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Red soil

Red soil is a type of soil that develops from the weathering of pre-Cambrian crystalline and metamorphic rocks in warm climates with varying rainfall, often moderate to low in Indian contexts, and high temperatures, resulting in a distinctive reddish hue primarily due to the oxidation and accumulation of iron oxides such as hematite. The term "red soil" is commonly used in India for soils that align with Alfisols and Ultisols in the USDA system. These soils are typically less leached compared to lateritic soils and exhibit a pH range of 5.0 to 7.5, with depths varying from 25 to 50 cm, though they can be deeper in some regions.^[1]^[2] Red soils are widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions globally, but they are particularly prominent in India, where they cover extensive areas in states such as Tamil Nadu, southern Karnataka, northeastern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, encompassing approximately 350,000 km² (10.6% of India's land area). In these formations, the soils often develop on parent materials like granites, gneisses, and quartzites, leading to highly weathered profiles with, for example, low permeability (10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁶ cm/s in some regions like Okinawa) and a specific gravity of 2.6–2.8.^[1]^[3]^[4] Their texture ranges from sandy clay loam to clay loam, and they are generally porous and friable, though gravel may be absent or minimal.^[5]^[4] Despite their prevalence, red soils are typically of low fertility, being deficient in essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and lime (calcium), which limits their agricultural productivity without amendments such as liming or fertilization. They correspond to soil orders like Ultisols in the USDA taxonomy, which feature clay accumulation in subsurface horizons (argillic or kandic) and acidic conditions, making them suitable for crops such as millets, pulses, groundnuts, and tobacco under improved management practices. In regions like southern China and the Paraná Basin in Brazil, similar red soils support specific ecosystems, including grasslands and shrublands, highlighting their role in diverse land uses despite inherent challenges like low organic carbon and high aluminum content.^[1]^[6]^[4]

Characteristics

Physical Characteristics

Red soil exhibits a distinctive brick-red to reddish-brown coloration, primarily resulting from the accumulation of iron oxides, including hematite and goethite, which oxidize under well-aerated conditions.^[2] This pigmentation is most prominent in the subsoil horizons and reflects the soil's exposure to weathering processes that concentrate these minerals. The intensity of the red hue can vary based on the relative proportions of hematite, which imparts a stronger red tint, and goethite, contributing more yellowish-brown shades.^[7] In terms of texture, red soil generally ranges from sandy clay loam to clay loam, characterized by a mix of sand, silt, and clay particles that influence its handling and behavior.^[5] This composition leads to moderate permeability, allowing reasonable water infiltration while preventing excessive runoff in stable conditions. The structure is typically crumbly or granular, with aggregates that lack strong cohesion, particularly in drier states, rendering the soil susceptible to erosion under heavy rainfall or cultivation in humid environments.^[8]^[9] Red soil demonstrates moderate porosity, featuring a combination of macropores similar to sandy soils for drainage and micropores within aggregates for limited retention.^[8] Its water-holding capacity supports adequate drainage but is relatively low in drier variants, often resulting in high bulk density that can compact under management pressure. The soil profile usually comprises shallow to moderately deep A horizons overlying B horizons, with the latter distinctly red due to iron oxide enrichment and serving as the primary zone of accumulation.^[2]^[10]

Chemical Characteristics

Red soils are characterized by acidic conditions, with pH values typically ranging from 5.0 to 7.5, arising from leaching of basic cations like calcium and magnesium under semi-arid to sub-humid climatic conditions with alternating wet and dry periods.^[1] This acidity enhances the solubility of aluminum and iron, potentially leading to toxicity for plant roots as exchangeable Al³⁺ levels increase below pH 5.5.^[11] The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of red soils is generally low, ranging from 5 to 15 meq/100 g, which restricts their ability to retain essential nutrients such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium against leaching losses.^[12] This low CEC stems from the predominance of low-activity clays like kaolinite and the accumulation of sesquioxides, limiting overall fertility and requiring frequent amendments for agricultural use.^[13] Sesquioxides, primarily Fe₂O₃ and Al₂O₃, constitute a significant portion of red soil profiles, often reaching 20-30% in weathered horizons, contributing to the characteristic red hue from iron oxide pigmentation.^[14] These compounds exhibit high reactivity in acidic environments, binding phosphates and other anions, which further diminishes nutrient availability.^[13] Base saturation in red soils is typically below 35%, with exchange sites dominated by hydrogen and aluminum ions rather than nutrient bases, exacerbating infertility and aluminum toxicity risks.^[13] This low saturation reflects extensive weathering and eluviation processes typical of these soils.^[15]

Composition

Mineral Composition

Red soil is characterized by a mineral composition dominated by secondary minerals formed through intense weathering, particularly in tropical and subtropical environments. The primary clay mineral is kaolinite, which typically constitutes 50-70% of the clay fraction in Ultisols and Oxisols, reflecting its low cation exchange capacity and stability in highly leached conditions.^[16] This dominance underscores the soil's advanced stage of mineral alteration, where kaolinite serves as a structural framework for the fine particle matrix.^[17] Iron-bearing minerals, primarily hematite (Fe₂O₃) and goethite (FeOOH), are key components that impart the characteristic red coloration through the oxidation of iron under well-aerated, humid conditions.^[18] Hematite predominates in redder variants, while goethite is more common in slightly less oxidized profiles, together comprising significant portions of the oxide fraction in these soils.^[19] These minerals contribute to the soil's cohesion and color stability, with hematite often exceeding goethite in abundance in highly weathered red horizons.^[20] In the coarser fractions, quartz and feldspars are prevalent in the sand and silt components, derived from resistant primary minerals in parent rocks and enhancing the soil's granular structure.^[21] Quartz, in particular, forms the bulk of these fractions, resisting further breakdown and maintaining a relatively coarse texture.^[22] Accessory minerals include gibbsite (Al(OH)₃), which appears in highly weathered profiles as a product of aluminum accumulation, and remnants of mica, present in trace amounts from incomplete weathering of primary silicates.^[23] Gibbsite is especially notable in Oxisols, where it stabilizes the mineral assemblage in iron- and aluminum-rich environments.^[24] Overall, the mineralogy indicates an advanced weathering stage, with red soils classified primarily as Ultisols or Oxisols in the USDA system, featuring low contents of weatherable minerals like feldspars and micas. Aluminum-rich minerals such as gibbsite and kaolinite contribute to the soil's variable charge characteristics.^[25]

Organic and Elemental Composition

Red soils typically exhibit low organic matter content, ranging from 0.5% to 2%, which decreases with soil depth owing to rapid microbial decomposition in warm, humid climates characteristic of their formation environments. This limited organic fraction contributes to reduced soil structure stability and nutrient retention, with surface horizons often containing the highest concentrations before a sharp decline in subsurface layers.^[26] In terms of elemental composition, red soils are enriched with iron (Fe) at 2-5% and aluminum (Al) at 5-10%, primarily occurring as oxides and hydroxides that impart the characteristic reddish hue and influence soil reactivity.^[27] Conversely, base cations such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) remain low, typically below 1% total content, reflecting intense leaching in these acidic profiles with base saturation under 35%.^[27] Nitrogen levels are also generally low, around 0.05-0.1%, limiting microbial activity and plant nutrition without external inputs.^[26] Phosphorus availability in red soils is severely constrained, often below 10 ppm, due to fixation by iron and aluminum oxides that bind phosphate into insoluble forms, reducing its uptake by plants.^[28] Trace elements like manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) show variability across regions but are frequently deficient, with Zn particularly prone to shortages in these highly weathered, acidic conditions.^[29] Humus formation in red soils is limited, featuring a thin A horizon with poorly developed humic substances that fail to accumulate substantially due to accelerated decomposition and eluviation.^[13] This results in an ochric epipedon that is light-colored and low in organic complexes, further emphasizing the soil's inherent nutrient poverty.^[13]

Formation and Development

Pedogenic Processes

Red soils typically develop from parent materials such as granite, gneiss, or basalt through prolonged pedogenic processes spanning over 10,000 years.^[30] These igneous and metamorphic rocks undergo transformation under conditions favoring intense chemical weathering, where primary minerals are destroyed at rates up to 90-100%. Unlike the more intense laterization seen in higher rainfall areas leading to lateritic soils, red soil formation involves moderate leaching and sesquioxide enrichment.^[3] A key process is desilication, involving the loss of silica (SiO₂) through dissolution and removal, with significant reductions occurring in highly weathered profiles.^[30] Concurrently, leaching by percolating water removes bases such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and potassium (K), at substantial levels, which contributes to soil acidity.^[30] This leaching enhances further weathering and promotes the translocation of solutes downward. Sesquioxide enrichment follows, characterized by the illuviation and accumulation of iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides in the B horizon, forming enriched layers.^[30] Iron accumulates preferentially over aluminum during this phase.^[30] Additionally, the oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) to ferric iron (Fe³⁺) imparts the characteristic red color to the soil over millennia, as ferric oxides produce reddish hues upon hydration.^[2] Kaolinite emerges as the dominant clay mineral end-product of this extensive weathering.^[30]

Environmental Influences

Red soils develop under tropical to subtropical climates characterized by mean annual temperatures exceeding 20°C and precipitation ranging from 500 to 1000 mm, conditions that facilitate intense hydrolysis and the leaching of bases while concentrating iron oxides.^[31] ^[1] These warm environments with seasonal variations in rainfall promote alternating wet and dry periods, which enhance the oxidation of iron minerals, imparting the distinctive red hue to the soil through the formation of hematite.^[32] Such climatic regimes are essential for the chemical weathering that defines red soil profiles, distinguishing them from soils in more arid or perennially wet settings. Topography plays a critical role in red soil genesis by influencing drainage and aeration, with formation favored on undulating uplands or plateaus that prevent waterlogging and support oxidative processes.^[33] Well-drained slopes in these landscapes allow oxygen to penetrate the soil, enabling the aerobic oxidation of iron necessary for the red pigmentation, whereas poorly drained lowlands lead to reduced conditions and different soil types.^[34] Biotic factors, particularly vegetation cover, further shape red soil development; savanna grasslands or deciduous forests predominate, releasing organic acids from decomposing litter that accelerate mineral weathering and contribute to soil acidity.^[35] These plant communities enhance the breakdown of parent material by supplying humic substances that chelate metals, promoting the translocation of elements within the profile over time.^[36] The time factor is vital for complete red soil maturation, typically requiring 5,000 to 50,000 years for horizon differentiation and iron accumulation to stabilize.^[33] Human influences, including deforestation, primarily accelerate surface erosion on existing red soils but do not fundamentally drive their pedogenic formation.^[37]

Geographic Distribution

Asia

In Asia, red soils are extensively distributed across subtropical and tropical regions, particularly in India and China, where they form under conditions of high weathering intensity and seasonal rainfall. These soils derive their characteristic reddish hue from iron oxides and are prominent in areas with granitic, gneissic, or basaltic parent materials.^[38] India hosts one of the largest extents of red soils in Asia, covering approximately 350,000 km² or 10.6% of the country's total land area, primarily across the Deccan Plateau in states such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. These soils result from intensive weathering of basalt and other crystalline rocks in semi-arid to sub-humid climates with low rainfall.^[38]^[3] In China, red soils span a vast area of about 1.02 million km² in the southern provinces, including Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hunan, and Fujian, representing a significant portion of the subtropical zone influenced by monsoon climates. This distribution aligns with the red soil hilly region, which encompasses roughly 10% of China's land and is shaped by tropical to subtropical weathering processes on granite and other acidic rocks.^[39]^[40] Red soils also occur in parts of Southeast Asia, notably in Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia, where they are often classified as lateritic red soils associated with tropical weathering of ferruginous rocks under high humidity and alternating wet-dry cycles. In these regions, the soils contribute to diverse landscapes from highlands to coastal plains.^[41] Local variations distinguish Asian red soils; for instance, Indian variants tend to be sandier and more porous, facilitating drainage but limiting water retention, while Chinese red soils are generally clayier with elevated aluminum content, enhancing their stickiness and susceptibility to erosion in hilly terrains. These soils typically exhibit acidic pH levels below 5.5, influencing their agricultural potential.^[3]^[42] Economically, red soils in India support key crops such as cotton and millets, including finger millet and pearl millet, which thrive in their well-drained, iron-rich profiles across rainfed uplands. In China, these soils underpin tea plantations in acidic, humid southern areas and double-cropping systems of rice, leveraging their capacity for wet-season paddy cultivation despite nutrient limitations.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]

Europe

In Europe, red soils are predominantly represented by terra rossa, a type of reddish, clayey to silty-clay soil that is limited to the Mediterranean region and differs from the more acidic, tropical red soils found elsewhere due to its calcareous nature and neutral pH. These soils develop as thin, discontinuous layers on hard limestone and dolomite parent materials, often in karstic landscapes with high internal drainage, and their red color arises from iron oxides such as hematite formed through rubification processes. Unlike broader global distributions, European terra rossa is shaped by the semi-arid Mediterranean climate featuring wet winters and dry summers that facilitate decalcification, clay illuviation, and iron oxidation during alternating wet and dry periods.^[47]^[48]^[47]^[48] In Greece, terra rossa is widespread but most prominent in southern regions such as Attica and the Peloponnese, where it forms thin, calcareous soils on limestone karsts and basic igneous rocks, serving as a key agricultural resource. These Greek variants exhibit higher calcium content derived from limestone residues, with a pH typically ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 and high base saturation exceeding 90%, making them more neutral and less acidic than tropical counterparts. Formation occurs under the influence of Pleistocene geomorphological changes and the Mediterranean climate's wet winters, which promote leaching and pedogenic processes like bisiallitization on sloping terrains.^[49]^[47]^[48]^[49] Similar terra rossa occurrences extend to other Mediterranean European areas, including southern Italy's Calabria region, Spain's Andalusia, and Croatia's Istria and Dalmatia, where soils derive from limestone, dolomite, or occasionally volcanic parent rocks, maintaining the characteristic reddish hue and calcareous profile. In these locales, the soils support traditional crops like olives and grapes, thriving in the well-drained, nutrient-retentive conditions suitable for Mediterranean viticulture and olive groves, as seen in northern Italy's Haplic Luvisols used for wine production. However, their occurrence on steep slopes renders them highly prone to erosion, exacerbated by the region's seasonal rainfall patterns and historical land use, necessitating careful management to prevent degradation.^[47]^[50]^[49]^[50]

North America

In North America, red soils are primarily classified as Ultisols in the United States, occurring extensively in the southeastern states such as Georgia and Alabama. These soils develop from the weathering of Appalachian mountain materials under humid subtropical climates, resulting in reddish clay-rich subsoils due to iron oxide accumulation. Ultisols cover approximately 9.2% of the U.S. land area, equivalent to about 840,000 km², and are dominant in regions like the Piedmont Plateau.^[51]^[27] In Canada, red soils are more restricted, appearing as podzolic-red intergrades and Brunisolic soils in southern Ontario and the interior of British Columbia, formed on glacial till deposits. These occur in limited areas, influenced by temperate humid conditions and forested vegetation. Brunisols, which include reddish variants, occupy over 1.2 million km² across Canada but are concentrated in southern zones for red expressions.^[52]^[53] North American red soils exhibit variations that enhance fertility compared to tropical counterparts, owing to cooler climates that reduce intense leaching and weathering. They typically have low organic matter content, contributing to moderate natural productivity. However, the Piedmont region's sloping terrain leads to high erosion vulnerability, historically exacerbated by agriculture.^[51]^[54] Overall, red soils span about 1 million km² in North America and have been historically linked to the Cotton Belt, where they supported extensive cotton cultivation from the late 18th century onward. In modern contexts, management emphasizes conservation tillage to mitigate slope-induced erosion and sustain productivity.^[55]^[56]

Other Regions

Red soils are widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly on savanna landscapes in countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe, derived from highly leached granitic parent materials under seasonal rainfall regimes.^[57]^[58]^[59] These soils exhibit deep weathering and iron oxide accumulation, contributing to their characteristic red hue, and are often associated with nutrient-poor conditions in tropical and subtropical climates.^[60] In Australia, red earth soils dominate the arid interiors, including regions like Queensland, spanning vast expanses, particularly in low-rainfall zones receiving less than 500 mm annually.^[61] These variants feature moderate weathering with notable silica retention due to limited leaching in semi-arid environments, supporting sparse vegetation such as spinifex grasslands.^[62] South American red soils occur prominently on the Brazilian Plateau and in portions of Argentina, such as the northeastern Misiones province, where they form under cerrado savanna ecosystems characterized by well-drained, acidic profiles.^[63] In the cerrado, red latosols (equivalent to oxisols) predominate, reflecting intense tropical weathering and association with nutrient-deficient, iron-rich substrates that sustain diverse woody-grass mosaics.^[58] Regional variations highlight differences in soil chemistry; African red soils often display higher aluminum toxicity linked to low pH levels below 5.5, exacerbating limitations for crop growth in acidic profiles, whereas Australian counterparts retain more silica owing to drier conditions that reduce mineral dissolution.^[64]^[65] Red soils are estimated to cover a significant portion of the world's land area, underscoring their critical role in tropical and subtropical agriculture despite inherent fertility challenges.^[38]

Soil Fertility

Fertility Assessment

Red soils exhibit low inherent fertility primarily due to extensive nutrient leaching facilitated by high rainfall and acidic conditions in their typical tropical and subtropical environments.^[42] This leaching depletes essential cations and anions, resulting in lower productivity potential compared to more fertile soils under comparable management.^[26] Their overall rating places them in the low to moderate fertility category, limiting agricultural yields without interventions, though they support drought-tolerant crops owing to their coarser texture.^[66] Key metrics underscoring this low fertility include soil organic carbon levels typically below 1% (often around 0.94% in unamended profiles), available nitrogen typically below 250 kg/ha in surface layers, and phosphorus fixation rates exceeding 80% attributable to iron and aluminum oxides.^[42] These values reflect the soil's limited capacity to retain and supply nutrients, with organic carbon serving as a critical indicator of overall health and microbial activity.^[42] The acidic pH, often below 5.5, further exacerbates nutrient availability issues by enhancing aluminum toxicity and reducing base saturation.^[26] Fertility assessment in red soils employs standardized extraction methods to quantify available nutrients accurately. Mehlich-3 extraction is commonly used for phosphorus and potassium, providing a reliable measure of plant-available forms in acidic conditions, while ammonium acetate extraction determines exchangeable bases such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium.^[67] These techniques allow for site-specific evaluations, revealing spatial and depth-related variations in nutrient status. Fertility varies significantly across profiles, with younger, less weathered red soils displaying higher inherent nutrient levels due to reduced leaching over time compared to mature profiles.^[68] However, even in these cases, poor water retention—stemming from low organic matter and sandy-loamy textures—constrains overall productivity, making irrigation essential for sustained cropping.^[26] Historically, red soils were classified as problem soils in 20th-century agriculture, particularly in regions like southern India, where their low fertility and erosion proneness posed challenges to food security and led to early recognition in soil surveys as requiring specialized management.^[66] This classification influenced post-independence agricultural policies aimed at reclaiming such lands through research on tropical soil dynamics.

Nutrient Deficiencies

Red soils frequently suffer from nitrogen deficiencies due to low organic matter content, which results in reduced mineralization rates and limited nitrogen supply for plant uptake. These soils also experience significant annual nitrogen losses primarily through leaching in permeable profiles and denitrification under warm, moist conditions prevalent in tropical environments. Phosphorus availability in red soils is severely restricted by strong sorption and fixation onto iron and aluminum oxides, which bind applied phosphorus and make less than 5% accessible to crops; available phosphorus levels below 15 ppm are considered critically low for plant growth.^[26] Micronutrient deficiencies are widespread in red soils, with zinc and boron shortages commonly observed in alkaline variants due to reduced solubility and low organic matter, while molybdenum deficiency predominates in acidic types because low pH enhances adsorption of molybdate ions by iron and aluminum oxides.^[69]^[70] Potassium status in red soils is generally moderate but prone to depletion under intensive cultivation, such as with cotton, where high potassium-demanding crops rapidly exhaust supplies; exchangeable potassium concentrations below 0.2 meq/100g indicate deficiency risks.^[26] Sulfur levels are notably low in high-rainfall regions of red soils, where leaching removes sulfate ions from the upper horizons, compounded by inherently low organic sulfur reserves.^[71] The low cation exchange capacity in red soils, stemming from their kaolinitic clay minerals and sesquioxide dominance, further contributes to inefficient retention of these nutrients.^[72]

Management Practices

pH and Liming

Red soils are often acidic due to intensive leaching of bases under high rainfall and weathering conditions.^[73] The primary goal of pH management in red soils is to raise the pH to a target range of 6.0-6.5, which minimizes aluminum (Al) toxicity that inhibits root growth and nutrient uptake in most crops.^[74]^[75] This range ensures optimal conditions for crop performance while avoiding excessive alkalinity.^[76] Liming serves as the main technique for pH adjustment, utilizing materials such as calcitic lime (CaCO₃) for calcium supplementation or dolomitic lime (CaMg(CO₃)₂) to also address magnesium deficiencies common in these soils.^[77]^[73] Application rates typically range from 1 to 5 tons per hectare, determined by soil buffer index, initial pH, and texture to achieve the desired elevation without over-application.^[78]^[73] The liming process involves incorporating the material into the top 15-20 cm of soil to ensure even distribution and reaction with soil acids, with noticeable pH changes occurring within 3-6 months depending on soil moisture and temperature.^[77]^[76] Benefits include elevating base saturation above 50%, which enhances cation exchange capacity, and improving phosphorus (P) availability by reducing fixation with Al and iron oxides prevalent in red soils.^[74]^[75] However, over-liming can induce manganese (Mn) deficiency by raising pH too high, limiting Mn solubility and affecting crop nutrition.^[76] Regional variations exist; for instance, calcareous red soils in Europe, such as terra rossa developed on limestone, often require minimal or no liming due to their inherently higher pH and lower acidity.^[79]^[80]

Nutrient Application

Red soils, characterized by high iron and aluminum oxide content, often require targeted nutrient supplementation to address common deficiencies, particularly in phosphorus, which is prevalent due to strong fixation mechanisms.^[81] Nitrogen application in red soils typically involves urea or ammonium sulfate at rates of 50-150 kg/ha, depending on crop type and soil testing results, with split applications recommended to minimize volatilization and leaching losses—commonly 60% at planting or early growth and 40% during peak demand periods.^[82]^[83]^[84] For phosphorus, superphosphate or rock phosphate is applied at 20-60 kg/ha P₂O₅, preferably banded near the root zone to reduce fixation by iron and aluminum oxides and enhance availability to crops.^[85]^[86]^[81] Potassium is supplied via muriate of potash, with application rates guided by soil testing to maintain adequate levels, while micronutrients like zinc are provided as chelated Zn formulations to improve uptake in these low-fertility soils.^[87]^[88] In irrigated red soil systems, such as those supporting rice or horticultural crops, fertigation delivers soluble nutrients directly to the root zone for precise timing and reduced losses, while foliar sprays offer quick correction for micronutrient deficiencies during critical growth stages.^[89]^[88] Nutrient recovery efficiency in red soils ranges from 30-50% for nitrogen and lower for phosphorus due to fixation and leaching, underscoring the need for integration with crop rotations to sustain long-term fertility.^[90]^[81]

Organic Matter and Crop Rotation

Red soils, characterized by their low baseline organic matter content typically ranging from 0.5% to 1%, benefit significantly from the incorporation of organic amendments to enhance sustainability.^[91] Green manures, particularly legumes such as sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), are commonly grown and plowed under after 40-60 days to add nitrogen and organic residues, with studies showing N accumulation rates of 80-100 kg/ha in suitable conditions.^[92]^[93] Compost application at rates of 5-10 t/ha/year is recommended to gradually build soil organic matter levels to 1-2%, as demonstrated in long-term trials on red soils in southern China where consistent additions improved overall soil quality indices.^[94] These organic inputs provide a slow-release source of nutrients and help counteract the inherent nutrient leaching in these iron-rich, acidic soils. The addition of organic matter through these amendments improves soil structure by promoting aggregate formation and stability, which enhances water infiltration and root penetration. It also increases cation exchange capacity (CEC) by 20-50% in low-CEC red soils, allowing better retention of essential cations like calcium and magnesium.^[95] Furthermore, organic matter boosts microbial activity, with populations of beneficial bacteria and fungi rising by up to 2-3 times, facilitating nutrient cycling and suppressing pathogens. Erosion control is another key benefit, as elevating organic matter from 1% to 3% can reduce soil loss by 20-33% through improved surface cover and reduced runoff velocity, according to models like the Universal Soil Loss Equation applied to similar tropical soils.^[96] Crop rotation incorporating legume-cereal cycles, such as soybean-wheat or blackgram-maize, is a vital practice for red soil management, leveraging biological nitrogen fixation to supply 20-50 kg N/ha from legumes like soybean, thereby reducing dependency on external inputs.^[97] These rotations disrupt pest and disease cycles, with legume phases breaking cereal root rot pathogens and cereal phases limiting legume-specific nematodes, leading to 10-20% yield stability improvements in subsequent crops. In Indian contexts, soybean-wheat rotations on red soils have shown consistent nitrogen contributions from soybean fixation, averaging 30-40 kg/ha net gain to the soil.^[97] Complementary practices include no-till farming combined with cover crops like cowpea or pigeonpea to maintain ground cover and minimize disturbance, preserving organic matter decomposition in place. In tropical red soil regions, mulching with crop residues or legume biomass at 2-5 t/ha post-harvest further protects against heavy rainfall erosion and maintains moisture, with studies in southern India reporting up to 40% reduction in surface runoff.^[85] Over the long term, sustained organic matter inputs and rotations can increase overall soil fertility by 20-30% within 5 years, as evidenced by enhanced nutrient availability and crop yields in experiments on red soils. For instance, in Indian long-term trials involving blackgram rotations with cereals, organic amendments led to a 25% rise in available nitrogen and phosphorus, alongside 15-20% higher blackgram yields compared to continuous monocropping, underscoring the role of these practices in restoring degraded red soil productivity.^[94]

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Similarly, Ultisols are characterized by an argilic horizon with a base saturation of <35% when measured at pH 8.2 and the presence of Fe and Al oxides (Brady ...Missing: typical | Show results with:typical
[28]
The Effect of Phosphorus Fertilizer Sources and Lime on Acidic Soil ...
Oct 18, 2023 · Available P (AP ppm) is generally very low (4.34 ppm) in the surface ... red soil in Central Zhejiang, Plant Soil. (2004) 265, 101–109 ...
[29]
Spatial Variation and Influencing Factors of Trace Elements ... - MDPI
Feb 14, 2022 · Soil trace elements, such as copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn), are important components of crop nutrients. At the same time ...
[30]
[PDF] Pedogenesis chemical weathering and processes of formation of ...
The weathering and leaching rates increase in the following order: granite, acid lava, basalt. Hence, they increase together with the basicity and the ...
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Soil - Climate, Texture, Structure | Britannica
Oct 14, 2025 · Climate influences soil formation primarily through effects of water ... The soil-forming factors of parent material and topography are ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
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[PDF] Factors of soil formation: Climate
In humid tropical climates soils are dominantly yellow or yellowish-brown (the color of goethite) (Fig. 2A), whereas they are predominantly red when they form ...
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Five factors of soil formation - University of Minnesota Extension
The five factors of soil formation are: parent material, climate, biota (organisms), topography, and time.
[34]
Morphological characteristics of soils | Download Table
Soils occur in Midland lateritic plateaus, mounds and undulating upland belong to Ustults indicating low soil organic carbon status in the surface layer upto 50 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Tropical Forests and Grasslands (Savanna) - Soils 4 Teachers
Tropical soils are formed in areas with high annual temperature and rainfall. Even though the savanna and the tropical rainforestes are VASTLY different in ...Missing: subtropical range
[36]
[PDF] Chapter 3 Weathering and Soils - Find People
(c) Red soil of Martha's. Vineyard, interpreted to be developed on an older interglacial deposit, has well-developed O/A horizon over reddened B horizon. (d) ...<|separator|>
[37]
The Human Impact on All Soil-Forming Factors during the ...
Sep 13, 2021 · We demonstrate how present anthropogenic activity has become the leading component influencing each one of the original forming factors.
[38]
Red Soil - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
This soil is deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid, magnesium, and lime but fairly rich in potash, with its pH ranging from neutral to acidic. It is ...
[39]
Major Soil Types of India: Red Soils, Lateritic Soils & Alkaline Soils
Characteristics of Red Soils · The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams. · On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly ...
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A Case Study in the Red Soil Hilly Region of Southern China - MDPI
The red soil hilly region in southern China covers an area of 102 million ha and is primarily distributed in the tropical and subtropical areas of China [41].
[41]
Distribution and Classification of Red Soils in China | Request PDF
In China, red soil covers an area of 2.18 million km 2 and raises 43% population (Xu et al. 2003; He et al., 2004) . Red soil is also widely distributed in ...Missing: exact | Show results with:exact
[42]
[PDF] Major Soils of Southeast Asia and the Classification of Soils Under ...
In Ceylon and Thailand, a soil unit is separated as reddish-brown lateritic soils. Dudal and Moormann regard this as a variety of red-yellow podzolic soils that ...
[43]
Differences in total stored C and N in dryland red soil caused by ...
Apr 28, 2022 · Red soil is characterized by low organic matter content, low concentrations of available nutrients, poor structure, low pH, and high aluminum ...Missing: Indian | Show results with:Indian
[44]
[PDF] Soil of Orissa and Its management - E-Magazine....::...
Red soil covers about 7.14m. ha of lands and being the highest coverage of all soil groups of the state, extend to the districts of Koraput,. Rayagada ...
[45]
Agriculture - Annamayya District - Government of Andhra Pradesh
Crops Grown Ground Nut, Sunflower, Redgram, Bengal Gram, Paddy, Cotton, and ... RED SOIL. 56.25%. BLACK SOIL. 32.55%. SAND AND SALINE SOIL. 11.20%. TOTAL ...
[46]
Selenium levels in soil and tea as affected by soil properties in ...
Nov 27, 2024 · Red soil, with low pH (< 5.5) and organic carbon matter (< 2%), was the most common soil type at approximately 64.8% of the area. Yellow soil ...
[47]
[PDF] Forages for the Red Soils Area of China - AgEcon Search
red soil area development models that may be more cost effective and affordable for wider adoption in future. INTRODUCTION. WORLD BANK assistance for the ...
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(PDF) Terra Rossa in the Mediterranean Region: Parent Materials ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Terra rossa is a reddish clayey to silty-clay material, which covers limestone and dolomite in the form of a discontinuous layer ranging in thickness from a ...Missing: Attica Peloponnese
[49]
None
### Summary of Terra Rossa Soils from Mediterranean Soils PDF
[50]
The red soils, their origin, properties, use and management in Greece
Red soils in Greece are distributed throughout the country, but they occur more frequently in the southern provinces and constitute important soil resources ...
[51]
[PDF] Soils Atlas of Europe
Chromic and Rhodic units (terra rossa soil) are widespread in Greece, the southern part of Portugal, central Spain, western and southern Turkey and northern.
[52]
Ultisols | University of Idaho
Ultisols (from Latin ultimus, "last") are strongly leached, acid forest soils with relatively low native fertility. They are found primarily in humid temperate ...
[53]
Brunisolic soils of Canada: Genesis, distribution, and classification
Within the humid, temperate regions of southern Ontario and southern Quebec, where soil temperatures are relatively warm, Brunisols belong to the Udept suborder ...
[54]
Brunisolic soils of Canada: Genesis, distribution, and classification
Aug 5, 2025 · Brunisols are some of the more common soils in Canada, occupying over 1.2 million km(2) of land, roughly equivalent to the area of Podzolic ...
[55]
Soil Erosion - New Georgia Encyclopedia
The Piedmont lost an average of about seven inches of its topsoil, but in many places all of it was lost. The resulting red hills were both the evidence and the ...
[56]
[PDF] THE COTTON BELT - National Bureau of Economic Research
The boundaries of the Cotton Belt are determined largely by climate. The primary production requirement for cotton is a long, hot growing season, ...
[57]
Chapter 20: Southern Piedmont Case Studies - SARE
The underlying B horizon is red, has moderate to strong subangular blocky structure and contains 40–60 percent clay.
[58]
Extent and management of acid soils for sustainable crop production ...
Acrisols cover 87.8 million ha or 2.9% and Ferralsols about 312.4 million ha or 10.3% of the total land area of Africa (Tully et al. 2015) ...
[59]
Soils: Foundations of Fertility (Chapter 5) - Only in Africa
In central and western Africa where rainfall is high, granitic bedrock has become weathered into red soils containing iron oxide concretions, with low ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Zimbabwe | History, Map, Flag, Population, Capital, Pronunciation ...
The light, sandy soils found in most parts of Zimbabwe are residual soils developed largely from the granite parent material. They are highly weathered and ...British, South Africa, Company · Cultural life · Rhodesia and the UDI · Climate
[61]
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Southern African Savanna ...
Jan 6, 2024 · For instance, on the granite soils of the Kruger National Park, top of slopes are sandy, dystrophic, leached soils and are dominated by ...
[62]
Australia - Soils, Climate, Erosion | Britannica
### Summary of Red Soils/Red Earths in Australia
[63]
Chapter 6 Australia - ScienceDirect.com
Approximately 75% of Australia is arid. The arid region is a large continuous area more than 3,200 km from east to west and 2,000 km from north to south.
[64]
The Soils of Argentina | springerprofessional.de
The Province of Misiones in northeastern Argentina is characterized by the dominance of red soils, developed under a subtropical climate and rainforest ...Missing: extent | Show results with:extent
[65]
Spatio-Temporal Variations in Soil pH and Aluminum Toxicity in Sub ...
This was indicated by a predicted 3% increase in croplands at risk of aluminum toxicity (soil pH < 5.5) from 66 × 106 ha in 2022 to 78.5 × 106 ha in 2050. The ...
[66]
Why Does Australia Look Red from Space? | NESDIS - NOAA
Jan 26, 2017 · Unfortunately, although the red soil is beautiful, it is not of much use because it is very poor in nutrients. To get a closer look at this ...
[67]
[PDF] Problem Soils and their Management - TNAU Agritech Portal
Problem soils are uneconomical for cultivation without reclamation. Types include physical, chemical, biological, and nutritional issues. Slow permeable soils ...
[68]
[PDF] Recommended Chemical Soil Test Procedures
M ammonium acetate or Mehlich 3 may be used to extract K. However, Mehlich 3 is not recommended as a substitute for 1 M ammonium acetate as an extrac- tant ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Review article Red ferruginous soils of tropical Indian environments
Red ferruginous (RF) soils of tropical India indicate their genetic diversity. ... This review is a synthesis of recent developments in pedology of RF soils.
[70]
(PDF) Soil Nitrogen Dynamics Following Harvesting and Conversion ...
Aug 4, 2025 · According to the literature data, the nitrogen can leach from the natural red alder-conifer mixed stand in the amount of 5-50 kg ha −1 yr −1 ( ...
[71]
[PDF] Soil quality assessment in red laterite soils of Chettinad of ...
Mar 12, 2013 · Laterite soils have moderate acidity and are deficient in phosphorus. They are deficient in nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, zinc and boron.
[72]
[PDF] MOLYBDENUM: ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR PLANTS AND ANIMALS
On an average 11% of Indian soils are deficient in available Mo. Deficiency of Mo is widely reported in red and lateritic alfisols of the north and north ...
[73]
(PDF) Spatial Distribution of Sulphur and its Relationship with Soil ...
Mar 11, 2022 · This study concluded that available S status is low to deficient for red and laterite and coastal saline zones, which differs from hill and ...
[74]
Nature and Properties of Lateritic Soils Derived from Different Parent ...
The significant features of the lateritic soils are their unique color, poor fertility, and high clay content and lower cation exchange capacity. In addition, ...
[75]
The Red Soils of China: Their Nature, Management and Utilization
They cover an area of 102 million ha and are mainly distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of China, including Hainan, Guangdong, Yunnan, Taiwan, ...<|separator|>
[76]
[PDF] Liming to Improve Soil Quality in Acid Soils
Benefits of liming include increased nutrient availability, improved soil structure, and increased rates of infiltration.
[77]
Effect of lime rates and method of application on soil properties of ...
Liming has been considered an effective method to mitigate soil acidity, increase soil pH, nutrient availability, and crop yields [15,16]. Previous studies ...2.3. Lime Rate Determination · 2.5. Soil Sampling And... · 3.2. Effects Of Lime...<|control11|><|separator|>
[78]
Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners
Most plants can grow in slightly acidic soils, so the goal of liming is not to raise the pH to neutral (7.0), but to avoid crop problems related to excessive ...
[79]
Applying Lime to Raise Soil pH for Crop Production (Western Oregon)
Adding lime (Figure 1) increases soil pH (reduces acidity), adds calcium (Ca) and/or magnesium (Mg), and reduces the solubility of Al and Mn in the soil.
[80]
Lime Use for Soil Acidity Management
For each 0.1 pH buffer reading below 7.0, application of 1000 to 1200 lb/A of ag-lime (60 percent ECCE) is recommended to raise the soil pH to approximately 6.5 ...
[81]
Soils going red: Terra rossa - EGU Blogs
Jan 9, 2014 · The terra rossa soil is heavy and clay-rich (silty-clay to clayey) soil, strongly reddish, developed on limestone or dolomite.Missing: Greece Attica Peloponnese distribution
[82]
The red soils, their origin, properties, use and management in Greece
Moreover, they can be found on mica schists and gneisses in locations adjacent to marble or calcareous mica schists.
[83]
Phosphorus Transformation in Soils Following Co-Application of ...
This study examined the potential of the combined use of charcoal and wood ash to unlock P fixation in acid soils.
[84]
Fertilizer types and nitrogen rates integrated strategy for achieving ...
Feb 15, 2025 · Our results revealed that applying 120 kg ha− 1 of nitrogen with SRF significantly reduced soil bulk density, improved water retention beyond 60 ...
[85]
(PDF) On the Rules of Applying Fertilizers to Red Soils
Aug 6, 2025 · It is advisable to apply nitrogen fertilizer - 60% from March 1st to April 1st, and the rest 40% - in July. The research also revealed that ...
[86]
Effects of urea and (NH4)2SO4 on nitrification and acidification of ...
Crop yield and soil responses to long-term fertilization on a red soil in southern China ... urea or ammonium sulfate. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 41 (12) ( ...
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https://www.cropnutrition.com/resource-library/potassium-chloride/
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Phosphorus Sources, Application Rate, Timing, and Methods
Feb 27, 2023 · Phosphorus Application Methods Banding decreases fertilizer to soil contact, reduces fixation by soil minerals, increases plant P availability ...Missing: red | Show results with:red<|separator|>
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Potassium Chloride - Mosaic Crop Nutrition
Potassium chloride is the most widely applied K fertilizer because of its relatively low cost and because it includes more K than most other sources.
[90]
Effects of soil zinc availability, nitrogen fertilizer rate and zinc ...
May 20, 2015 · ... chelated Zn (Waters et al. Reference Waters, Chu, DiDonato, Roberts ... red soil hilly regions of southern China. Journal of Soils and ...<|separator|>
[91]
HS1442/HS1442: The Advantages and Disadvantages of Fertigation
Fertigation is an efficient method of nutrient application in which fertilizers are injected through an irrigation system.Missing: foliar | Show results with:foliar
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Advancements in Precision Nitrogen Management for Sustainable ...
Mar 19, 2025 · Fertilizer nutrient recovery efficiency is low: 30–50% for N, 15–20% for P, and 40–50% for K, with secondary and micronutrients even lower at 5– ...