), and inferior with parietal (superior optic radiation).^[4] Systematic testing of motor strength, sensory function, and higher cortical signs thus refines the lateralization and etiology.^[43]

Imaging and Testing

Perimetry serves as the gold standard for confirming and mapping quadrantanopia, providing quantitative assessment of visual field defects. Static automated perimetry, such as with the Humphrey Field Analyzer, offers precise threshold sensitivity testing to delineate the exact boundaries of quadrant loss, particularly useful for detecting subtle incongruities in homonymous defects. In contrast, manual kinetic perimetry using the Goldmann perimeter employs moving stimuli to outline isopters, which can be advantageous for patients with poor fixation or in identifying larger scotomas, though it is more operator-dependent and less reproducible than automated methods.^[44]^[45] Neuroimaging plays a crucial role in localizing lesions responsible for quadrantanopia, with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) preferred over computed tomography (CT) for its superior soft tissue resolution. Diffusion-weighted MRI is particularly sensitive for detecting acute ischemic strokes affecting the optic radiations or occipital cortex, revealing restricted diffusion in the affected white matter tracts within hours of onset. For neoplastic or inflammatory causes, contrast-enhanced MRI identifies enhancing lesions at post-chiasmal sites, such as tumors compressing the optic radiations, while CT may be used initially in emergency settings for its availability and ability to detect hemorrhage or calcifications.^[4]^[46] Visual evoked potentials (VEP) provide an objective electrophysiological measure of visual pathway integrity, detecting delays or amplitude reductions in cortical responses specific to affected quadrants. Pattern-reversal VEP stimulates the visual field in a structured manner, revealing prolonged P100 latencies in quadrantanopia due to conduction slowing along demyelinated or damaged post-chiasmal pathways, with multifocal VEP offering topographic mapping to correlate electrophysiological changes with perimetric defects. This technique is especially valuable in patients unable to perform reliable perimetry, such as children or those with cognitive impairments.^[47]^[48] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) assesses pre-chiasmal involvement in quadrantanopia by quantifying retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thinning, which indicates axonal loss from compressive or inflammatory lesions anterior to the optic chiasm. Spectral-domain OCT measures peripapillary RNFL thickness and macular ganglion cell layer volume, revealing asymmetric reductions in the affected eye's temporal or nasal sectors that correlate with quadrant field loss, aiding in early detection before irreversible damage. This non-invasive imaging is particularly sensitive for monitoring progression in conditions like optic neuritis extending to pre-chiasmal structures.^[49]^[50]

Management

Treatment of Underlying Cause

The treatment of quadrantanopia primarily targets the underlying pathology to alleviate compression or damage to the visual pathways, potentially leading to partial or full recovery of the visual field defect depending on the lesion's extent and timeliness of intervention.^[1] For vascular etiologies, such as ischemic stroke affecting the optic radiations or occipital lobe, acute management includes intravenous thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator if the patient presents within the 4.5-hour therapeutic window to restore perfusion and limit infarct size. Antiplatelet therapy, such as aspirin or clopidogrel, is initiated shortly after thrombolysis or in non-thrombolysis candidates to prevent recurrent events, with dual antiplatelet regimens considered for minor strokes.^[51] Secondary prevention involves statins to manage hyperlipidemia and antihypertensive agents to control blood pressure, reducing the risk of further vascular insults that could worsen visual deficits.^[52] In cases of neoplastic causes, such as pituitary adenomas compressing the optic chiasm or tract, transsphenoidal surgical resection is the primary approach to decompress the visual pathways, often resulting in improvement of quadrantanopic defects in over 70% of affected eyes.^[53] For non-functioning adenomas or those causing visual symptoms, this endoscopic procedure minimizes complications and facilitates rapid recovery of visual fields.^[54] Adjuvant radiation therapy or chemotherapy may be employed for residual tumor or aggressive subtypes, such as craniopharyngiomas, to prevent recurrence and stabilize field defects.^[55] Inflammatory conditions, including multiple sclerosis (MS) with demyelinating lesions in the optic radiations, are managed with high-dose intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone (1 g daily for 3-5 days), to reduce acute inflammation and promote remyelination, thereby potentially resolving associated quadrantanopia.^[56] Immunosuppressants or disease-modifying therapies, like interferon beta or monoclonal antibodies, are used for long-term MS control to prevent new lesions.^[57] For infectious etiologies, such as abscesses or encephalitis impacting visual pathways, targeted antimicrobial therapy (e.g., antibiotics for bacterial infections or antivirals for herpes simplex) is essential, with corticosteroids as adjuncts in select cases to manage edema.^[9] Ongoing monitoring with serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is recommended to assess lesion resolution, tumor recurrence, or stroke evolution, correlating changes with repeat visual field testing to gauge recovery.^[4] This approach allows for timely adjustment of therapy and prediction of visual outcomes.^[58]

Rehabilitation and Compensation

Rehabilitation for quadrantanopia focuses on compensatory strategies to enhance functional vision and daily activities after the underlying cause has been addressed, as the visual field defect is often permanent. Visual training programs emphasize scanning techniques, where patients learn to systematically direct gaze toward the affected quadrant to compensate for the blind area. For instance, structured exercises involve tracking moving targets or searching for objects in simulated environments, which help develop efficient eye movements and reduce omissions in the visual field. Computer-based perimetry rehabilitation programs, such as vision restoration therapy (VRT), use daily sessions to stimulate residual vision at the border of the defect, potentially leading to modest expansions in perceived field borders of 5 to 10 degrees in some cases.^[59]^[60] Occupational therapy plays a key role in adapting to quadrantanopia by providing practical aids and training tailored to specific impairments, such as reading difficulties or mobility challenges. For reading, tools like line guides or typoscopes are introduced to direct attention and prevent skipping lines in the affected quadrant, improving text comprehension and speed through guided practice. Mobility training incorporates white cane techniques or environmental modifications, teaching patients to scan systematically during navigation to avoid obstacles in the blind quadrant, often integrated with balance and gait exercises for safe ambulation. These interventions are delivered through structured programs focusing on real-world application to foster independence.^[61]^[62] Behavioral adaptations further support compensation by encouraging habitual adjustments to extend the effective visual field. Patients are trained in head turning or body positioning to shift the blind quadrant out of primary view during tasks like driving or walking, promoting awareness of the deficit without over-reliance on aids. Prism glasses, particularly sector prisms placed on spectacles, can redirect images from the blind quadrant into the intact field, providing up to 20 degrees of field expansion in hemianopic extensions applicable to quadrant defects, though adaptation may require 60 to 100 trials to minimize diplopia.^[59]^[60] Evidence from clinical studies supports the efficacy of these approaches in stroke survivors with visual field defects, including quadrantanopia, demonstrating functional gains post-rehabilitation. Compensatory scanning training has shown improvements in visual search performance, alongside enhanced quality of life scores (mean difference of 9.36 points on the VFQ-25 scale). While restorative programs like VRT yield subjective benefits, low-quality evidence indicates limited transfer to activities of daily living, underscoring the value of combined compensatory and occupational strategies for overall functional improvement in mobility and reading tasks. Recent advances as of 2025 include personalized visual perceptual learning digital therapies and motion discrimination training, which have shown potential to enhance visual field recovery in post-stroke patients.^[63]^[59]^[64]^[65]

Prognosis

Outcomes

The prognosis for quadrantanopia varies depending on the underlying etiology, with vascular causes such as ischemic stroke offering the most favorable recovery potential through mechanisms of neuroplasticity. In cases of posterior circulation ischemic stroke leading to homonymous visual field defects (HVFDs), including quadrantanopia, approximately 17-67% of patients experience total or partial spontaneous recovery after 3 months, with most improvements occurring within the first 4 weeks and continuing up to 6 months.^[66] Partial recovery rates are reported around 35-39% in broader stroke cohorts with visual field loss, often manifesting as expansion of the affected quadrant via cortical reorganization.^[67]^[68] Key prognostic factors influencing outcomes include patient age, lesion characteristics, and the timing of medical intervention. Younger patients under 50 years exhibit significantly better recovery odds (odds ratio 4.6), likely due to greater neural plasticity, while advancing age correlates with higher incidence and persistence of defects owing to comorbidities like hypertension.^[69] Larger lesion sizes and complete initial defects, such as full hemianopia extending to quadrant loss, predict worse prognosis (odds ratio 0.2 for recovery), whereas smaller, incomplete lesions allow for more adaptation.^[66] Prompt intervention, such as thrombolysis in acute stroke, enhances recovery by minimizing secondary damage, and the presence of macular sparing—preservation of central 2-10 degrees of vision—facilitates better functional adaptation, enabling tasks like reading and driving with reduced impairment.^[67] Long-term, persistent visual field defects remain in approximately 50% of cases following stroke-related quadrantanopia, though many patients achieve minimal disability through behavioral compensation strategies that leverage intact visual regions.^[67] In historical contexts prior to widespread MRI availability, misdiagnosis rates for neuro-ophthalmic conditions like quadrantanopia reached 60-70% due to reliance on less sensitive CT imaging and clinical exam alone, leading to delayed treatment; modern MRI has substantially reduced these errors by enabling precise lesion localization.^[70]^[4]

Complications

Untreated or persistent quadrantanopia can lead to various safety risks due to impaired peripheral vision and potential spatial neglect. Individuals may experience an increased likelihood of falls or collisions when navigating environments, as the loss of a visual quadrant hinders obstacle detection on one side.^[71]^[72] In many jurisdictions worldwide, people with quadrantanopic field defects are deemed unfit to drive, facing legal prohibitions to mitigate accident risks stemming from difficulties in lane maintenance, gap judgment, and overall on-road performance.^[73] Psychological complications often arise from the visual handicap, with depression and anxiety affecting a notable proportion of patients. Studies indicate that up to 25% of individuals with significant vision loss, including field defects, encounter mental health challenges such as depressive symptoms or heightened anxiety, linked to reduced independence and quality of life.^[74]^[75] Associated visual deficits may develop if the underlying lesion progresses. Quadrantanopia can evolve into full homonymous hemianopia should the lesion expand, as seen in compressive pathologies like pituitary adenomas where field loss advances from partial to complete.^[76] Secondary strabismus may also occur due to imbalanced visual input, leading to eye misalignment and potential diplopia in cases of advanced field loss.^[77]

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Homonymous hemianopia is usually secondary to stroke, head trauma, or tumors [1]. Homonymous quadrantanopsia is due to retrochiasmal lesions in the visual ...
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Homonymous Superior Quadrantanopia due to Erdheim-Chester ...
Polyostotic sclerosing histiocytosis, also known as Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD), is a rare form of non-Langerhans histiocytosis.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Mild-to-Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review with Focus on the ...
Another common ophthalmologic manifestation of TBI is homonymous quadrantanopia, a type of incomplete homonymous hemianopia that results from lesions occurring ...
[26]
[PDF] Optimal Interventions for Treatment of Visual Deficits in Individuals ...
Homonymous hemianopia and homonymous quadrantanopia can lead to ... The incidence of visual perceptual impairment in patients with severe traumatic brain injury.
[27]
Congruous quadrantanopia and optic radiation lesion - PubMed
Homonymous visual field defects are rare in patients with MS and are usually caused by large lesions in the white matter of the posterior optic radiations ...
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[PDF] Analytic study of clinical presentation of intracranial space ...
Patients with meningioma, low-grade astrocytoma, brain abscess or arteriovenous malformation causing central pain due to compression of parietal cortex have ...
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The eye as a window to rare endocrine disorders - PubMed Central
The rare syndromes involving the pituitary hypothalamic axis with significant ocular involvement include Septo-optic dysplasia, Kallman's syndrome, and Empty ...
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Recent Advances in the Understanding of Neglect and Anosognosia ...
Several anosognostic syndromes following right hemisphere stroke have been identified, including unawareness of cognitive, emotional, and physical sequelae.Missing: quadrantanopia | Show results with:quadrantanopia
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Evaluation of On-Road Driving in Persons with Hemianopia and ...
Seven of 8 (87.5%) persons with quadrantanopia were judged by the occupational therapist to have the potential for safe driving on the non-interstate. With ...
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Sudden onset homonymous quadrantanopia - The BMJ
Oct 15, 2020 · The presence of sudden onset bilateral homonymous quadrantanopia is a red flag for stroke in the occipital cortex or the optic radiation.Missing: etiology vascular incidence
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Understanding Visual Disorders through Correlation of Clinical and ...
Jan 25, 2024 · The clinical deterioration is usually gradual, except for pituitary apoplexy, which manifests with a sudden onset (42). ... quadrantanopia and a ...
[34]
Higher Cortical Visual Deficits | Continuum
An impairment of color perception is often associated with superior field defects and other higher-order problems of recognition, such as prosopagnosia and ...
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Hemianopia – Practical advice on improving mobility and reading ...
May 28, 2018 · ... inferior quadrantanopia “pie on the floor”, resulting in a tripping disability by objects not seen in the lower field on the side of the defect.
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Detection of Visual Field Loss in Pituitary Disease - PubMed Central
Types of visual field loss in pituitary disease typically include temporal defects (bitemporal hemianopia, bitemporal quadrantanopia) but also nasal visual ...
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Visual Loss Due to Optic Chiasm and Retrochiasmal Visual Pathway ...
This article updates current understanding of vision loss localizing to the optic chiasm, including pituitary adenoma, sellar meningiomas, and aneurysms.
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Cranial Nerve Testing - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Loss of the bilateral nasal or medial visual fields is termed a binasal hemianopia, which is rare and caused by glaucoma or retinitis pigmentosa. Glaucoma ...
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Neuro-Ophthalmology at the Bedside: A Clinical Guide - PMC
With these clinical tests usually a homonymous hemianopia or quadrantanopia and a bitemporal hemianopia should be recognized. Bitemporal visual field ...
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Diagnostic Approach to Vision Loss - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The neurologist is expected to be able to evaluate a patient's report of visual loss and provide at least a cursory examination of the ocular apparatus and ...
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None
### Summary of Confrontation Visual Fields Testing Guide
[42]
Visual fields in neuro-ophthalmology - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
A detailed neuro-ophthalmic assessment of a patient with visual symptoms should include visual field testing. While there are clear guidelines for the ...
[43]
Assess and interpret the visual fields at the bedside
### Summary of Bedside Visual Field Assessment for Quadrantanopia
[44]
Agreement Between Virtual Reality Perimetry and Static Automated ...
Conclusion. SAP remains the gold standard in visual field testing. However, VRP could provide a reliable and portable alternative which provides good agreement ...
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Comparison of Diagnostic Accuracy between Octopus 900 and ...
Nov 9, 2013 · Purpose. To determine diagnostic accuracy of kinetic visual field assessment by Octopus 900 perimetry compared with Goldmann perimetry.
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Imaging of the Primary Visual Pathway based on Visual Deficits - PMC
Apr 7, 2021 · CT and MRI are the most common modalities in the evaluation of vision deficits along the visual pathway. CT is often the first-line imaging ...
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Objective perimetry using the multifocal visual evoked potential in ...
Aims: To examine the ability of the multifocal pattern visual evoked potential (mVEP) to detect field loss in neurological lesions affecting the visual ...
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Intraoperative monitoring with visual evoked potentials for brain ...
Mar 30, 2018 · VEPs appear to be a reliable intraoperative tool to detect new deficits in visual fields that are more severe than a discrete quadrantanopia.
[49]
Optical coherence tomography in compressive lesions of the ...
Pre-chiasmal compression can also cause distinctive OCT changes. In unilateral optic nerve compression, asymmetry in RNFL and GCL thickness between the eyes is ...
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Binasal Quadrantanopia: A Rare Visual Field Defect Poses ...
Apr 9, 2024 · Binasal quadrantanopia is a rare type of visual field defect characteristic of vision loss in either the upper or lower quadrants of both ...Missing: heteronymous classification
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6. Antiplatelet Therapy for Ischemic Stroke and Transient Ischemic ...
Antiplatelet therapy should be started as soon as possible after brain imaging has excluded hemorrhage, within 24 hours of symptom onset (ideally within 12 ...Missing: quadrantanopia | Show results with:quadrantanopia
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Ischemic Stroke Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Feb 21, 2024 · The central goal of therapy in acute ischemic stroke is to preserve tissue in the ischemic penumbra, where perfusion is decreased but sufficient to stave off ...Missing: quadrantanopia | Show results with:quadrantanopia
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Visual recovery after transsphenoidal removal of pituitary adenomas
Postoperatively, visual acuity was normal or improved in 79% of the eyes and the visual fields were normal or improved in 74%.
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May 17, 2025 · Transsphenoidal, sometimes called transsphenoidal surgery, is a procedure to remove tumors from the pituitary gland and nearby areas in the skull base.
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Pituitary Adenoma - EyeWiki
Aug 5, 2025 · Thyrotrophic adenomas. Thyrotrophic tumors can be treated with octreotide due to the presence of somatostatin receptors on the tumor. It ...
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IV Steroids for MS Flare-Up Treatment - Multiple Sclerosis - WebMD
Jun 5, 2024 · The most common MS flare treatment is 1 gram of intravenous (IV) methylprednisolone (Solu-Medrol) daily for 3 to 5 days.
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Optic Neuritis | Symptoms, Causes & Treatment - MS Society
It happens when there's inflammation that affects the optic nerve. Optic neuritis symptoms can include blind spots, changes or changes in colour vision. For ...Optic Neuritis · Steroids To Treat Optic... · Oct Scan (optical Coherence...
[58]
MRI of optic tract lesions: Review and correlation with visual field ...
The optic radiations are a continuation of the fibres from the lateral geniculate tracts and terminate in the cortex of the occipital lobes. These nerve fibres ...
[59]
Clinical treatment options for patients with homonymous visual field ...
We distinguish between three treatments: visual restoration training (VRT), optical aids, and compensatory training.
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Visual rehabilitation strategies for homonymous hemianopia
Apr 17, 2009 · This article describes three suggested strategies for ophthalmologists to try with such patients: the use of spectacle-mounted prisms that shift images from ...
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Occupational Therapy Interventions to Improve Reading ...
For 7 participants who also used their own low vision aids, the portable artificial vision device improved their mean test scores significantly compared with ...
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Scanning Training in Neurological Vision Loss - Brainline.org
Aug 2, 2010 · As each environment and mobility aid changed eg, wheelchair to walking frame to support cane, scanning was reinforced to ensure gait and ...
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Interventions for visual field defects in people with stroke - PMC
We wanted to see whether treatments for visual field defects could improve stroke survivors' abilities in activities of daily living (our primary outcome of ...
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Prognostic Factors for Long-Term Recovery of Homonymous Visual ...
Approximately 17-67% of ischemic HVFDs show total or partial spontaneous recovery after 3 months of injury, most occurring during the first 4 weeks.10, 11, 12, ...Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
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Consulting Patients With Hemianopic Visual Field Cuts
Apr 8, 2021 · Approximately 20% to 67% of stroke patients have some type of visual field defect,3 and studies suggest that 45% to 67% of patients will have ...At A Glance · Get Visual · Visual Field Loss And...
[66]
A randomized controlled trial of Scanning Eye trAining as a ...
Mar 13, 2025 · We aimed to evaluate clinical effectiveness of visual scanning training (VST) versus sham training, for homonymous hemianopia.Missing: quadrantanopia | Show results with:quadrantanopia
[67]
Prognostic Factors for Long-Term Recovery of Homonymous Visual ...
Jun 17, 2021 · Partial visual recovery in HVFDs is observed even 6 months and beyond POCI. Age < 50 years and stroke etiology were predictors of recovery.
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Quadrantanopia - Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Apr 25, 2025 · Quadrantanopia is a visual field defect characterized by the loss of vision in one-fourth of the visual field in one or both eyes.
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Neuro: How to Minimize Diagnostic Errors
Sep 1, 2020 · Rates of diagnostic error of neuro-ophthalmologic conditions prior to evaluation by a neuro-ophthalmology specialist may be as high as 60% to 70%.Missing: era | Show results with:era
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Quadrantanopia (Visual Field Defect) - Regimen Healthcare
Quadrantanopia is a type of visual field defect where a person loses vision in a quarter (quadrant) of the visual field in one or both eyes. This condition ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|separator|>
[71]
On-Road Driving Performance by Persons with Hemianopia ... - IOVS
This study suggests that some drivers with hemianopia or quadrantanopia are capable of safe driving performance, where 73% (16/22) of those with hemianopia ...Missing: daily life
[72]
High Correlation Between Visual Impairment and Depression
Jun 18, 2021 · Approximately 1 in 4 patients who regularly visit eye clinics and low-vision rehabilitation services experience depression, according to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Psychological distress is associated with vision-related but not ... - NIH
1. Somatization, 0.32 · 2. Obsessive-compulsiveness · 3. Interpers. · 4. Depression · 5. Anxiety · 6. Anger-hostility · 7. Phobic anxiety · 8. Paranoid ideation ...Missing: complications | Show results with:complications
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Inferior temporal quadrantanopia associated with pituitary ...
Mar 1, 2024 · This study aimed to review cases of pituitary adenomas with atypical visual field defects and to analyze the anatomical cause based on preoperative magnetic ...
[75]
Management of strabismus with hemianopic visual field defects
May 16, 2012 · Strabismus surgery will be indicated in most cases because of diplopia. However, surgery might result in a reduction of binocular visual field.Missing: secondary | Show results with:secondary