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Superphosphate

Superphosphate, primarily referring to single superphosphate (SSP), is an inorganic fertilizer produced by reacting phosphate rock with sulfuric acid to form water-soluble monocalcium phosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂) and gypsum (CaSO₄), typically containing 16-20% phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅) equivalent.^[1]^[2] This process converts insoluble apatite minerals in the rock into forms readily absorbed by plant roots, addressing phosphorus deficiency in soils that limits crop productivity.^[3] Invented in the 1840s by treating bonemeal or phosphate ore with sulfuric acid, superphosphate represented the first commercial chemical fertilizer, enabling widespread phosphorus supplementation beyond natural soil reserves or manure.^[3]^[4] Its adoption revolutionized agriculture, particularly in phosphorus-poor regions, by boosting root development, flowering, and seed production, which underpin yield increases of up to 45% in phosphorus-responsive crops when applied optimally.^[5]^[3] Variants like triple superphosphate (TSP), using phosphoric acid instead, achieve higher phosphorus concentrations (44-48% P₂O₅) for concentrated applications, further amplifying efficiency in modern farming.^[6] While superphosphate has sustained global food security through enhanced farm output, its production and use raise environmental concerns, including emissions of fluorine gases, dust, and heavy metals during manufacturing, as well as runoff-induced eutrophication that promotes harmful algal blooms in waterways.^[7]^[8] Phosphate rock impurities, such as cadmium and uranium, can accumulate in soils and enter food chains, prompting scrutiny over long-term ecological and health effects despite regulatory controls in many jurisdictions.^[9]^[10]

Historical Development

Invention and Early Commercialization

In the early 1840s, John Bennet Lawes, an English landowner and agricultural experimenter at Rothamsted Manor, developed the process for producing superphosphate by treating ground bones or bone meal with sulfuric acid, which increased the solubility of phosphorus for plant uptake.^[11] This innovation built on earlier observations that acid treatment rendered phosphorus more available, but Lawes scaled it through systematic trials on his estate, confirming its efficacy in boosting crop yields compared to untreated bone dust.^[3] The resulting product contained approximately 16-20% phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) in water-soluble form, marking a shift from organic to chemical fertilizers.^[1] Lawes patented the manufacturing method on April 23, 1842 (British Patent No. 9381), enabling industrial production and protecting his innovation amid growing demand for phosphorus sources amid depleting bone supplies from Napoleonic Wars battlefields.^[12] He constructed the world's first commercial superphosphate factory at Deptford Creek, London, and began operations in 1843, initially processing up to 150 tons of bones annually into fertilizer sold to British farmers.^[13] This venture, under the Lawes Chemical Company, generated substantial revenue—reaching £100,000 annually by the 1850s—and funded Lawes' long-term agricultural research at Rothamsted.^[14] Early commercialization faced logistical challenges, including sulfuric acid supply and waste management from phosphogypsum byproduct, but rapid adoption followed demonstrations of yield increases, such as 20-30% in wheat and turnips on deficient soils.^[15] By 1845, similar small-scale plants emerged in England and Scotland, though Lawes dominated production until the 1860s, when shifting to imported rock phosphate from South Carolina and Estonia reduced costs and expanded output.^[4] This period laid the foundation for the global fertilizer industry, with superphosphate exports beginning in the late 1840s to Europe and colonies.^[16]

Global Adoption and Technological Advancements

Following its invention in 1842 by John Bennet Lawes through the treatment of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid to produce single superphosphate (SSP), the fertilizer saw rapid commercialization in England starting in 1843, with initial adoption concentrated in European agriculture to address phosphorus deficiencies in intensively farmed soils.^[12] By the 1870s, production expanded across Europe, including France where average application rates reached approximately 40 kg/ha of phosphate fertilizers by 1899–1900, supporting higher yields in cereal and root crops.^[17] In the United States, superphosphate adoption accelerated in the late 19th century following discoveries of phosphate rock deposits in South Carolina and Florida, with production in Georgia alone doubling between 1870 and 1880 due to its efficacy in cotton farming.^[18]^[4] The fertilizer's spread extended to British colonies, notably Australia and New Zealand, where it transformed phosphorus-poor pastoral lands; in South Australia, wheat farmers adopted it nearly universally by 1882–1910, while New Zealand's early imports from 1843 evolved into domestic production by the 1860s, enabling grassland intensification.^[19] By the early 20th century, SSP had become a cornerstone of global agriculture, particularly in wheat belts and export-oriented regions, with its water-soluble phosphorus form driving yield increases of 20–50% in responsive crops according to contemporaneous agronomic trials.^[20] Technological progress shifted from SSP (16–20% P₂O₅) to triple superphosphate (TSP, 45–50% P₂O₅) in the early 20th century, achieved by reacting phosphate rock with phosphoric acid to yield a higher-concentration product without SSP's sulfur byproduct, thus reducing transport volumes and soil acidification risks.^[6]^[21] Commercial TSP production scaled in the United States by the 1940s through innovations like those from the Tennessee Valley Authority, marking a pivotal advancement in phosphorus delivery efficiency.^[22] Subsequent refinements included granulation methods, such as the Dorr-Oliver process introduced mid-century, which produced uniform, dust-reduced granules for improved storage, handling, and field application precision.^[23] These developments facilitated TSP's dominance in high-analysis fertilizers, with global consumption peaking in the 1980s before partial displacement by newer formulations amid rising energy costs for phosphoric acid production.^[24]

Chemistry and Properties

Chemical Composition

Single superphosphate (SSP), also known as ordinary superphosphate, consists primarily of monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H₂PO₄)₂, and calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum), CaSO₄·2H₂O, formed by the reaction of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid according to the simplified equation Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 2H₂SO₄ → Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ + 2CaSO₄.^[1]^[25] This mixture typically contains 16-20% phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅) equivalent, with the phosphorus largely in water-soluble form, alongside 11-12% sulfur and 19-21% calcium derived from the gypsum component.^[26]^[27] Triple superphosphate (TSP), or concentrated superphosphate, is predominantly monocalcium phosphate monohydrate, Ca(H₂PO₄)₂·H₂O, produced by treating phosphate rock with phosphoric acid, which eliminates significant gypsum formation and yields a higher phosphorus concentration of 44-48% P₂O₅ and about 17% calcium oxide (CaO).^[6]^[27] Over 90% of the phosphorus in TSP is water-soluble, enhancing its availability compared to SSP.^[28] Both forms may include minor impurities such as iron, aluminum, and fluoride compounds originating from the phosphate rock feedstock, with actual compositions varying based on rock quality and processing conditions; for instance, synthesized TSP variants have shown P₂O₅ levels ranging from 41-78% depending on phosphoric acid concentration used.^[29]^[3]

Physical and Solubility Characteristics

Single superphosphate (SSP) and triple superphosphate (TSP) are manufactured in granular form to enhance handling, reduce dust, and improve spreading uniformity during agricultural application. SSP consists of grayish-white, free-flowing granules that are slightly acidic, with a typical moisture content ranging from 0% to 2%. TSP granules exhibit a similar appearance and form, averaging 2.37 mm in diameter, with 87% falling between 2 mm and 4 mm in size. Both types possess bulk densities around 0.95–1.00 g/cm³ for TSP (59–63 lbs/ft³ poured or packed), facilitating efficient storage and transport via stowage factors of 0.65–0.85 m³/t in bulk. These fertilizers are hygroscopic, prone to caking and hardening upon moisture exposure, which can necessitate mechanical breakdown during handling if not stored properly.^[30]^[31] The phosphorus content in superphosphates derives mainly from monocalcium phosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂), rendering it highly water-soluble and immediately available for plant uptake. In TSP, approximately 90% of total P₂O₅ is water-soluble, contributing to its rapid dissolution in soil solution with a pH of about 3.1 in 20% aqueous suspension. SSP exhibits comparable water solubility for its phosphate fraction (typically 16–20% P₂O₅), though it includes insoluble gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate), which constitutes 50–60% of the product and provides ancillary sulfur but does not dissolve. This partial insolubility in SSP contrasts with TSP's higher concentration of soluble monocalcium phosphate (44–48% P₂O₅), yet both maintain effective solubility profiles exceeding 85% for available phosphorus when assessed under standard conditions. Impurities from phosphate rock can slightly reduce water solubility in commercial products.^[31]^[32]^[1]

Production Processes

Raw Materials and Preparation

The primary raw material for single superphosphate production is phosphate rock, consisting mainly of apatite minerals such as fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F), with typical fertilizer-grade ores containing 28-32% P2O5 by weight.^[33] Phosphate rock is mined from sedimentary deposits, often in regions like Florida, Morocco, or China, and undergoes beneficiation processes including washing, screening, and flotation to remove silica, clay, and other impurities, yielding a concentrate suitable for acidulation.^[33] Preparation of the rock involves drying to reduce moisture content to below 3-5% to facilitate grinding and prevent excessive heat buildup during reaction, followed by pulverization in ball mills or hammer mills to a particle size typically under 0.16 mm for optimal surface area exposure and reactivity with acid.^[34] Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the other essential raw material, is used at concentrations of 93-98% to react with phosphate rock, producing monocalcium phosphate and gypsum.^[35] It is sourced as either virgin acid, manufactured via the contact process from elemental sulfur oxidation (S + O2 → SO2, then SO2 + ½O2 → SO3, absorbed in water to form H2SO4), or spent acid recycled from other industrial processes, with the choice depending on cost and purity requirements to minimize impurities like arsenic or fluorine that could affect product quality.^[36] Prior to mixing, sulfuric acid is stored in corrosion-resistant tanks and may be diluted or filtered if necessary, though high-concentration acid is preferred to achieve the desired 14-20% P2O5 in the final superphosphate.^[34] No additional major raw materials are required for basic single superphosphate, though minor additives like curing agents or anti-caking agents may be incorporated post-reaction; preparation emphasizes precise control of rock fineness and acid strength ratios (typically 0.65-0.75 tons of 93% H2SO4 per ton of rock) to ensure efficient phosphorus solubilization without excessive free acid residue.^[37]

Manufacturing of Single and Triple Superphosphate

Single superphosphate (SSP) is produced through the acidulation of finely ground phosphate rock, primarily fluorapatite [Ca5(PO4)3F], with sulfuric acid in a reactor such as a continuous mixer or cone den.^[38] The primary reaction is Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4, yielding monocalcium phosphate (the active phosphorus component) and gypsum as a byproduct, with the process typically requiring a sulfuric acid concentration of 93-98% and a rock-to-acid ratio of about 1:0.65 by weight.^[2] The exothermic reaction generates heat and hydrofluoric acid vapors, necessitating scrubbing systems for emissions control; the slurry is discharged onto floors or belts for curing over 2-4 weeks to allow hydrolysis and stabilization, after which it is granulated using a pug mill or drum granulator with added water and binder if needed, dried, screened, and cooled to produce particles suitable for handling.^[36]^[38] Triple superphosphate (TSP) manufacturing differs by employing phosphoric acid—typically 52-54% P2O5 from the wet process—reacted with phosphate rock in a similar mixer, avoiding sulfate introduction and achieving higher phosphorus concentration (around 46-50% P2O5 versus 16-20% in SSP).^[6] The key reaction is Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 → 3Ca(H2PO4)2, producing dicalcium phosphate intermediates that hydrolyze to monocalcium phosphate during curing, with a rock-to-acid ratio of approximately 1:2.2.^[39] Two variants exist: run-of-the-pile (ROP-TSP), involving direct mixing and minimal curing before pulverization, and granular TSP (GTSP), which adds granulation, drying at 70-80°C, and screening for uniform 2-4 mm particles to improve storage and application; as of the 1990s, U.S. production shifted predominantly to GTSP for better physical properties, though ROP-TSP has been phased out domestically.^[40] Both processes generate fluorine emissions, but TSP's use of phosphoric acid reduces gypsum waste compared to SSP, where calcium sulfate comprises 50-60% of output.^[33] Modern facilities integrate continuous processes with automation for precise acid addition and real-time monitoring to optimize reaction efficiency and minimize unreacted rock, typically achieving 85-95% phosphate conversion; SSP plants often co-produce sulfuric acid on-site, while TSP relies on upstream wet-process phosphoric acid plants.^[41] Safety measures include corrosion-resistant linings in reactors due to acidic conditions and ventilation for hydrofluoric acid, which can form complex fluorosilicates.^[36]

Agricultural Applications

Phosphorus Role in Crop Nutrition

Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient required for plant growth and development, serving as a structural and functional component in key biological molecules.^[42] It constitutes approximately 0.2-0.5% of a plant's dry weight and is second only to nitrogen among macronutrients in demand for crops.^[43] Plants absorb phosphorus primarily as orthophosphate ions (H2PO4- or HPO4^2-) from the soil solution, which is critical for its uptake efficiency.^[44] In crop nutrition, phosphorus plays a central role in energy metabolism, forming the backbone of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which facilitate energy transfer during processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and nutrient assimilation.^[45] It is integral to nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) for genetic information storage and protein synthesis, and to phospholipids in cell membranes for structural integrity.^[42] Phosphorus also enhances root elongation, stalk strength, and reproductive development, leading to improved seed production and crop maturity when adequately supplied.^[46] For instance, in cereals like corn and wheat, sufficient phosphorus supports tillering and grain filling, directly correlating with higher yields.^[43] Deficiency in phosphorus restricts crop productivity, manifesting as stunted growth, reduced root systems, and delayed flowering, often with visual symptoms like purplish discoloration on older leaves due to anthocyanin accumulation.^[43] In phosphorus-limited soils, plants exhibit thinner stands and lower biomass, as seen in field trials where yields dropped by 20-50% without supplementation.^[46] These effects underscore phosphorus's causal role in metabolic efficiency, where its scarcity impairs ATP-driven processes, limiting overall plant vigor and harvestable output.^[45]

Usage Patterns and Yield Effects

Superphosphate fertilizers, including single superphosphate (SSP) and triple superphosphate (TSP), are predominantly applied as basal amendments at planting to address phosphorus deficiencies, with common methods encompassing broadcasting across the soil surface before tillage for uniform incorporation, blending with other dry fertilizers for surface application, or banding in rows adjacent to seeds for localized availability. SSP finds extensive use in sulfur- and phosphorus-deficient soils, especially for pastures, leguminous crops such as soybeans and alfalfa, and grains like wheat, leveraging its combined phosphorus (16-21% P₂O₅) and sulfur content to promote root establishment without suppressing nitrogen fixation. TSP, offering higher phosphorus concentration (44-48% P₂O₅), suits scenarios demanding compact delivery, such as blended mixes for cereals or legumes, and is favored in regions with adequate sulfur but P limitations. Typical basal rates for SSP range from 20 to 40 kg per acre, adjusted via soil testing to match crop demands, while TSP equivalents target 30-60 kg P ha⁻¹ in deficient systems.^[1]^[47]^[6]^[48] Field trials reveal consistent yield uplifts from superphosphate, attributable to improved phosphorus solubility and uptake enhancing root proliferation and biomass accumulation in nutrient-stressed conditions. SSP as a phosphorus source elevated rain-fed wheat grain yield by 2.5% and total dry matter by 4.7% over diammonium phosphate equivalents, with parallel gains in phosphorus concentration. In maize under optimized rates, SSP drove an 8.06% yield rise, 32.4% higher phosphorus agronomic efficiency, and 18.2% net income gain versus standard practices. TSP application in calcium-deficient soils tripled wheat dry matter production compared to monoammonium phosphate, underscoring its calcium co-benefit (13-15%) in ameliorating fixation issues. For wheat straw, SSP at 112.5 kg P₂O₅ ha⁻¹ yielded 71% more biomass than unfertilized controls, while sorghum grain responses to TSP exceeded those from phosphate rock in intercropping systems. Such increments, often 10-38% across grains in P-responsive trials, hinge on site-specific deficiencies and balanced nutrition, diminishing in replete soils.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]

Economic and Productivity Impacts

Enhancements in Food Production

The advent of superphosphate in 1842 by John Bennet Lawes revolutionized agricultural productivity by converting insoluble phosphate rock into a water-soluble form accessible to plant roots, addressing widespread phosphorus deficiencies that previously constrained crop growth.^[54] This innovation enabled farmers to intensify production on existing land, directly contributing to higher outputs of staple crops essential for human sustenance. Long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Experimental Station, initiated in 1843, quantified these gains: applications of superphosphate raised spring barley yields from 1.59 metric tons per hectare without phosphorus to 2.88–3.03 metric tons per hectare with phosphorus across trials from 1949 to 1974 on phosphorus-depleted soils.^[54] Such increases stemmed from phosphorus's role in enhancing root proliferation, energy metabolism via ATP synthesis, and overall plant vigor, allowing crops to capture more sunlight and water efficiently.^[46] In modern contexts, single superphosphate continues to drive yield enhancements, particularly in phosphorus-limited regions. Field studies report average wheat yield uplifts of 21.2–38.0% and maize yield gains of 9.9–16.3% from phosphorus fertilizers including superphosphate compared to unfertilized baselines, with benefits amplified when combined with sulfur for comprehensive nutrition.^[55] These improvements manifest in greater grain fill, stalk strength to prevent lodging, and accelerated maturity, reducing harvest risks and elevating overall crop quality.^[46] By sustaining higher per-hectare outputs—often doubling or tripling historical norms without proportional land expansion—superphosphate has underpinned global food supply growth, supporting population increases from 1 billion in 1800 to over 8 billion today while mitigating famine risks in nutrient-poor soils.^[54] Strategic use of superphosphate also builds enduring soil phosphorus reserves, ensuring long-term productivity; Rothamsted data show cumulative applications from 1856 onward accumulated reserves that offset crop removals, maintaining yields over 170 years without depletion when balanced against offtake.^[54] During exigencies like World War II, intensified superphosphate deployment in the UK doubled phosphorus imports to bolster domestic grain and fodder production, illustrating its causal role in food security under stress.^[54] Optimal soil phosphorus levels (15–25 mg/kg Olsen-P) maximize these efficiencies, with uptake exceeding 90% when inputs align with crop needs, minimizing waste and amplifying net food production gains.^[54]

Contributions to the Fertilizer Industry

The invention of superphosphate by John Bennet Lawes in 1842, through the reaction of phosphate rock with sulfuric acid, marked the advent of the first commercially viable phosphorus fertilizer, fundamentally establishing chemical processing as a cornerstone of the fertilizer industry.^[56] Lawes patented the process and initiated industrial-scale production in 1843 at his Rothamsted facility in England, shifting the sector from reliance on untreated bone meal or guano to manufactured, soluble phosphate compounds that could be mass-produced and distributed globally.^[12] This breakthrough catalyzed the proliferation of fertilizer factories, particularly in phosphate-rich regions like the southeastern United States, where production volumes doubled in Georgia between 1870 and 1880 due to the material's efficacy in enhancing cotton yields.^[18] Superphosphate's development spurred innovations in production techniques, including the wet-process phosphoric acid method, which became the basis for subsequent phosphorus fertilizers like triple superphosphate (TSP), enabling higher nutrient concentrations without sulfate byproducts and improving handling and transport efficiency in industrial settings.^[56] By providing a scalable, cost-effective means to solubilize apatite-bound phosphorus—previously inaccessible to most crops—the fertilizer facilitated the industry's transition to high-volume manufacturing, with early adopters like Lawes' operations demonstrating repeatable yield gains that validated large-scale investment in acidulation plants.^[4] This process not only reduced dependency on finite natural deposits but also integrated sulfuric acid production chains, fostering synergies with the chemical sector and lowering per-unit costs through economies of scale. In contemporary terms, superphosphates continue to underpin a substantial portion of the global phosphorus fertilizer market, with single superphosphate (SSP) and TSP collectively accounting for significant shares—such as TSP's approximately 17% of phosphate fertilizer revenue in 2021—due to their versatility in blended formulations and adaptability to diverse soil types.^[57] The industry's growth trajectory, projected to expand SSP markets from USD 19.03 billion in 2024 to USD 25.02 billion by 2035 at a 2.52% CAGR, reflects superphosphate's enduring role in sustaining phosphorus supply amid rising global demand, while its foundational chemistry informs ongoing refinements in granulation and coating technologies to minimize losses during application.^[58] Overall, superphosphate's legacy lies in democratizing access to bioavailable phosphorus, propelling the fertilizer sector from artisanal to industrialized paradigms and enabling sustained productivity gains without which modern agricultural output would be infeasible.^[56]

Environmental and Health Aspects

Potential Ecological Drawbacks

The application of superphosphate fertilizers contributes to phosphorus runoff into surface waters, exacerbating eutrophication—a process where excess nutrients trigger algal blooms, subsequent oxygen depletion, and disruption of aquatic ecosystems.^[59]^[60] Agricultural phosphorus losses, including from soluble forms like those in single and triple superphosphate, account for significant nonpoint source pollution, with studies indicating that high-P soils from fertilizer use can elevate surface water concentrations by factors leading to hypoxic zones.^[61] This effect is particularly pronounced in watersheds with intensive cropping, where empirical data from U.S. monitoring show phosphorus from fertilizers comprising up to 50% of total inputs in impaired lakes and rivers.^[60] Phosphate rock used in superphosphate production often contains elevated levels of heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb), which accumulate in soils upon repeated application and pose risks to soil microbial communities and plant uptake.^[62]^[63] For instance, long-term use has been linked to Cd soil concentrations exceeding 1 mg/kg in fertilized fields, facilitating bioaccumulation in crops and entry into food chains, with peer-reviewed analyses confirming mobilization enhanced by the acidic nature of superphosphate.^[64]^[65] These contaminants derive directly from sedimentary phosphate deposits, where Cd levels can reach 100 mg/kg in raw materials, and regulatory thresholds in regions like the EU aim to limit additions to 1.5 kg Cd/ha/year to mitigate ecological buildup.^[66] Production processes for superphosphate release fluoride emissions, including hydrogen fluoride gas, which deposit on nearby vegetation and soils, causing foliar damage and reduced biodiversity in surrounding ecosystems.^[67] Historical data from fertilizer plants indicate fluoride concentrations in ambient air up to 1 mg/m³ near facilities, leading to defoliation in sensitive plant species and bioaccumulation in wildlife, with studies documenting impacts extending kilometers downwind.^[68]^[10] Additionally, while superphosphate itself introduces calcium that may buffer direct acidification, indirect effects from enhanced crop growth and associated nitrogen cycling can lower soil pH over decades, altering microbial activity and nutrient availability in acid-sensitive habitats.^[69]^[70]

Mitigation Measures and Net Benefits

Mitigation of environmental impacts from superphosphate production includes selecting phosphate rock with lower concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium, which naturally occur as impurities at levels of 1-200 mg Cd per kg P₂O₅, and blending sources to reduce overall content before processing.^[71] ^[72] Process adjustments, including gas scrubbing for fluoride emissions and energy-efficient operations, further limit releases of volatile compounds like hydrogen fluoride during acid-rock reactions.^[73] ^[74] In agricultural application, phosphorus runoff— a primary contributor to eutrophication—can be reduced through best management practices such as soil testing to apply only necessary rates, subsurface banding or liquid formulations to minimize surface exposure, and timing applications to avoid rainfall within 21 days, which limits immediate dissolution and transport.^[75] ^[76] Buffer strips, cover cropping, and erosion controls intercept dissolved and particulate phosphorus, while maintaining soil pH at 6.0-7.0 via liming enhances plant uptake and reduces solubility losses.^[77] ^[46] Fertilizer enhancers that inhibit premature phosphorus fixation in soil, such as those promoting root absorption, further decrease leaching risks without compromising availability.^[78] Net benefits of superphosphate outweigh mitigated drawbacks through enhanced crop yields that support global food security; phosphorus fertilization has increased arable productivity by factors of 2-3 in deficient soils since widespread adoption post-1940s, averting expansion of cultivated land and associated habitat loss.^[79] Controlled application minimizes eutrophication while enabling efficient nutrient recycling, as evidenced by life-cycle assessments showing reduced overall environmental footprints from higher per-hectare outputs compared to unfertilized systems.^[80] Cadmium inputs, though cumulative, remain below thresholds in low-impurity formulations when paired with crop rotation and soil amendments, yielding net agronomic gains without disproportionate health risks in most contexts.^[81]

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There are always two stages in the manufacture of granulated single superphosphate, the first to manufacture powdered single superphosphate and the second to ...
[39]
Production Of Triple Superphosphate - Cheresources.com Community
Dec 26, 2018 · The phosphoric acid produced by the wet process can be used as a raw material for the production of triple superphosphate.
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[PDF] 8.5.2 Triple Superphosphates - EPA
Two processes have been used to produce triple superphosphate: run-of-the-pile (ROP-TSP) and granular (GTSP). At this time, no facilities in the U. S. are ...
[41]
Single Superphosphate and Triple Superphosphate Production Plants
SSP and TSP are key phosphate fertilizers made from phosphate rock. SSP uses sulfuric acid, while TSP uses phosphoric acid. SSP is the first commercial mineral ...
[42]
SS-AGR-463/AG462: Plant Essential Nutrients and Their Role
Phosphorus is an essential part of photosynthesis. In young plants, P is most abundant in tissue at the growing point. The immediate source of P for plants is ...
[43]
Role of Phosphorus in Plants - Mosaic Crop Nutrition
ESSENTIAL ROLE OF PHOSPHORUS IN PLANTS · Stimulated root development · Increased stalk and stem strength · Improved flower formation and seed production · More ...
[44]
Phosphorus Basics | Integrated Crop Management
Phosphorus is present in plant and animal cells and is vital to all plants for harvesting the sun's energy and converting it into growth and reproduction.Missing: photosynthesis | Show results with:photosynthesis
[45]
Competency Area 1: Basic Concepts of Plant Nutrition
Phosphorus: an essential component of DNA, RNA, and phospholipids, which play critical roles in cell membranes; also plays a major role in the energy system ( ...
[46]
Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production - Penn State Extension
Sep 1, 2017 · Adequate phosphorus results in higher grain production, improved crop quality, greater stalk strength, increased root growth, and earlier crop maturity.
[47]
Effective Techniques for Applying Single Superphosphate in Crop ...
Feb 23, 2025 · 1. Broadcasting: This method involves spreading SSP evenly across the field soil surface before tillage. It ensures that the nutrient is mixed ...
[48]
How Single Super Phosphate Can Boost Your Crop Yield - TONGDA
Aug 12, 2025 · ... crop and expected yield. However, as a general guide, typical SSP rates for base application range from 20 to 40 kilograms per acre (about ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
Efficacy of Manually Prepared Single Super Phosphate Fertilizer on ...
The SSP application as P source increased grain yield and total dry matter yield 2.5% and 4.7% over DAP, respectively. Similarly, SSP application enhanced P ...
[50]
Coupling phosphorus rate and type enhances maize yield by ...
As a result, the SSP under optimized P rate resulted in higher maize yield (+8.06 %), PAE (+32.4 %), and net income (+18.2 %).
[51]
[PDF] characteristics and agronomic performance of triple superphosphate
Triple superphosphate (TSP) was the first high analysis phosphorus (P) fertilizer that became widely used in the 20th century and the most common P source used ...
[52]
Application of Single Superphosphate with Humic Acid Improves the ...
The maximum straw yield of 4549 kg ha−1 was recorded from the treatments applied with 112.5 kg P2O5 ha−1 which was 71% higher than control. This increase ...
[53]
(PDF) Effect of Triple Superphosphate and Minjingu Phosphate ...
Maize grain yields were significantly higher in L/MTSP, L/MMPR and C/MMPR in the LRS and L-MMPR and L/MTSP in the SRS. Application of either TSP or MPR in ...
[54]
Phosphorus in Agriculture: A Review of Results from 175 Years of ...
Aug 1, 2019 · Insight into the role of phosphorus (P) in soil fertility and crop nutrition at Rothamsted, UK, and its involvement in associated environmental ...
[55]
The Impact of Different Phosphorus Fertilizers Varieties on Yield ...
Jun 18, 2024 · The results showed that different P fertilizers increased the average yield of wheat and maize by 21.2–38.0% and 9.9–16.3%, respectively.<|separator|>
[56]
Phosphate Fertilizer Production – From the 1830's to 2011 and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · John Bennet Lawes developed this process at an industrial scale and renamed the product as superphosphate fertilizer, which was the first P- ...
[57]
Phosphate Fertilizer Market Size & Share Report, 2040
Triple superphosphate was the second-largest product segment in 2021 accounting for around 17% of the revenue share. It is a highly concentrated phosphorus ...
[58]
Single Superphosphate Market Size, Share & Industry Report 2035
The Single Superphosphate Market will expand from USD 19.03 billion in 2024 to USD 25.02 billion by 2035, registering 2.52% CAGR.
[59]
[PDF] Agricultural Phosphorus and Eutrophication - Second Edition
Today, there are serious concerns that agricultural runoff (surface and subsurface) and erosion from high P soils may be major contributing factors to surface ...
[60]
Nutrients and Eutrophication | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Nutrients are essential for plant growth, but the overabundance of nutrients in water can have many harmful health and environmental effects. An overabundance ...
[61]
Human Impact on Erodable Phosphorus and Eutrophication: A ...
Overenrichment with nutrients can cause excessive production in lakes, a problematic condition known as eutrophication, in which water quality is impaired (see ...Global Phosphorus Budgets · Conclusions · References Cited
[62]
Cd content in phosphate fertilizer: Which potential risk for the ...
Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that accumulates in soil and in living organisms and causes severe and permanent damage. Its presence in the soil depends ...
[63]
Evidence for the accumulation of toxic metal(loid)s in agricultural ...
Oct 28, 2023 · Phosphate fertilizers may contain elevated concentrations of toxic metals and metalloids and therefore, their excessive application can result ...
[64]
Cd mobilization, plant toxicity, and soil microbial community
Apr 1, 2022 · Fertilization may change soil physicochemical properties and affect heavy metal mobility in soil (Qaswar et al., 2020). Phosphate fertilizers ...
[65]
Heavy Metal Contamination in Agricultural Soil - MDPI
For example, superphosphate fertilizers can contain Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, and Ni as contaminants. In a study that assessed soil with and without P fertilizer ...
[66]
Heavy Metals in Fertilizers - MN Dept. of Health
Sep 27, 2024 · The results showed elevated levels of arsenic, lead, and cadmium in some fertilizer products -- primarily micronutrient fertilizers (products ...
[67]
The Phosphate Fertilizer Industry: An Environmental Overview
Damage to vegetation and livestock, caused by fluoride emissions from large industry, has resulted, as one might expect, in a great deal of expensive litigation ...
[68]
Final Guideline Document Control Of Fluoride Emissions From ...
Final Guideline Document Control Of Fluoride Emissions From Existing Phosphate Fertilizer Plants.
[69]
Fertilizers and Soil Acidity - Mosaic Crop Nutrition
The form of phosphorus fertilizer added to soil can affect soil acidity, principally through the release or gain of H⁺ ions by the phosphate molecule depending ...
[70]
Busting common fertiliser myths | Meat & Livestock Australia - MLA
Dec 4, 2015 · MYTH: Applying single super acidifies the soil. TRUTH: Superphosphate does not have a direct acidifying effect, but may lead to acidification ...
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[PDF] Cadmium content in fertilizers and its impacts on soil health
Jun 1, 2023 · Why do fertilizers contain Cd? Cadmium occurs naturally as a contaminant in all phosphate rock, but the concentrations vary considerably ...
[72]
[PDF] Revisiting and updating the effect of phosphate fertilizers to ...
Cadmium occurs naturally as an impurity in rock phosphate at concentrations 1-200 mg Cd (kg. P2O5)-1 and is present in the commercial phosphate (P) fertilizers.
[73]
Retention of fluoride gases in the production of superphosphate
Numerous studies have highlighted the environmental impact of fluoride gas emissions from superphosphate production. The literature emphasizes the need for ...
[74]
[PDF] Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Phosphate ...
Apr 30, 2007 · Guidance for the management of energy conservation, which can significantly contribute to the reduction of emissions related to energy.
[75]
The mitigation of phosphorus losses from a water-repellent soil used ...
Mar 15, 2020 · To mitigate P losses from fertiliser, applications should be timed to avoid surface runoff-producing rainfall within the next 21 days (McDowell ...
[76]
Managing Acute Phosphorus Loss with Fertilizer Source ... - ACSESS
Feb 1, 2016 · To reduce SP losses in runoff and improve fertilizer inefficiencies, we recommend that liquid fertilizers or subsurface banding fertilizers on ...Missing: measures | Show results with:measures
[77]
[PDF] Best Management Practices for Phosphorus Fertilization
These P losses can be controlled by adopting fertilizer management and erosion control Best Management. Practices (BMPs) which minimize runoff to surface water.
[78]
How to Reduce Phosphorus Runoff | Verdesian Life Sciences
Mar 8, 2023 · Utilizing a quality fertilizer enhancer like AVAIL to increase Phosphorus uptake is a powerful tool in this strategy. To learn more about AVAIL, ...
[79]
Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Wastewater-Derived ...
Jul 7, 2022 · Recovering phosphorus from wastewater in more concentrated forms has potential to sustainably recirculate phosphorus from cities to agriculture.
[80]
Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Wastewater-Derived ...
Jul 7, 2022 · This study shows life cycle environmental benefits of the agricultural use of wastewater-derived phosphorus products from the end-user perspective
[81]
Fertilizer Impacts on Cadmium Availability in Agricultural Soils and ...
Cadmium accumulation in soils and crops can be minimized by adoption of management practices that improve fertilizer-use efficiency while minimizing Cd input.<|control11|><|separator|>