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Red Sea Rift

The Red Sea Rift is a divergent plate boundary separating the Arabian Plate from the African (Nubian) Plate, forming the Red Sea as one of Earth's youngest and narrowest ocean basins, approximately 2,000 km long and up to 355 km wide, where continental rifting initiated around 30 million years ago (Ma) has transitioned to seafloor spreading over the past 13–20 Ma.^[1] This rift system, part of the larger Afro-Arabian rift network extending from the Gulf of Aden through the Afar region to the Dead Sea Transform, exemplifies the process of continental breakup driven by mantle plume activity and far-field tectonic stresses, resulting in an ultra-slow spreading rate of 8–13 mm/year and the creation of oceanic crust beneath thick layers of Miocene evaporites and sediments.^[2]^[3] Rifting began in the late Oligocene (~31–30 Ma) with plume-related flood basalts in the Afar region, marking the initial rupture of the Arabian-Nubian Shield without significant extension, followed by localized marine sedimentation in the Gulf of Aden and southern Red Sea by ~29–24 Ma.^[1] Widespread extension and syn-rift volcanism, including extensive basaltic dike swarms covering over 600,000 km² in the south, commenced around 24–23 Ma, leading to rift shoulder uplift and the deposition of marginal marine sediments across the basin.^[4] By ~20–19 Ma, oceanic spreading initiated along the Sheba Ridge in the south, propagating northward at rates of ~2.2 cm/year half-spreading during the early Miocene phase, while a major tectonic reorganization ~14–12 Ma shifted the extension direction to N15°E, aligning with the Aqaba-Levant transform fault and reducing activity in the Gulf of Suez.^[3]^[1] The rift's structure varies regionally: the southern Red Sea features well-defined oceanic crust with linear magnetic anomalies and active mid-ocean ridge basalts since ~5 Ma, linking to the Gulf of Aden via the Danakil Depression, while the northern sector remains a magma-poor, hyperextended continental basin (stretching factor β >4) with dispersed diking and no confirmed seafloor spreading, serving as a natural laboratory for studying rift-to-ocean transitions; recent studies (as of 2025) confirm a gradual change from continental to oceanic crust north to south.^[2]^[5] Key features include axial volcanic centers like the Thetis Deep and Hatiba Mons, non-transform offsets, the Zabargad Fracture Zone at ~24°N, and numerous hydrothermal vent fields (over 40 confirmed as of 2024 in areas like Hatiba Mons) along with hot brine pools exceeding 2,000 m depth, supporting unique chemosynthetic ecosystems.^[6]^[7] Total basin opening reaches 150–200 km at 19°N, with ongoing seismicity and volcanism indicating continued divergence, though propagation northward may stall at the transform boundary.^[1]

Geography and Overview

Location and Extent

The Red Sea Rift is a major tectonic feature situated between the African and Arabian plates, extending approximately from 12°N to 28°N latitude and 32°E to 43°E longitude. It measures about 2,000 km in length and varies in width from 200 to 350 km, forming an elongated depression that separates the northeastern margin of the African continent from the southwestern edge of the Arabian Peninsula.^[8] To the west, the rift is bounded by the Nubian Shield, a Precambrian crystalline basement of the African Plate, while to the east it abuts the Arabian Shield, the equivalent Precambrian terrain of the Arabian Plate.^[9]^[10] This rift forms a key component of the broader Afro-Arabian rift system, which encompasses interconnected features such as the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba to the north.^[9] The system reflects the ongoing divergence between the African and Arabian plates, with the Red Sea Rift serving as the primary locus of extension in this region.^[11] The rift is commonly divided into three main segments: the northern segment (from approximately 25°N to 28°N); the central segment, characterized by broader axial structures; and the southern segment, extending toward the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait.^[12]^[13] These segments exhibit variations in crustal architecture and extension styles, influenced by the underlying plate boundaries.^[14]

Morphological Features

The Red Sea Rift forms a narrow, elongated basin approximately 2,000 km long and up to 355 km wide, characterized by a distinctive bathymetric profile that transitions from shallow coastal shelves to a deep central axial trough. The margins exhibit asymmetry, with the western (African) side generally steeper and narrower due to more pronounced faulting, while the eastern (Arabian) margin features broader shelves and greater volcanic influence. This topographic variation reflects the rift's extensional tectonics, where the basin floor deepens abruptly toward the axis, flanked by continental slopes that drop from near sea level to over 2,000 m in depth over short horizontal distances.^[15]^[16] The axial trough, a prominent morphological element, bisects the southern and central portions of the rift south of about 21°N, reaching depths of up to 2,000-2,500 m in its main segments and locally exceeding 3,000 m in features like the Suakin Trough. It is typically 10-60 km wide, with rugged seafloor marked by volcanic constructs and fault-controlled depressions, and is flanked by shallow shelves less than 200 m deep that extend 50-100 km from the coasts. Steep escarpments border these shelves, rising 1,000-2,000 m above sea level on average, though reaching up to 3,000 m in elevated regions of the Arabian and Nubian shields, forming dramatic topographic steps that expose Precambrian basement rocks.^[17]^[8]^[18] Along the rift margins, key surface features include the Dahlak Archipelago on the Eritrean shelf and the Farasan Islands on the Saudi Arabian side, both comprising volcanic and carbonate platforms that emerge as structural highs amid the rift's extensional fabric. These archipelagos, along with extensive coral reefs fringing the shallow shelves and marking shelf breaks at depths of 50-1,000 m, contribute to the rift's diverse coastal morphology, supporting unique ecosystems while delineating the transition to deeper waters. In the central rift, isolated deeps such as the Atlantis II Deep exemplify hypersaline basins within the axial trough, reaching approximately 2,000 m depth with brines exhibiting salinities up to 26%—over seven times that of typical seawater—due to evaporite dissolution and hydrothermal input.^[19]^[20]^[21] On land, the rift's surface expressions are dominated by grabens, prominent fault scarps, and alluvial fans that radiate from the coastal highlands into the coastal plains. These grabens, often 10-50 km wide, form elongate depressions filled with Quaternary sediments, while fault scarps up to several hundred meters high define the rift flanks and offset older landforms. Alluvial fans, constructed from eroded escarpment material, prograde into the shallow marine shelves, creating sediment wedges that influence nearshore bathymetry and highlight ongoing tectonic activity. Volcanic features occasionally modify these landforms, adding basaltic flows to the coastal morphology.^[15]^[22]

Geological History

Initiation and Early Rifting

The Red Sea Rift initiated during the Late Oligocene, approximately 30–25 million years ago, as part of the broader separation between the Arabian and African plates, coinciding with the early opening of the Gulf of Aden.^[23] This onset is evidenced by the nucleation of a small rift basin in the Eritrean segment of the southern Red Sea around 27.5–23.8 Ma, with synchronous extension propagating northward to the central and northern sectors between 24 and 21 Ma.^[1] The rifting direction was primarily oriented N65°E, nearly orthogonal to pre-existing structures, and marked the transition from a unified continental block to active divergence.^[24] The separation was driven by a combination of mantle plume activity and far-field tectonic forces. A mantle plume impinged beneath the Afar region around 31–29 Ma, triggering widespread flood basalts over more than 600,000 km² and initiating bi-directional rifting that linked the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and East African Rift systems.^[25] Concurrently, slab-pull forces from the subduction of the Neotethys Ocean generated regional extension, with the Arabian Plate responding to northward-directed drag from the subducting slab remnants.^[23] These mechanisms interacted to overcome the resistance of the thick continental lithosphere, setting the stage for localized thinning and magmatism in the proto-rift zones.^[1] Early evidence of rifting appears in the form of extensional faulting within the continental crust and the development of initial sedimentary basins. In the northern Red Sea-Gulf of Suez system, normal faulting reactivated inherited WNW-trending Pan-African shear zones, creating segmented half-graben structures up to 100 km long and 50–90 km wide.^[24] Basin formation in the Gulf of Suez began with deposition of Upper Oligocene continental clastic sediments, including red beds of the Nakheel and Abu Zenima Formations, accompanied by minor syn-rift basalts.^[25] By the Early Miocene (around 24–23 Ma), shallow marine clastics of the Nukhul Formation accumulated in these basins, recording increasing subsidence and marine incursion as extension intensified.^[1] Prior to rifting, the region featured a continuous Arabian-Nubian Shield, a Neoproterozoic juvenile crust exposed as a peneplaned surface near sea level across what is now the rift axis.^[23] This pre-rift configuration, part of a passive Paleo-Tethyan margin, included deep-seated shear zones that guided early fault propagation without significant pre-rift uplift or doming.^[25] The shield's uniform basement facilitated the initial symmetric extension before later tectonic adjustments.^[24]

Evolutionary Stages

The evolutionary stages of the Red Sea Rift progressed from initial continental extension to the development of oceanic crust, reflecting a classic sequence of rift maturation. Continental rifting commenced around 30 Ma, driven by the separation of the Arabian and African plates, leading to significant thinning of the continental crust through faulting and stretching.^[1] This phase persisted until approximately 13 Ma, characterized by syn-rift sedimentation and dispersed magmatism, with the lithosphere undergoing extension factors (β) of 2-3 in the central and northern segments.^[13] During this period, the rift basin accumulated clastic sediments derived from adjacent highlands, marking the early depositional record of extension.^[1] The transition to seafloor spreading initiated around 13 Ma in the southern and central Red Sea, where localized magmatism and dike intrusions facilitated the rupture of continental lithosphere, giving way to the formation of new oceanic crust.^[11] This shift propagated northward, with oceanic crust now dominating south of approximately 20°N, as evidenced by linear magnetic anomalies and axial trough development indicative of organized spreading.^[2] In the central Red Sea, transitional lithosphere features dispersed diking and magmatic underplating, bridging the gap between thinned continental domains and mature oceanic spreading centers.^[2] A major tectonic reorganization around 14–12 Ma shifted the extension direction to N15°E, aligning with the Aqaba-Levant transform fault and reducing activity in the Gulf of Suez. A key aspect of this evolution involved Miocene desiccation phases, during which evaporite deposition—primarily halite and anhydrite—occurred around 14 Ma and 10 Ma, filling the rift basin as sea levels fluctuated and restricted marine incursions.^[1] Stratigraphic records provide robust evidence for these stages, with syn-rift clastics from the late Oligocene (~27.5-23 Ma) overlying pre-rift basement, overlain by thick Miocene salt layers that seal the margins.^[1] Post-rift marine sediments, including Pliocene shales and carbonates, blanket the evaporites following the Messinian unconformity, signaling the onset of widespread inundation and spreading.^[1] These sequences highlight the rift's progression from terrestrial to hypersaline and then fully marine environments. Recent post-2020 seismic and magnetic studies have refined understanding of the ongoing transitions, revealing asymmetric spreading in the southern Red Sea, where the Arabian margin exhibits thicker oceanic crust and greater extension (β_L ~2.5) compared to the African side (β_L ~1.8-2.0), influenced by sublithospheric plume flow from Afar.^[13] High-resolution seismic tomography further shows low-velocity zones along axial "deeps," indicating active asthenospheric upwelling and the northward propagation of spreading, potentially stalled in the north by the Zabargad Fracture Zone.^[2] New magnetic anomaly maps confirm this propagation, with seafloor spreading exhibiting increasing obliquity northward, underscoring the rift's dynamic, non-uniform evolution.^[8]

Tectonic Processes

Plate Separation Model

The plate separation in the Red Sea Rift follows a kinematic model of oblique divergence between the Arabian and Nubian (African) plates, occurring at a full spreading rate of approximately 10–16 mm/year, with rates varying along strike from slower in the north (~10 mm/year at 25.5°N) to faster in the central region (~16 mm/year near 18°N).^[26] This divergence exhibits moderate obliquity, typically between 20° and 40° relative to the rift trend, influenced by the regional tectonic framework. The relative motion is described as counterclockwise rotation of the Arabian Plate with respect to the Nubian Plate, centered around an Euler pole located at approximately 31.61°N, 24.22°E, with an angular velocity of about 0.387°/Myr.^[27] The direction of separation involves northeastward motion of the Arabian Plate relative to the Nubian Plate, at rates contributing to the broader Afro-Arabian plate boundary system.^[28] This motion integrates with the East African Rift System to the south, where extension partitions between the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden branches, accommodating the overall divergence of the Nubian, Somalian, and Arabian plates.^[29] GPS measurements from networks spanning the region confirm present-day extension rates of ~15 mm/year across the rift, consistent with geodetic models of plate boundary deformation.^[29] Paleomagnetic data from volcanic rocks and sedimentary sequences further validate these rates, indicating ~15 mm/year of extension since the Pliocene (~5 Ma), aligning with magnetic anomaly patterns that record symmetric spreading since chron 2A (~3.2 Ma).^[30] The rift displays asymmetry in spreading, with more pronounced magmatism, uplift, and lithospheric thinning on the eastern (Arabian) margin compared to the western (Nubian) side, attributed to the influence of transform faults such as the Zabargad Fracture Zone that offset the spreading axis and promote differential extension.^[2]^[31] This asymmetry underscores the role of inherited crustal structure in modulating plate divergence.

Rifting Mechanisms

The rifting of the Red Sea is primarily driven by passive mechanisms, where far-field extensional stresses arise from the tectonic reconfiguration following the India-Eurasia collision, leading to the divergence of the Arabian and African plates.^[32] This collision, occurring around 50 million years ago, induced plate boundary adjustments that propagated stresses southward, initiating continental extension without requiring localized mantle thermal anomalies.^[33] However, an active component may contribute in the southern sector, linked to mantle upwelling beneath the Afar region, where asthenospheric flow potentially enhances lithospheric weakening and extension.^[34] This upwelling is evidenced by elevated mantle temperatures and plume-like structures influencing the Afar triple junction.^[35] Deformation within the Red Sea Rift is characterized by listric normal faulting, where faults flatten with depth into a ductile detachment, accommodating asymmetric extension and block rotation along the rift margins.^[36] Crustal thinning is pronounced in the axial zone, reducing thickness to less than 10 km through ductile stretching and exhumation of lower crustal rocks.^[14] Magmatic underplating further modifies the structure, with basaltic melts accumulating at the base of the thinned crust, compensating for extension and stabilizing the rift axis during early stages.^[37] Geophysical data support these mechanisms through gravity anomalies that reveal Moho uplift beneath the rift, with positive Bouguer anomalies indicating thinned crust and uplifted mantle.^[38] Seismic tomographic models further depict low-velocity zones in the upper mantle, consistent with asthenospheric upwelling and elevated temperatures facilitating extension.^[39] The extension factor, denoted as β, quantifies the degree of lithospheric stretching and is defined as the ratio of the final length (L_final) to the initial length (L_initial) across the rift:

\beta = \frac{L_\text{final}}{L_\text{initial}}

This parameter originates from the uniform stretching model of continental rifting, where the lithosphere thins uniformly under pure-shear extension, preserving crustal volume laterally. To derive it, consider the initial undeformed width of the continental block (L_initial) measured from pre-rift geological markers, such as matching stratigraphic horizons or paleogeographic reconstructions. The final width (L_final) is observed from the current rift geometry, including the axial trough and marginal basins. For the central Red Sea, seismic refraction and gravity modeling estimate crustal stretching factors (β_C) of 5–7, with an initial crustal thickness of 43 km. This aligns with lithospheric stretching (β_L) of ~2.5, confirming significant extension with hyper-thinning in the axial zone.^[13]

Subsurface Structure

Crustal Composition

The crustal margins of the Red Sea Rift are underlain by Precambrian crystalline basement rocks, primarily composed of granites and gneisses from the Arabian-Nubian Shield, which form the foundational lithology prior to Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary overburden.^[10] These rocks exhibit typical Pan-African orogenic signatures, including metamorphic gneisses and intrusive granites, reflecting the ancient continental architecture that predates rifting.^[40] Along the rift axis, the continental crust thins dramatically to approximately 5-7 km, transitioning southward to proto-oceanic domains characterized by hyperstretched continental lithosphere interspersed with mafic intrusions.^[41] Seismic refraction data reveal high velocities in the lower crust of 6.5-7.0 km/s, indicative of a mafic composition dominated by gabbroic materials, as evidenced by drilling results from the Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 23 that penetrated basaltic and gabbroic basement beneath the axial trough.^[42] In the southern Red Sea, this architecture includes serpentinized peridotites, exposed notably on Zabargad Island as uplifted mantle fragments altered by hydrothermal processes, highlighting the role of mantle exhumation in the rift's evolution.^[43] These features underscore a compositional gradient from felsic continental margins to mafic, proto-oceanic axis, influencing the rift's mechanical behavior during extension.^[44]

Sedimentary and Oceanic Elements

The sedimentary fill of the Red Sea Rift basin is dominated by thick Miocene evaporite sequences, primarily composed of halite, anhydrite, and gypsum, which accumulated during a period of restricted marine circulation and high evaporation rates. These evaporites reach thicknesses exceeding 3 km in onshore and nearshore areas, with significant lateral variability due to post-depositional salt tectonics.^[45] Overlying the evaporites, post-Miocene clastic sediments, including sandstones and shales derived from adjacent highlands, and carbonate platforms developed in shallower marginal settings, form a sequence typically 500–1000 m thick in the northern rift segments.^[46]^[47] In the deeper axial troughs, hypersaline brine pools occupy isolated depressions, such as Atlantis II Deep and Shaban Deep, where dense, anoxic waters with salinities up to 25% create extreme chemoclines that trap sediments and influence microbial communities.^[48] Emerging oceanic elements in the rift are most pronounced in the southern segment, where thin basaltic crust, approximately 5–7 km thick, has formed through seafloor spreading since around 5 Ma.^[11] This crust exhibits linear magnetic stripes symmetric about the rift axis, indicative of seafloor spreading at rates of about 1 cm/year, contrasting with continental crust in the northern and central segments.^[1] These oceanic features underlie sediment cover in places, marking the transition from continental rifting to ocean basin development. The basin architecture reflects half-graben asymmetry, with major border faults along one margin creating tilted blocks and accommodating sediment infill primarily on the downthrown side.^[49] Salt tectonics has profoundly shaped this structure, driving the rise of evaporite diapirs that pierce overlying strata and form isolated minibasins where post-rift clastics and carbonates accumulate.^[50] This mobility of the Miocene salt layer has led to complex folding, thrusting, and withdrawal structures, influencing sediment distribution and trap formation throughout the rift. Recent geophysical studies from 2023–2025 indicate magmatic underplating and crustal intrusions that accommodate extension during rifting, with thick evaporite sequences limiting the resolution of seismic reflection profiles and obscuring details of basement architecture.^[37]^[36] These works, integrating seismic, gravity, and magnetic data, highlight multiphase volcanism and salt tectonics in features like the Shaban Deep, suggesting mafic intrusions play a key role in rift evolution despite imaging challenges posed by evaporites.

Volcanism and Seismicity

Volcanic Manifestations

The volcanic activity associated with the Red Sea Rift is predominantly basaltic, exhibiting mid-ocean ridge-style characteristics along the axial zone, where tholeiitic compositions dominate and reflect decompression melting of asthenospheric mantle.^[51] On the rift margins, alkaline series volcanism prevails, including sodic alkali basalts, basanites, and hawaiites erupted within extensive fields such as the Harrat volcanic provinces in western Saudi Arabia.^[52] These margin volcanics form subparallel alignments to the rift axis, spanning from Yemen northward to Syria, with fields like Harrat Rahat covering approximately 20,000 km².^[52] Volcanic features are distributed along the rift axis in discrete "Deeps" between 19.5°N and 23°N, such as the Thetis Deep, where axial volcanic ridges form elongate, en-echelon structures up to 65 km long and composed of coalesced sub-basins with neo-volcanic highs.^[53] Off-axis seamounts and volcanic highs trace the propagation of these axial features, buried under sediments but detectable via gravity anomalies, indicating prolonged magmatism over 8–12 million years in (ultra)slow-spreading segments.^[11] South of 18°N, the influence of the Afar melting anomaly enhances volcanic output, transitioning compositions toward ocean-island basalt affinities.^[51] Petrologically, axial tholeiites display mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-like geochemistry, with depleted trace element patterns such as low Zr/Hf ratios and MORB-type helium isotopes, sourced from asthenospheric mantle.^[51] Margin alkali basalts show enriched light rare earth elements (LREE), high Nb/Ta, and negative anomalies in Pb and K, indicating a heterogeneous mantle source involving depleted asthenosphere mixed with enriched lithospheric components influenced by the Afar plume.^[54] Isotopic data, including low ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd (0.5127–0.5128) and high ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb (19.5–19.9), further support HIMU-like plume contributions to these melts.^[54] Eruption styles range from fissure-fed effusions producing extensive lava flows and pillow mounds to central vent activity forming flat-topped volcanoes and hummocky terrains, modulated by lava viscosity and seafloor conditions.^[51] In the margins, volcanic constructs include cinder cones and differentiated flows from alkali series, often aligned along fissures parallel to the rift.^[52] Activity persists into the Pleistocene-Holocene, with Quaternary volcanism in the Harrat fields and axial zones reflecting ongoing rifting.^[52] A notable historical event was the 1256 CE eruption in Harrat Rahat, near Al-Madinah, where basaltic lava issued from a 2.25 km-long fissure over 52 days, forming six cinder cones and a 23 km-long flow amid Strombolian explosions and seismic precursors.^[55]

Seismic Activity

The seismic activity in the Red Sea Rift is dominated by shallow earthquakes associated with normal faulting, occurring at depths generally less than 15 km, reflecting the ongoing extensional tectonics of the rift system.^[56] These events typically reach magnitudes up to 6.5, with the largest recorded being the magnitude 7.3 earthquake on November 22, 1995, in the Gulf of Aqaba (northern Red Sea Rift).^[57] Earthquake clusters and swarms are prominent along axial transform faults, such as those in the Zabargad Fracture Zone, where seismic activity highlights the segmentation of the rift.^[31] Monitoring efforts are supported by regional networks, including the Saudi Geological Survey's National Seismic Monitoring Network, which detects and catalogs events across the Arabian side of the rift.^[58] Recent seismic swarms, such as the 2020 sequence in the northern Red Sea culminating in a magnitude 5.4 event on June 16, underscore ongoing activity in the Gulf of Suez region.^[59] Seismic hazards in the rift include the potential for tsunamis generated by moderate-to-large earthquakes or associated submarine landslides, amplified by the narrow basin morphology that funnels wave energy toward coastlines.^[60] Historical examples, like the 1969 magnitude 6.6 earthquake near the Egyptian coast, illustrate this risk, though the region's modest seismicity limits the frequency of damaging events.^[61] Focal mechanisms of Red Sea earthquakes consistently reveal normal faulting consistent with an extensional stress regime, with P-axes oriented perpendicular to the rift axis.^[62] Analysis of the Gutenberg-Richter b-value yields estimates ranging from approximately 0.8 to 1.2 across the rift, with lower values in tectonically dominated segments and higher values in areas influenced by magmatism, indicating a blend of brittle deformation and volcanic triggers.^[62]

Economic and Environmental Aspects

Mineral and Hydrocarbon Resources

The Red Sea Rift hosts significant hydrocarbon resources, primarily in the Gulf of Suez, where oil and gas fields have been developed since the early 20th century. The USGS estimates mean volumes of 5 billion barrels of undiscovered technically recoverable oil and 112 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas across the broader Red Sea Basin Province, with the Gulf of Suez accounting for the majority of proven reserves and production to date.^[63] These hydrocarbons originate from syn-rift organic-rich shales of Miocene age, particularly the Lower Miocene Rudeis and Kareem formations, which exhibit fair to good total organic carbon content and kerogen types suitable for oil generation.^[64] Reservoirs are trapped in Miocene sandstones and pre-rift carbonates, with migration facilitated by rift-related faults.^[65] Mineral resources in the rift include evaporites such as salt and potash deposits formed during Miocene desiccation phases, when restricted circulation led to hypersaline conditions and precipitation of thick sequences up to 2-4 km.^[66] These evaporites, primarily halite with minor potash minerals like sylvite, occur in the coastal basins of Egypt and Saudi Arabia and have been exploited on a small scale for industrial salt, though potash extraction remains limited due to depth and economic factors.^[67] Additionally, polymetallic muds in the Atlantis II Deep, a hydrothermal brine pool at 2,000 meters depth, contain elevated concentrations of zinc (up to 3%), copper (up to 1.5%), and trace silver, gold, and cobalt as sulfides within metalliferous sediments totaling around 90 million tonnes.^[68] These muds formed through circulation of hot brines interacting with basaltic basement rocks, concentrating metals from leaching.^[69] Exploitation of these resources is ongoing, with Egyptian and Saudi fields in the Gulf of Suez producing from shared rift structures; for instance, Saudi Arabia's offshore Shaur and Umm Ramil gas fields, discovered in the 1990s, complement Egypt's mature oil operations like the Morgan field.^[70] Egypt's 2019 international bid round awarded blocks in the northern Red Sea for further hydrocarbon exploration, emphasizing Miocene plays.^[71] For minerals, evaporite mining occurs locally in shallow coastal areas, while deep-sea proposals for Atlantis II Deep metals gained renewed interest in 2024 amid global demand for critical minerals, with Saudi Arabia advancing feasibility studies within its exclusive economic zone, though commercial extraction awaits regulatory approval.^[72]

Ecological Implications

The Red Sea Rift's marine environment supports exceptional biodiversity, particularly within its extensive coral reef systems, which harbor over 250 species of scleractinian corals, many forming vibrant fringing and patch reefs along the rift margins.^[73] These reefs provide critical habitats for more than 1,000 fish species, including approximately 17% that are endemic to the region, such as the Red Sea clownfish (Amphiprion bicinctus) and the Red Sea emperor angelfish (Pomacanthus semicirculatus), which have evolved in isolation due to the rift's semi-enclosed basin.^[74] This high endemism underscores the Red Sea's status as a global marine biodiversity hotspot, where species diversity rivals that of the Indo-Pacific despite the basin's relative youth and extreme conditions.^[75] Deep within the rift's axial trough, hypersaline brine pools—formed by evaporite dissolution and hydrothermal activity—create extreme anaerobic environments that host unique communities of extremophile microbes. These pools, such as the Atlantis II Deep, exhibit salinities up to eight times that of seawater and support specialized prokaryotic life forms, including halophilic archaea and bacteria capable of chemosynthesis in oxygen-free, metal-rich waters.^[76] Such microbial ecosystems thrive on sulfur and methane cycling, demonstrating remarkable adaptations that parallel those in other deep-sea anoxic basins and offering insights into potential extraterrestrial life.^[48] Additionally, rift-related upwelling processes, driven by the basin's topography and monsoon-influenced circulation, bring nutrient-rich deep waters to the surface, enhancing primary productivity and sustaining plankton blooms that form the base of the food web for reef-associated species.^[77] Human activities pose significant threats to this delicate ecology, including oil spills that have contaminated coastal and reef habitats. The deteriorating FSO Safer tanker off Yemen's coast remains a potential source of oil spill risk, despite oil offloading in 2023, with dismantling operations halted as of 2025 due to Red Sea conflicts.^[78] Desalination plants, concentrated along the rift's coastal margins to meet regional water demands, discharge hypersaline brine that can cause local salinity increases of up to 2 parts per thousand in mixing zones near outfalls, stressing sensitive coral and seagrass communities.^[79] Climate change further exacerbates these pressures through accelerated sea surface warming, with the Red Sea experiencing temperature rises of 0.5-1°C since the 1980s, leading to recurrent coral bleaching events that reduce reef resilience and alter species distributions.^[80] Conservation efforts recognize the Red Sea's ecological value, designating it a priority area under international frameworks like the Jeddah Convention, which aims to protect 20% of its marine habitats by 2030.^[81] Saudi Arabia nominated key Red Sea sites, including the Gulf of Aqaba coral reefs, to its tentative World Heritage List in 2023, promoting expanded protected areas to safeguard endemic biodiversity amid growing anthropogenic threats.^[82] These measures, combined with ongoing biodiversity surveys identifying critical habitats, support regenerative approaches to maintain the rift's unique ecosystems.^[83]

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Patterns of Sedimentation In the Contemporary Red Sea As An ...
Nov 1, 2012 · The Farasan Archipelago, on the eastern margin of the sea, and its western-margin counterpart, the Dahlak Archipelago, both sit atop broad ...
[18]
New insights into the mineralogy of the Atlantis II Deep metalliferous ...
Dec 14, 2015 · The Deep is situated in the slowly spreading Red Sea rift axis at a water depth of 2.2 km (Figure 1) and contains a major ore deposit composed ...Introduction · Sediment Stratigraphy · Mineralogy and Bulk... · Results
[19]
Red Sea rifting controls on aquifer distribution - GeoScienceWorld
May 1, 2011 · Aquifer development is related to Red Sea rifting: (1) rifting was accommodated by vertical extensional displacement on preexisting NW-SE– to ...Missing: expressions | Show results with:expressions
[20]
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/sepm/jsedres/article/82/11/859/330494/Patterns-of-Sedimentation-In-the-Contemporary-Red
[21]
Tectonic evolution of the NW Red Sea-Gulf of Suez rift system
Earliest syn-rift sediments are Upper Oligocene continental elastic deposits with minor syn-rift basalts. Early Miocene sedimentation was dominated by shal- low ...
[22]
Tectono-Thermal Evolution of the Red Sea Rift - Frontiers
Between 24 and 21 Ma, the Red Sea Rift initiated concomitantly north of the Afar (Bosworth et al., 2005; Bosworth and Stockli, 2016). While earlier proposed ...
[23]
Current plate motion across the Red Sea | Request PDF
Aug 5, 2025 · The fastest spreading rate, ≈16 mm yr−1, occurs near 18°N, whereas the slowest rate, 10 mm yr−1, occurs at 25.5°N and is consistent with the ...
[24]
Present‐Day Motion of the Arabian Plate - AGU Journals
Mar 14, 2022 · Our angular velocity estimates predict counterclockwise rotation of Arabia relative to the Nubian plate around an Euler pole located at 31.61 ± ...
[25]
Recent kinematics of the tectonic plates surrounding the Red Sea ...
Abstract. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden represent two young basins that formed between Africa and Arabia since the early Oligocene, floored by oceanic crust.
[26]
Kinematics of the southern Red Sea–Afar Triple Junction and ...
Mar 4, 2010 · The partitioning of extension between rift branches varies approximately linearly along strike; north of ∼16°N latitude, extension (∼15 mm/yr) ...Missing: Pliocene | Show results with:Pliocene
[27]
Current plate motions across the Red Sea - Oxford Academic
The 95 per cent confidence interval on the latitude of the Arabia–Danakil–Nubia triple junction, if the Danakil–Nubia boundary is narrow, are 17.4°–18.7°N.
[28]
Transform Faulting in the Northern Red Sea Revealed by Ocean ...
Aug 14, 2025 · Ocean Bottom Seismometer data reveal earthquakes associated with spreading segments and an emerging transform in the Zabargad Fracture Zone ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[29]
The timing of uplift, volcanism, and rifting peripheral to the Red Sea ...
Feb 10, 1989 · We think that the Red Sea began as a consequence of changing plate geometries resulting from the collision of India and Eurasia. After the ...
[30]
The timing of uplift, volcanism, and rifting peripheral to the Red Sea
We think that the Red Sea began as a consequence of changing plate geometries resulting from the collision of India and Eurasia. After the collision, the ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
[31]
Mantle Convection Patterns Reveal the Mechanism of the Red Sea ...
Feb 10, 2020 · The Afar plume acts only in the southern part of the Red Sea Rift forming two flow branches in the northern and nearly eastern directions ...Abstract · Introduction · Results · Conclusions
[32]
a discussion on active and passive rifting mechanisms in the Afro ...
Jul 9, 2024 · The Afro-Arabian rift is proposed to be formed by a plume-induced plate rotation, involving both active and passive mechanisms, and a push ...
[33]
Structural setting and multiphase volcanism in the Shaban Deep ...
The dominant NE-SW fault system is perpendicular to the Red Sea rift axis. •. Southeast of ShD, extensional faults are interpreted as listric normal faults ...
[34]
Magmatic underplating and crustal intrusions accommodate ... - Nature
Jul 14, 2025 · The Red Sea, where Arabia is rifting from Nubia, offers an ideal setting to explore this process. This study analyses geochemical and isotopic ...
[35]
Inverse models of gravity data from the Red Sea-Aden-East African ...
... gravity anomaly could come from mainly two different sources: the Moho ... low-density bodies may account for local variations in gravity anomalies.
[36]
Mantle plumes and associated flow beneath Arabia and East Africa
Feb 1, 2011 · We identify another quasi-vertical low-velocity anomaly beneath Jordan and northern Arabia which extends into the lower mantle and may be ...
[37]
[PDF] The Geologic Enigma of the Red Sea Rift
trough at a depth of600 to 1200 m which at its southern end from 20•N to 15•N is entrained by a less than 20 km wide and up to 2000 m deep axial trough.
[38]
Nature of crust in the central Red Sea - CORE
... gabbro implies that oceanic crust dominates ... Along with other evidence, he favoured a proto-oceanic crust. ... transition from a continental to an oceanic rift.
[39]
[PDF] 21. Geologic Background of the Red Sea
Jun 5, 2007 · Seismic velocities indicate that much of the material underlying the thick. Miocene evaporite-clastic sequence could be Precambrian crust rather ...<|separator|>
[40]
[PDF] Peridotites from the Island of Zabargad St. John, Red Sea Petrology ...
Jan 10, 1986 · Abstract. Exceptionally fresh peridotite bodies outcrop on. Zabargad Island, an uplifted fragment of sub-Red Sea lithosphere.
[41]
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Basins - ScienceDirect.com
The upper part of its crust consists of crystalline Precambrian basement, Phanerozoic sedimentary cover as much as 10 km thick, and Cenozoic flood basalt ...
[42]
Red sea evaporites: Formation, creep and dissolution - ScienceDirect
The thickness of evaporite layers is highly variable due to salt tectonics. Recent well logs show that the maximum evaporite thickness exceeds 3 km onshore in ...
[43]
[PDF] POST-MIOCENE RIFTING AND DIAPIRISM IN THE NORTHERN ...
Rifts and diapirs are the dominant structures in the bathyal zone of the northern Red Sea, where commonly the diapirs ascend along normal faults associated ...
[44]
Carbonate, evaporite, siliciclastic transitions in Quaternary rift ...
Rapid lateral transitions between continental siliciclastic and marine carbonate facies are favoured by a particular morphology closely related to the active ...
[45]
Discovery of the deep-sea NEOM Brine Pools in the Gulf of Aqaba ...
Jun 27, 2022 · The Red Sea pools split into two convenient categories. [1] Pools in the deep (>1000 m) axial trough associated with the rift spreading axis ( ...
[46]
[PDF] Contribution of gravity gliding in salt-bearing rift basins
Natural rift basins often possess asymmetrical half graben shapes characterized by a large-offset normal fault on one side and a smoothly tilted, slightly ...
[47]
Geometry and kinematics of the Middle to Late Miocene salt ...
This study uses 2D and 3D seismic surveys and well data of the northern Egyptian Red Sea to systematically describe the distribution and morphology of salt ...
[48]
[PDF] Marine and Petroleum Geology - CNR-IRIS
May 19, 2025 · Seismic reflection data, along with gravity, magnetic, and high- resolution multibeam bathymetric surveys and well logs, are essential tools for ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
https://d-nb.info/1240388292/34
[50]
[PDF] Cenozoic Tectonics of the Western Arabia Plate Related to Harrat ...
Dec 28, 2023 · Rifting is nearly aseismic in the northern Red Sea (Mitchell and Stewart, 2018), perhaps owing to the modest extension rate. Characteristics of ...
[51]
Birth of an ocean in the Red Sea: Initial pangs - Ligi - 2012
Aug 18, 2012 · This is consistent with a rift model where the lower continental lithosphere has been replaced by upwelling asthenosphere before continental ...
[52]
Hidden but Ubiquitous: The Pre-Rift Continental Mantle in the Red ...
Volcanism in the western part of the Arabian plate resulted in one of the largest alkali basalt provinces in the world, where lava fields with sub-alkaline ...
[53]
Historical Accounts of the AD 1256 Eruption near Al-Madinah
The last and most significant volcanic eruption, commonly referred to as the "historical eruption" occurred in CE 1256 in Harrat Rahat near the holy city of Al- ...
[54]
Seismicity During Continental Breakup in the Red Sea Rift of ...
Mar 1, 2018 · Seismicity extends to at least ∼20 km depth. Crustal thickness across the rift is estimated from gravity inversions (dashed line) and receiver ...2 Tectonic Background · 2.2 The Danakil Depression · 3 Data And Methods
[55]
Largest Earthquakes in or Near the Red Sea on Record Since 1900
List of largest quakes on record in or near the Red Sea: Since 1900, Red Sea has had 6 quakes of magnitude 6.0 or above and 104 quakes between 5.0 and 6.0.
[56]
Saudi Geological Survey Detects 4.68 Magnitude Earthquake in ...
SGS spokesperson Tariq Aba Al-Khail confirmed the earthquake was caused by tectonic activity associated with faulting and seafloor spreading in the Red Sea. He ...
[57]
Source characteristics of the 16 June 2020 ML 5.4 earthquake and ...
Oct 25, 2022 · An earthquake of moderate local magnitude ( = 5.4) occurred on June 16, 2020 at 14:30 GMT in the northern Red Sea, eastern Egypt.
[58]
Tsunamigenic Potential of an Incipient Submarine Landslide in the ...
Feb 3, 2022 · Our study reveals how even incipient submarine landslides can spawn tsunami as tall as those from M w = 9 earthquakes, at least locally.
[59]
The modest seismicity of the northern Red Sea rift - Oxford Academic
The Red Sea is considered to be one of the best examples of a rifted continental shield actively proceeding to the sea floor spreading stage of ocean basin ...Data Sets And Methods · Seismic Data · Seismological Data...
[60]
Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources of the Red Sea ...
The US Geological Survey estimated mean volumes of 5 billion barrels of undiscovered technically recoverable oil and 112 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas
[61]
(PDF) The Hydrocarbon Potential of Miocene Source Rocks for Oil ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Lower Miocene source rocks are mature, derived from marine organic sources, have good potential to generate oil and gas, and entered the early ...
[62]
Petroleum geology and potential hydrocarbon plays in the Gulf of ...
Mar 2, 2017 · Major prerift and synrift source rocks have potential to yield oil and/or gas and are mature enough in the deep kitchens to generate ...
[63]
Red sea evaporites: Formation, creep and dissolution | Request PDF
Aug 8, 2025 · Restricted conditions during the Mid-to Late Miocene lead to the deposition of an evaporite sequence with a total thickness of up to 2-4 km ( ...
[64]
Evaporites through time: Tectonic, climatic and eustatic controls in ...
Borate, salt-cake and soda-ash salts, which are all economically exploited, mostly precipitate in continental tectonically-active arid lacustrine, rather than ...
[65]
Metalliferous sub-marine sediments of the Atlantis-II-Deep, Red Sea
Aug 7, 2025 · The metal-bearing mud contains sulfides of zinc, copper and iron with significant amounts of silver, gold and cobalt. Mining geostatistics was ...
[66]
DEPOSITION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF ORE-BEARING MUDS IN ...
The hot brine in the Atlantis II deep is similar in overall salinity and in concentra tions of copper, zinc, and other metals to many underground and open brine ...
[67]
Hydrocarbon potential in the Northern Egyptian Red Sea - Nature
Jan 7, 2025 · They discovered two gas fields, Shaur and Umm Ramil, and one oil field named Aslaf; Shaur being the first discovery on the Saudi offshore side.Missing: exploitation | Show results with:exploitation
[68]
Egypt announces winners of 1st international bid for oil, gas ...
Dec 29, 2019 · Molla said that Egypt's first start in the exploitation of oil wealth in its Red ... Petroleum and Mineral Resources oil exploration Red Sea Tarek ...
[69]
11 Countries developing Subsea Minerals in their EEZs
... Atlantis II Deep metalliferous sediments, Red Sea"). These muds contain high concentrations of Nickel, Copper, Zinc, Gold and Silver. Significant research ...
[70]
Red Sea Biodiversity Survey - California Academy of Sciences
The result is an area with astonishing biodiversity. Three hundred reef-building corals and more than a thousand fish species call the Red Sea home.
[71]
(PDF) Endemic Fishes of the Red Sea - ResearchGate
Twenty-two of 46 species of Red Sea fishes living at depths greater than 200 m in the Red Sea are endemic (48% endemism). The Gulf of Aqaba has 22 endemic ...
[72]
Biodiversity of Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coral Reefs
‪The Red Sea is one of the most understudied areas in the world in terms of marine biodiversity, and yet the high level of endemism indicates that‬ ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Novel Enzymes From the Red Sea Brine Pools: Current State ... - NIH
In this review, we provide an overview of the extremozymes from different Red Sea brine pools and discuss the overall biotechnological potential of the Red Sea ...
[74]
Patterns, drivers, and ecological implications of upwelling in coral ...
Monsoon winds from June to September drive the upwelling in the southern Red Sea via Ekman transport of surface waters off the shelf, and this process is ...Missing: nutrient rift
[75]
Was a MASSIVE Saudi Aramco Oil Spill Concealed From the Public ...
Jun 25, 2010 · A mishap during the loading of an oil tanker off Saudi Arabia in 1993 initiated a cascading disaster, resulting in what was the largest offshore oil spill ever.
[76]
Long-term, basin-scale salinity impacts from desalination in ... - Nature
Nov 29, 2022 · Local impacts include the impingement and entrainment of marine organisms at the water intake and the discharge of heated, hypersaline, ...
[77]
Natural Climate Oscillations may Counteract Red Sea Warming ...
Mar 15, 2019 · The recent warming trend of the Red Sea SST is critical for the fragile basin's ecosystem, especially for its precious coral reef community.Missing: ecological | Show results with:ecological
[78]
Jeddah Convention | UNEP - UN Environment Programme
Jul 16, 2024 · 14.7% of the Red Sea fishes are endemic species, which ranks the Red Sea among the top areas of high fish endemism in the world.
[79]
Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea in the Kingdom of ...
The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba host more than 265 species of corals, which form mainly fringing reefs which offer food and shelter to hundreds of vertebrate ...
[80]
Red Sea Global makes strides to protect Saudi Arabia's ecosystem ...
Jul 6, 2025 · The study identified potentially new species, 11 Key Biodiversity Areas, 41 threatened, 88 restricted, and 19 unique species, and 136 species ...Missing: hotspot UNESCO