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Scapegoat

A scapegoat is an individual, group, or entity unjustly blamed for the wrongdoing, misfortunes, or sins of others, often as a means to displace aggression, restore social order, or avoid accountability.^[1] The term originates from the ancient Israelite ritual described in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Leviticus (chapter 16), where during the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), one goat was sacrificed to God while another, known as the "goat for Azazel," was symbolically burdened with the community's sins and released into the wilderness to carry them away.^[2] The English word "scapegoat" was coined in 1530 by Bible translator William Tyndale, who rendered the Hebrew term "la-azazel" (translated as "for Azazel," often interpreted in English as "the goat that departs" or rendered as "scapegoat" by Tyndale) as "the scapegoate," influencing its widespread adoption in later translations like the King James Bible.^[3] In religious and anthropological contexts, the scapegoat ritual exemplifies a mechanism for communal purification and crisis resolution, as theorized by French philosopher René Girard in his mimetic theory, where collective violence against a victim fosters group unity and cultural origins.^[4] Psychologically, scapegoating manifests as displaced aggression, a concept central to the frustration-aggression hypothesis developed by John Dollard and colleagues in 1939, positing that frustration leads to aggression redirected toward a vulnerable target, such as minorities, rather than the actual source of discontent.^[5] Sociologically, it appears in prejudice and discrimination dynamics, where groups blame outcasts for societal issues, as seen in historical examples like antisemitism or racial scapegoating during economic downturns.^[6] In family systems, scapegoating often targets one member to maintain dysfunctional equilibrium, perpetuating cycles of abuse and denial.^[7] Overall, the scapegoat archetype underscores human tendencies toward projection and exclusion, influencing literature, law, and politics across cultures.

Definition and Etymology

Definition

A scapegoat refers to an individual, group, or entity unjustly blamed for problems, failures, or misfortunes that they did not cause, often to deflect responsibility and alleviate collective tension within a community. This practice involves displacing guilt or frustration onto a vulnerable target, allowing the blaming party to achieve a sense of resolution or unity without addressing underlying issues.^[8] The term originates from an ancient ritual described in the Hebrew Bible, in which a goat was symbolically laden with the sins of the people and sent into the wilderness, embodying the transfer of communal impurities to an external bearer. This act provided a mechanism for purification and catharsis, highlighting the scapegoat's role as an innocent vessel for expelled wrongdoing.^[9] Metaphorically, the concept has evolved to encompass unjust blame in diverse contexts, such as social dynamics where out-groups are targeted during economic hardship or political turmoil, psychological processes like frustration-aggression displacement, and sociological patterns that reinforce in-group cohesion by ostracizing perceived deviants. In these extensions, scapegoating serves as a defense mechanism, enabling societies or families to maintain stability by projecting internal conflicts outward.^[10]^[7] Central characteristics of scapegoating include the target's innocence, which underscores the irrationality of the blame; the symbolic or literal transfer of guilt, akin to ritual expulsion; and the communal catharsis that follows, fostering temporary harmony among the accusers at the expense of the victim. These elements, as analyzed in anthropological and psychoanalytic frameworks, reveal scapegoating as a pervasive human strategy for managing crisis and ambiguity.^[11]

Etymology

The term "scapegoat" originates from the Hebrew word ʿăzāʾzēl (עֲזָאזֵל), which appears in Leviticus 16:8, 10, and 26 of the Hebrew Bible, referring to one of two goats selected during the ancient Israelite ritual of atonement.^[12] The etymology of ʿăzāʾzēl is debated among scholars. One prominent interpretation derives it as a compound from ʿēz (goat) and a form of ʾāzal (to remove or depart), translating to "the goat that departs" or "goat for removal," emphasizing the animal's role in being sent away into the wilderness. Other views treat it as a proper name linked to a wilderness demon, a rugged cliff or precipice, or a desolate place.^[13]^[14] The English word "scapegoat" was coined in 1530 by William Tyndale in his pioneering translation of the Pentateuch into vernacular English, where he rendered the Hebrew phrase as "a scape goate," blending "scape" (a contraction of "escape") with "goat" to convey the idea of a goat that escapes or is sent away bearing sins.^[12] Tyndale's innovative phrasing, which interpreted ʿăzāʾzēl as ʿēz ʾāzēl ("goat that goes away"), marked a significant shift from earlier Latin Vulgate translations that used caper emissarius (emissary goat) or simply left the term untranslated.^[3] This coinage profoundly influenced subsequent English Bibles, including the 1611 King James Version, which retained "scapegoat" and embedded the term in Western religious and cultural lexicon.^[15] Over time, "scapegoat" evolved linguistically, with the original "scape-goat" sometimes misdivided in popular usage as "escape goat," a folk etymology that persists despite its inaccuracy.^[3] By the 19th century, the noun extended to the verb form "to scapegoat," first attested in 1884, denoting the act of assigning blame to an innocent party, and "scapegoating" as a gerund around the same time, reflecting its adaptation into broader psychological and social discourse.^[3]

Historical and Religious Origins

Biblical Account in Judaism

The scapegoat ritual forms a central component of the Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) ceremony outlined in Leviticus 16, where it serves to purify the Israelite community from accumulated sins and impurities. This annual rite, instituted after the deaths of Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu for their unauthorized approach to the divine presence, emphasizes the High Priest's role in mediating atonement to maintain the sanctity of the Tabernacle. The procedure addresses both the priestly household and the entire congregation, symbolizing the removal of moral and ritual defilements that threaten the community's relationship with God.^[2] On the tenth day of the seventh month, the High Priest, after atoning for his own sins with a bull as a sin offering and a ram as a burnt offering, selects two identical goats for a communal sin offering. He casts lots to determine their fates: one goat is designated "for the Lord" and sacrificed on the altar, its blood sprinkled in the Holy Place to cleanse the sanctuary from the people's transgressions. The other goat, designated "for Azazel," receives the High Priest's hands laid upon its head as he confesses over it "all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins" (Lev 16:21, ESV), symbolically transferring the community's guilt onto the animal. A designated man then leads this live goat into the wilderness, bearing away the sins to a remote, uninhabited region, thereby expelling the impurities from the sacred space.^[2] This ritual underscores the dual mechanism of atonement in ancient Jewish practice: sacrificial blood for propitiation and expulsion for elimination of sin's contaminating effects. Performed exclusively by the High Priest within the Tabernacle (and later the Temple in Jerusalem), it highlights the wilderness as a place of separation from divine presence, where the goat's release ensures the sins do not return to pollute the camp. The term "Azazel" in the biblical text remains enigmatic, possibly referring to a rugged cliff or a demonic entity to which the goat is consigned, though its precise meaning ties into broader ancient Near Eastern concepts without altering the ritual's core function of communal purification.^[2]

Ancient Near Eastern Parallels

In ancient Mesopotamia, the Akitu festival served as a major New Year celebration that incorporated rituals for cosmic renewal and the expulsion of communal sins. During this event, particularly in Babylonian traditions, a substitute animal, such as a sheep, was selected to bear the people's impurities through symbolic transfer via incantations and physical imposition by priests or the king. This surrogate was then driven out to the wilderness or a liminal space, effectively removing evil influences to restore order; such practices are evidenced in cuneiform texts from the late 2nd millennium BCE, illustrating a mechanism for collective purification akin to later biblical rites.^[16] Hittite religious practices in Anatolia similarly featured elaborate purification ceremonies utilizing surrogate figures to absorb and banish guilt. In rituals documented at the capital Hattusa, impurities or sins were transferred to humans, animals, or even inanimate objects through hand-laying, sprinkling of liquids, and recitations, after which the bearer was ritually expelled or sacrificed to avert divine wrath. These substitute mechanisms, often involving sheep or prisoners as scapegoats, aimed to cleanse sanctuaries and communities, with key examples preserved in over 200 cuneiform tablets dating to the 15th–13th centuries BCE, reflecting a widespread Near Eastern tradition of vicarious atonement.^[17] Canaanite rituals, as revealed by archaeological finds from Ugarit, also employed sin-transfer ceremonies to manage communal or ritual pollution. Texts from the city's archives describe procedures where sins were imposed on birds, goats, or other animals via priestly confession and manipulation, followed by their release into the desert to carry away malevolence; one notable ritual involves a goat dispatched to a deity, potentially for expiation during crises. These practices, inscribed on clay tablets from approximately 1400–1200 BCE, provide direct parallels to the expulsion motif in Israelite traditions, suggesting cultural exchanges in the Levant during the Late Bronze Age.^[18]

Interpretations in Major Religions

Jewish Perspectives

In rabbinic literature, the concept of the scapegoat, derived from the biblical ritual described in Leviticus 16, underwent significant interpretive development, particularly in the Talmud's Tractate Yoma. Discussions there debate the meaning of "Azazel," with one prominent view identifying it as a rugged cliff in the Judean wilderness from which the goat was cast, symbolizing the removal of sins to a desolate place (Yoma 67b).^[19] Another interpretation portrays Azazel as a demonic figure or "goat demon," drawing from references to wilderness spirits and the prohibition against sacrificing to such entities (Lev. 17:7; Yoma 63a).^[19] These debates highlight the ritual's dual role in purification and expulsion, but the practice itself ended with the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, rendering animal sacrifices obsolete.^[20] Medieval Jewish scholars further emphasized the scapegoat's symbolic rather than literal significance. Rashi, in his commentary on Leviticus 16:8, explains Azazel as a precipitous, flinty mountain peak, underscoring the physical act of expulsion as a metaphor for banishing iniquity.^[21] Maimonides, in his Guide for the Perplexed, rejects any notion of transferring sins to another entity, asserting that such rituals serve only as educational symbols to foster moral awareness and personal atonement, not magical transference.^[22] In post-Temple Judaism, the scapegoat ritual evolved into non-sacrificial practices on Yom Kippur, where confession, prayer (tefillah), repentance (teshuvah), and charity (tzedakah) symbolically carry away communal sins, maintaining the focus on ethical self-improvement.^[23] In contemporary Jewish thought, the scapegoat motif informs ethics by promoting collective responsibility and cautioning against blame-shifting. It serves as a reminder that true atonement requires communal introspection rather than externalizing faults, aligning with teachings that emphasize shared accountability in Jewish society to prevent injustice.^[24] This perspective underscores the ritual's enduring lesson: avoiding scapegoating fosters unity and moral integrity within the community.^[25]

Christian Perspectives

In Christian theology, the scapegoat motif from the Jewish Day of Atonement ritual in Leviticus 16 is reinterpreted through the lens of Jesus Christ's redemptive work, portraying him as the ultimate fulfillment of both goats: the sacrificed one and the one bearing sins away.^[26] The New Testament, particularly the Epistle to the Hebrews, links this imagery to Christ's atonement. In Hebrews 9:11-14, Jesus is depicted as the high priest who enters the heavenly sanctuary not with the blood of goats and calves but with his own blood, cleansing consciences from dead works to serve the living God. This contrasts with the annual repetition of the Day of Atonement sacrifices, emphasizing Christ's once-for-all offering. Hebrews 9:28 further portrays Jesus as the one "who has been offered once to bear the sins of many," echoing the scapegoat's role in carrying communal sins into the wilderness without return, thus permanently removing guilt and providing eternal salvation for those awaiting his second coming. Unlike the temporary expulsion of the scapegoat, Christ's bearing of sins achieves definitive purification, as Hebrews 10:10-14 explains that his single sacrifice sanctifies believers perpetually, making further offerings obsolete.^[26] Early Church Fathers expanded this typology, viewing the two goats as prefiguring Christ's dual nature. Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376–444 CE), in his allegorical exegesis, interpreted the sacrificed goat as symbolizing Christ's humanity offered in death for sins, while the live scapegoat represented his divinity, which bears human iniquity into exile without perishing, thus reconciling divinity and humanity in the Incarnation. This Christological reading, echoed by Ambrose and Jerome, underscores the scapegoat not as a mere symbol of expulsion but as integral to the mystery of Christ's person, where divine and human natures unite to accomplish redemption.^[27] During the Reformation, Protestant theologians intensified the focus on substitutionary atonement, aligning the scapegoat with Christ's penal substitution for humanity's sins. Reformers like John Calvin emphasized that Jesus, as the innocent substitute, bore the full penalty of divine wrath on the cross, much like the scapegoat laden with confessed sins and sent away, satisfying God's justice and imputing righteousness to believers. This view, central to Reformed soteriology, rejects any ongoing human merit in atonement, insisting Christ's vicarious suffering fully exhausts sin's curse, as articulated in Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (Book II, Chapter 16). In Catholic tradition, the scapegoat motif integrates into sacramental theology and liturgy, symbolizing Christ's expiation of sin through his passion. Post-Vatican II developments, influenced by the Council's emphasis on communal participation in Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963), have evolved this toward stressing reconciliation within the ecclesial community. The Rite of Penance (1973) incorporates communal forms of confession and absolution, where the assembly collectively acknowledges sin and receives forgiveness, reflecting the scapegoat's role in restoring communal harmony with God and one another, rather than isolating individual guilt. This liturgical shift promotes active involvement in the paschal mystery, viewing Christ's atonement as enabling shared healing and unity in the Body of Christ.

Comparative Historical Practices

In Ancient Greece

In ancient Greek society, the pharmakos ritual served as a civic and religious mechanism for communal purification during times of crisis, such as plagues, famines, or droughts, by expelling or sacrificing a designated individual to absorb and remove miasma, or ritual pollution, from the community.^[28] Typically, the pharmakos was selected from marginalized groups, including beggars, slaves, criminals, or those deemed physically deformed or ugly, symbolizing the embodiment of societal ills.^[29] This practice, rooted in the belief that the scapegoat's removal restored harmony and divine favor, was performed in various city-states, reflecting a blend of apotropaic magic and civic piety.^[30] A prominent example occurred in Athens during the Thargelia festival, held in early summer to honor Apollo as a god of purification and renewal. Two pharmakoi—one man and one woman—were chosen annually, feasted for a day, then paraded through the city while being scourged with branches of figs or squills to transfer the pollution onto them, before being driven out beyond the city walls or, in some accounts, stoned to death.^[31] The ritual's dual nature, involving both a "first fruits" offering to Apollo and the scapegoat expulsion, underscored its role in ensuring agricultural prosperity and social order.^[32] Literary depictions illuminate the pharmakos's symbolic function as a bearer of communal guilt. In Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Oedipus assumes the role of pharmakos by voluntarily exiling himself to cleanse Thebes of the plague caused by his unwitting crimes, absorbing the city's pollution through his self-sacrifice.^[33] Similarly, Herodotus recounts historical scapegoat narratives, such as the expulsion of individuals in various Greek cities to avert disasters, portraying the pharmakos as a necessary outlet for collective misfortune.^[34] Historical evidence from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE documents pharmakos practices in cities like Athens and Abdera, where annual or crisis-driven expulsions were institutionalized to maintain civic stability.^[29] By the Hellenistic period, however, these rituals evolved, with human pharmakoi increasingly replaced by animal substitutes or symbolic effigies, reflecting shifting ethical norms and a preference for less violent forms of purification.^[30]

In Other Ancient Cultures

In ancient Rome, the Lupercalia festival, held annually on February 15, featured the sacrifice of goats and a dog at the Lupercal cave to ensure purification and fertility for the community. The blood of the sacrificed goat was applied to the foreheads of selected young priests, the Luperci, who then wiped it off with wool soaked in milk, symbolizing the ritual transfer and removal of communal impurities through the animal victim. This practice paralleled scapegoat mechanisms by using the goat to absorb and expel societal ills. Additionally, Roman military discipline included decimation, a punishment for cowardice or mutiny where every tenth soldier in a delinquent unit was executed by their comrades, punishing a few for the failings of the many to restore unit discipline.^[35] Historical records indicate this was applied sparingly but severely, such as after defeats in the Republican era, to deter future lapses.^[36] In ancient Egypt, execration rituals emerged prominently during the Middle Kingdom around 2000 BCE as a means to transfer curses and malevolent forces onto substitute objects or beings. Priests inscribed names of enemies, demons, or chaotic entities on wax or clay figurines, sometimes depicting bound prisoners or animals, which were then ritually mutilated, broken, burned, or drowned to symbolize the expulsion of harm from Egyptian society.^[37] These texts and artifacts, discovered at sites like Saqqara and Mirgissa, targeted both foreign threats and internal disorder, functioning as a magical scapegoat to safeguard pharaonic order and prosperity.^[38] Among other indigenous traditions, Aztec religious practices included rituals in which captives impersonated deities like Huitzilopochtli and were sacrificed to renew the gods' strength and maintain cosmic balance. Colonial-era chroniclers, drawing from pre-colonial codices and oral histories, described these as essential for appeasing deities during festivals marking the end of a calendar cycle.^[39] Similarly, in various pre-colonial African societies, such as among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, communities expelled designated individuals—often an elderly woman or outcast—laden with the year's evils during annual rites, as documented in 19th-century ethnographies that trace the custom to indigenous purification ceremonies aimed at averting calamity.^[40]

Psychological Scapegoating

Psychological scapegoating refers to the process by which individuals or groups displace their own unacceptable emotions, such as aggression or guilt, onto a surrogate target, often a vulnerable person or minority, to alleviate internal conflict. This mechanism is rooted in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of projection, a defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own undesirable impulses or traits to others to avoid confronting them within themselves.^[10] In Freud's framework, projection serves as a way to externalize internal tensions, transforming personal anxiety into perceived threats from the scapegoat, thereby maintaining psychological equilibrium.^[41] This concept aligns with early 20th-century psychoanalytic views on displacement, where aggression is redirected from its original source—often oneself or authority figures—to a safer, less threatening outlet. Building on Freudian ideas, key psychological theories have expanded the understanding of scapegoating as a resolution to interpersonal and social tensions. René Girard's mimetic theory posits that human desire is inherently imitative, leading to rivalry and escalating conflict within groups, which is then resolved through the collective identification and expulsion of a scapegoat to restore unity.^[11] In this model, the scapegoat absorbs the group's mimetic violence, allowing members to bond over shared blame and mythologize the victim as both cause and cure of the crisis.^[42] Complementing this, Gordon Allport's seminal work on prejudice describes scapegoating as a frustration-aggression response, where economic or social hardships lead individuals to irrationally blame minority groups, perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination.^[43] Allport's analysis, drawn from mid-20th-century studies of intergroup relations, highlights how such blame serves as an emotional outlet, reinforcing prejudice by portraying minorities as inherent threats to societal stability.^[6] Recent psychological research, such as studies from 2021 onward, has examined scapegoating in digital contexts, including how online platforms amplify blame displacement during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, contributing to increased mental health impacts on targeted individuals.^[44] ^[45] In clinical settings, psychologists identify scapegoating within family dynamics as a dysfunctional pattern where one member, often a child, is consistently blamed for familial problems to preserve the group's cohesion or protect enmeshed relationships.^[46] Therapists address this through family systems therapy, encouraging recognition of projection and redistribution of responsibility to foster healthier interactions and reduce the scapegoat's isolation.^[47] The concept of family scapegoating abuse (FSA), formalized in recent literature as of 2020, emphasizes systemic patterns of rejection and blame, with ongoing research highlighting recovery strategies for survivors.^[48] Empirical studies from the late 20th and early 21st centuries further illuminate scapegoating through cognitive biases, such as the fundamental attribution error, where observers overemphasize dispositional factors in explaining others' misfortunes while minimizing situational influences, thereby facilitating victim blaming.^[49] For instance, research on crisis responses shows that perceived threats, like illness outbreaks, heighten scapegoating tendencies by amplifying biases that attribute collective woes to out-groups, as demonstrated in experimental paradigms measuring blame displacement.^[50] These findings underscore scapegoating's role in individual cognition, distinct from but informed by ancient rituals where communities ritually expelled symbolic bearers of sin to purify the group.^[51]

Sociological and Political Applications

In sociology, scapegoating functions as a mechanism to restore social cohesion during periods of crisis or disruption, as theorized by Émile Durkheim in his analysis of anti-Semitism and social crises. Durkheim posited that by collectively blaming an out-group, society redirects internal tensions outward, thereby reinforcing solidarity among the in-group members.^[52] This process transforms individual anxieties into a shared moral unity, where the scapegoated party serves as a symbolic expiatory victim to reaffirm collective norms.^[52] A prominent historical example of this dynamic occurred in Nazi Germany, where Jews were systematically scapegoated for economic woes, the loss of World War I, and broader societal ills, thereby unifying the Aryan population under a common enemy. Sociological analyses highlight how this scapegoating was not merely prejudice but a deliberate ideological strategy to bolster national solidarity amid post-war instability.^[53] The regime's propaganda portrayed Jews as an existential threat, exploiting economic resentment to consolidate power and justify discriminatory policies.^[54] Politically, scapegoating has been employed to deflect blame for national humiliations, as seen in the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, which designated Germany as the primary aggressor and imposed severe reparations, territorial losses, and military restrictions. This framing positioned Germany as the collective scapegoat for the Allied powers' war costs, fostering widespread resentment that extremist leaders later harnessed to rally domestic support.^[55] In contemporary politics, similar rhetoric emerged during the 2016 Brexit referendum, where anti-immigrant narratives scapegoated European Union migrants for straining public services, job competition, and cultural changes, thereby mobilizing voter turnout for the Leave campaign.^[56] Scholarly examinations reveal this discourse as a utilitarian tactic to simplify complex economic grievances into a narrative of external threat, enhancing political cohesion among proponents.^[57] More recently, during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023), governments and media in various countries, including India and the U.S., scapegoated ethnic minorities and immigrants for virus spread and economic fallout, exacerbating discrimination and social divisions.^[58] ^[59] In the 2024 U.S. presidential election, political figures employed scapegoating against immigrants, portraying them as threats to jobs and security to consolidate voter bases, as seen in rhetoric around Haitian communities in Springfield, Ohio.^[60] Economically, scapegoating often targets marginalized groups during downturns to preserve elite interests, as evidenced in the 2008 global financial crisis, where minorities faced heightened blame for subprime mortgage defaults amid predatory lending practices. Sociological research indicates that this crisis amplified antiminority sentiments, with scapegoating serving to divert public anger from systemic failures in banking toward vulnerable populations like Black and Latino communities, who suffered disproportionate foreclosure rates due to spatial segregation and targeted exploitation.^[61] Simultaneously, bankers and financial institutions were rhetorically scapegoated in public discourse as symbols of greed, though this rarely led to structural accountability, instead reinforcing divisions that sustained economic inequality.^[62] Such patterns underscore scapegoating's role in maintaining social hierarchies under economic strain.^[61]

Cultural Representations

In Literature

In classical literature, the scapegoat motif appears prominently in Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus, where Oedipus embodies the pharmakos, a ritual figure expelled to purify the community of plague and sin. As the unwitting perpetrator of patricide and incest, Oedipus is cast as the outsider whose self-blinding and banishment restore Thebes, reflecting ancient Greek practices of communal catharsis through sacrificial victims.^[63] Biblical influences on the scapegoat theme are evident in John Milton's Paradise Lost, where the narrative of the Fall echoes the Levitical ritual of the azazel goat bearing humanity's sins into the wilderness. Eve, in particular, is positioned as a scapegoat for original sin, her temptation and disobedience blamed for humanity's expulsion from Eden, thereby absolving broader divine and human responsibilities in the epic's exploration of free will and redemption. In 19th-century Russian literature, Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Idiot portrays Prince Lev Myshkin as a Christ-like scapegoat rejected by a corrupt society. Myshkin's naive compassion and epileptic "idiocy" make him a target for mockery and manipulation, culminating in his mental collapse as the elite project their moral failings onto him, critiquing Russia's social hypocrisy.^[64] Similarly, in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, Tom Robinson serves as a racial scapegoat in the American South, falsely accused of assault to deflect scrutiny from white perpetrators and preserve social order. His trial and death highlight institutionalized prejudice, where an innocent Black man absorbs communal guilt to maintain racial hierarchies.^[65] Thematic explorations of scapegoating often critique its absurdity and injustice, as in Franz Kafka's The Trial, where Josef K. is prosecuted without cause or clarity, embodying the modern bureaucratic scapegoat ensnared in an opaque system of persecution. K.'s futile resistance exposes the irrationality of victimage, where the innocent victim is ritually condemned to restore illusory order, underscoring existential alienation in 20th-century literature.^[66]

In Modern Media and Arts

The concept of the scapegoat has been extensively explored in modern literature, often drawing on René Girard's mimetic theory to depict characters who absorb collective blame to resolve social tensions. In Ian McEwan's 2001 novel Atonement, the character Robbie Turner serves as a modern scapegoat archetype, falsely accused by young Briony Tallis of a crime he did not commit, leading to his imprisonment and lifelong suffering that parallels biblical figures like Jesus or the Levitical goat. This motif underscores themes of innocence, false witness, and atonement, with Robbie's victimization restoring a semblance of order to the Tallis family while highlighting the destructive power of unchecked narrative fabrication.^[67] In contemporary film, the scapegoat trope frequently manifests in narratives of isolation and communal violence, reflecting societal anxieties about outsiders and moral purification. Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather trilogy (1972–1990) portrays Michael Corleone as a scapegoat for the erosion of the American Dream, where his transformation into a ruthless patriarch absorbs the family's sins and societal failings, allowing viewers cathartic blame-shifting amid escalating violence that critiques capitalist corruption. Similarly, in the 2004 Belgian horror film Calvaire, directed by Fabrice Du Welz, the traveling singer Marc Stevens becomes a Girardian scapegoat—an ambiguous outsider ritually punished by a rural village to restore communal harmony after their cultural disruptions, embodying the victim's dual role as both guilty and redemptive. Steven Soderbergh's 2011 thriller Contagion employs the Patient Zero myth to scapegoat a promiscuous businesswoman, Beth Emhoff, whose fictionalized sexual history explains the global pandemic's spread, thereby exonerating the broader public and reinforcing stereotypes of moral contagion in crisis narratives.^[68]^[69]^[70] Visual arts in the late 20th and early 21st centuries have revisited the scapegoat through symbolic and autobiographical lenses, often invoking biblical imagery to address personal and collective trauma. Scottish painter John Bellany (1942–2013), influenced by his Calvinist upbringing, recurrently depicted the scapegoat in works like his 1980s etching The Scapegoat, where grotesque, sacrificial figures laden with communal guilt evoke themes of violence, redemption, and existential isolation amid his own battles with illness and societal judgment. These representations align with Girard's framework by portraying the scapegoat not merely as victim but as a catalyst for mythic renewal, adapting ancient rituals to critique modern alienation.^[71]

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Achrei Mot: The Scapegoat - Accidental Talmudist
Apr 26, 2022 · Regarding the scapegoat, Maimonides (1138-1204) reflected that “there is no doubt that sins cannot be taken off the shoulder of one being to be ...
[22]
Atonement for Sin in a Post-Temple Era | Jewish Voice
Sep 25, 2017 · Jewish tradition teaches that, in the post-Temple age, Jewish people find atonement through confession, repentance and prayer to God and reconciliation among ...
[23]
The Scapegoat: Atonement and Purification - Chabad.org
“Scapegoating,” as we use the word today, means blaming someone else for our troubles. The scapegoat of Yom Kippur existed so that this kind of blame would ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[24]
SCAPEGOATING… - Values & Ethics—Through a Jewish Lens
Our Torah portion this week deals with the original scapegoat. The high priest confesses the sins of Israel while placing his hands on a goat ...
[25]
Hebrews 9:8-10 Commentary - Precept Austin
Two goats chosen: one for the LORD (sacrifice), one as the scapegoat (removal). Heb 9:12, 26 — Christ entered once for all with ...
[26]
https://www.preceptaustin.org/hebrews_98-10
[27]
Part I. Greece. 1. The Pharmakos in Archaic Greece
Legendary scapegoats. There are a number of stories exhibiting a regular scapegoat pattern, involving mythical pharmakoi, which often have no overt connection ...
[28]
https://chs.harvard.edu/chapter/part-i-greece-1-the-pharmakos-in-archaic-greece/
[29]
[PDF] Eidinow, E. (2022). The Ancient Greek Pharmakos Rituals: a study in
The first section explores the evidence for pharmakos rituals, evaluating scholarly approaches that assimi- late these rituals to either killing and (self-) ...
[30]
[PDF] University of Groningen Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece ...
Since the Thargelia was a festival for Apollo we may expect that the god also shows a connection with seasonal renewal. Such a connection seems indeed to exist.
[31]
https://research.rug.nl/files/3418242/6576.pdf
[32]
Oedipus Pharmakos? Alleged Scapegoating in Sophocles' "Oedipus ...
Oedipus Pharmakos? Alleged Scapegoating in Sophocles' "Oedipus the King".
[33]
Jacob Stern, Scapegoat Narratives in Herodotus - PhilPapers
Scapegoat Narratives in Herodotus · Jacob Stern · Hermes 119 (3):304-311 (1991). Abstract, This article has no associated abstract. (fix it). Keywords, No ...Missing: Euripides Oedipus Rex
[34]
Decimatio: Myth, Discipline, and Death in the Roman Republic
Dec 13, 2022 · 2014), a reflex in which the Romans held that the failure and ignominy of military setbacks could be cleansed through eventual victory.
[35]
Decimatio: Myth, Discipline, and Death in the Roman Republic
May 7, 2025 · collective failure in battle and general misbehaviour before the enemy. Decimatio in Practice. Only three decimations are attested prior ...
[36]
(PDF) Curse Rituals in Ancient Egypt - Academia.edu
22 Rebellion formula is a cursing text written on the execration objects to protect Egypt against any harm and curse all enemies, Silverman, D. P. (1997) ...
[37]
[PDF] Egypt vs. the Outside World - DiVA portal
Central for these rituals were execration texts, figurines made of clay or red pots, which were ritually broken as part of the curse procedure. Execration texts ...
[38]
[PDF] The scapegoat / by J.G. Frazer - Internet Archive
... scapegoat to free his worshippers from thetroubles of all sorts with which ... deities. Hence the. Aztec ritual, which prescribed the slaughter, the ...
[39]
[PDF] golden-bough-the-scapegoat.pdf
The Human Scapegoat in Ancient Greece, pp. 252-274.—The "Expulsion of Hunger" at Chaeronea, 252;human scapegoats at Marseilles, 253; human scapegoats put to ...
[40]
Projection as a Defense Mechanism - Verywell Mind
May 10, 2024 · Projection is a defense mechanism in which an individual recognizes their unacceptable traits or impulses in someone else to avoid recognizing those traits or ...
[41]
Mimetic Desires Progress | Scapegoat Mechanism
According to Girard, the process by which humans have historically saved themselves from mimetic crises by immolating or expelling a scapegoat.<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Gordon W. Allport, The Scapegoats (1954) - Panarchy.org
Designated as minorities for certain purposes but never an object of prejudice, Mildly disparaged and discriminated against, Scapegoats ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[43]
5 Ways to Heal from Being the Family Scapegoat | Psychology Today
Jan 6, 2024 · Family Stories and Scapegoating. Within family systems theory, a scapegoat is one individual who carries the burdens of the home. Usually, it ...
[44]
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1082152/full
[45]
Fundamental Attribution Error: Shifting the Blame Game
May 17, 2024 · The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute others’ actions to their character while underestimating situational influences.Missing: scapegoating | Show results with:scapegoating
[46]
Culturally Grounded Scapegoating in Response to Illness ... - Frontiers
In a recent series of studies, we provided evidence for a motivated scapegoating account of this violence. Specifically, individuals who feel that the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
(PDF) A Dual-Motive Model of Scapegoating: Displacing Blame to ...
Oct 9, 2025 · The authors present a model that specifies 2 psychological motives underlying scapegoating, defined as attributing inordinate blame for a negative outcome to a ...
[48]
[PDF] Introduction to Emile Durkheim's “Anti-Semitism and Social Crisis”*
From a Durkheimian perspective, this scapegoating serves to restore social solidarity. 27The interpretation of recent geopolitical conflicts as a “clash of ...
[49]
Sacrificial Lambs Dressed in Wolves' Clothing: Envious Prejudice ...
This chapter reexamines the scapegoat concept and presents an alternative, ideological model of scapegoating which aims to correct scapegoat theory's ...Criticisms of Scapegoat Theory · An Alternative: The Ideological...
[50]
Antisemitism | Holocaust Encyclopedia
Jan 10, 2025 · Antisemitism is the prejudice against or hatred of Jewish people. This hatred was at the foundation of the Holocaust.Nazi Antisemitism · From the Early Church to 1400 · World War I
[51]
[PDF] Selection 6 (Set 3) Analysis: History - WWII Essay - Achievement First
The treaty stated that Germany, the primary scapegoat and aggressor of the war, was to, “Accept complete responsibility for initiating World War I” (Doc 2) ...<|separator|>
[52]
An analysis of the anti-immigration discourse during the official 2016 ...
This paper will assess the role of the Leavers' rhetorical strategy, which consisted in portraying European immigrants as a threat to the British national ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[53]
Scapegoater Brexit? An Anthropological Analysis of the Political ...
Jul 14, 2023 · Studies of scapegoatism are spearheaded by René Girard's work, who argued that the 'scapegoat mechanism' represents an innate human tendency.
[54]
[PDF] Scapegoating during Crises
May 2, 2022 · Economic crises are often accompanied by waves of antiminority behavior (Allport 1954;. Staub 1989). The Weimar Republic, followed by.
[55]
Debt and Sacrifice: The Role of Scapegoats in the Economic Crises
The 2008 crisis gave rise to situations charged with great symbolic violence (a possible collapse of the banking system with possible loss of almost everybody´s ...
[56]
Oedipus Pharmakos? Alleged Scapegoating in Sophocles ... - jstor
Harrison, Epilegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (Cambridge 1921) xli, who writes, "behind the Old King Oedipus is the figure of the scapegoat"; F.
[57]
The Bible in literature (Chapter 31) - The New Cambridge History of ...
Dostoevsky's Prince Myshkin the Idiot refers to the medieval hagiographic type of the Holy Fool, who is not of this world, and whose 'fool-likeness' reveals ...
[58]
Panopticism and the Use of "the Other" in "To Kill a Mockingbird" - jstor
South enable Mayella to scapegoat Tom with impunity. Mayella cannot safely admit the nature, or even existence, of her attraction to Tom. And the society in ...
[59]
Delusions of Agency: Kafka, Imprisonment, and Modern Victimhood
In this respect, the novel as a whole analyzes the modern scapegoat, and does so in terms of victimage within institutional and bureaucratic contexts. ... Read ...
[60]
[PDF] An Archetypal Analysis of the Scapegoat Motif in Atonement
May 20, 2020 · scapegoat selection criteria and the violence itself. The goat, Jesus, Oedipus, etc. in the Bible all acted as scapegoats. This is the ...
[61]
[PDF] Violence and the scapegoat in American film: 1967-1999
Scapegoating the American Dreamer: Coppola's Violence in The Godfather Films. In an essay discussing the popular cinematic conceptions of scapegoats, Ronald ...
[62]
Scapegoating and Redemption in Calvaire and These Are The Names
Watching Calvaire, we hear echoes from René Girard's idea of the scapegoat, the outsider who is being punished to restore harmony (Girard 1986). Scapegoating is ...
[63]
Promiscuity and the Myth of Patient Zero in Soderbergh's Contagion ...
Feb 7, 2025 · The invention of a scapegoat not only explains the plague and exonerates the public at the expense of an unlucky dupe, it also functions as a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
(PDF) The scapegoat theme in John Bellany's art - Academia.edu
The paper explores the scapegoat theme in John Bellany's art, particularly in relation to his Calvinist background and the pervasive violence in his imagery ...<|separator|>